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STUDIES  IN 
FRENCH  FORESTRY 


THEODORE   S^WOOLSEY,  Jr. 

Consulting  Forester,  Author  of  French  Forests  and  Forestry  (Tunisia,  Algeria 

Corsica),  and  Executive  Member  Interallied  War  Timber 

Committee,  Paris,  1917-1919 


WITH  TWO  CHAPTERS  BY 

WILLIAM  B.  GREELEY 

Forester,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  and  formerly  Chief,  Forestry  Section, 
C.  and  F.,  S.  0.  S.,  American  Expeditionary  Forces 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS,  Inc. 

London:    CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited 
1920 


.W6 


Copyright,  1920, 

BY 

THEODORE  S.  WOOLSEY,  Jr. 


ATLANTIC  PRINTING  COMPANY 
CAMBRIDGE,    MASS.,     U.    S.    A. 


LIBRARY 

N,  C.  State  College 


TO 
R.  P.  W. 


1324-^ 


PREFACE 

The  material  for  this  book  was  collected  largely  in  1912.  Adminis- 
trative work  in  the  United  States  Forest  Service,  teaching  at  Yale  Forest 
School,  and  service  in  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,  during  the  war 
prevented  an  earlier  completion  of  my  task. 

The  success  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces  in  securing  its 
timber  supply,  under  conditions  existing  in  France  in  1917-18,  was  due 
chiefly  to  the  extraordinary  capacity  of  the  commanding  officers  at  Tours 
and  the  American  lumbermen  and  foresters  who  assisted  them  through- 
out France.  These  efforts  might  have  failed,  however,  if  the  American 
E.  F.  had  not  been  so  ably  seconded  by  I'Administration  Generale  des 
Eaux  et  Forets  under  the  direction  of  M.  Dabat,  Conseiller  d'fitat, 
Directeur,  and  by  M.  Antoni,  now  an  Inspecteur  General  des  Eaux  et 
Forets  and  Sous-Directeur,  as  well  as  by  the  French  officers  and  officials 
working  under  or  in  collaboration  with  General  de  Division  Chevalier, 
D.  S.  M.,  Inspecteur  General  du  Service  des  Bois,  notably: 

Lieut.-Col.  Joubaire,  Armand,  Conservateur  des  Eaux  et  Forets  a 
Saumur,  President  de  la  Commission  Forestiere  d' Expertises. 

M.  Emery,  Auguste,  Conservateur  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  Ministere  de 
r  Agriculture,  Paris. 

Lieut.-Col.  de  Lapasse,  Louis,  Conservateur  des  Eaux  et  Forets  a 
Bordeaux,  Gironde. 

Lieut.-Col.  Buffault,  Pierre,  Conservateur  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  a 
Aurillac,  Cantal. 

Lieut.-Col.  Deroye,  Nancy,  Meurthe  et  Moselle,  Chef  du  Service  For- 
estier  d'Armee. 

Lieut.-Col.  Mathey,  Alphonse,  Conservateur  des  Eaux  et  Forets  a 
Dijon,  Cote  d'Or. 

Lieut.-Col.  Schlumberger,  Pierre,  Conservateur  des  Eaux  et  Forets  a 
Colmar,  Alsace. 

Commandant  Badre,  Louis,  D.  S.  M.,  Lispecteur  des  Eaux  et  Forets, 
Liaison  Officier  Americain,  G.  H.  Q. 

Commandant  Jagerschmidt,  Jean,  Inspecteur  des  Eaux  et  Forets, 
Membre  de  la  Commission  Forestiere  d' Expertises. 

Colonel  Steiner,  Directeur  des  Etapes,  Service  Forestier,  a  Vesoul  et 
Valleroy. 

Capitaine  Sinturel,  Emile,  Inspecteur  Adjoint  des  Eaux  et  Forets, 
Chef  du  Secteur  Forestier  de  Gray,  Haute-Saone. 


VI  PREFACE 

Capitaine  Fresson,  Maurice,  Officier  de  Liaison  aupres  du  Delegue 
Americain  au  Comite  Interallie  des  Bois  de  Guerre. 

Capitaine  Vantroys,  Henri,  Inspecteur  Adjoint  des  Eaux  et  Forets, 
Membre  de  la  Commission  Forestiere  d'Expertises. 

Capitaine  Oudin,  Auguste,  Inspecteur  Adjoint  des  Eaux  et  Forets, 
Membre  de  la  Commission  Forestiere  d'Expertises. 

Capitaine  Roux,  Edgar,  Inspecteur  Adjoint  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  Ad- 
joint a  M.  le  General  Chevalier. 

Capitaine  Rive,  Andre,  Garde  General  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  Membre  de 
la  Commission  Forestiere  d'Expertises. 

Capitaine  Hurteau,  Henri,  Garde  General  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  Membre 
de  la  Commission  Forestiere  d'Expertises. 

Capitaine  Coulon,  Jean  Pierre,  Membre  du  Bureau  de  la  Centre  des 
Bois  de  Bordeaux. 

Lieutenant  Girault,  Pierre,  Garde  General  des  Eaux  et  Forets, 
Membre  de  la  Commission  Forestiere  d'Expertises. 

Lieutenant  Sebastien,  Maurice,  French  Delegue,  C.  I.  B.  G. 

Lieutenant  Detre,  Leon,  Adjoint  au  Bureau  du  Delegue  Americain  au 
Comite  Interallie  des  Bois  de  Guerre. 

Capitaine  Fresson  and  Lieutenant  Detre  lal)ored  assiduously  in  my 
own  office  on  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Interallied  War  Timber 
Committee.  Lieut.-Col.  Parde  and  Commandant  Hickel  gave  much  per- 
sonal help,  and  Commandant  Hirsch,  Director  of  the  Bureau  des  Vege- 
teaux  Combustibles  under  the  Ministre  de  I'Armement,  assisted  in  the 
purchase  of  manufactured  cordwood. 

The  local  French  officers  in  charge  of  forests  and  conservations  at  all 
American  operations  everywhere  in  France  gave  the  utmost  help. 

During  this  allied  campaign  cooperation  was  the  key  to  final  victory. 
To  General  Lord  Lovat,  K.  T.,  K.  C.  V.  O  ,  K.  C.  M.  G.,  C.  B.,  D.  S.  O., 
Director  of  Forestry  of  the  British  Expeditionary  Forces;  Colonel  John 
Sutherland,  C.  B.  E.,  Assistant  Director  of  Forestry  and  British  Repre- 
sentative on  the  C.  I.  B.  G.;  Major  Viscount  de  Vesci,  who  served  on  the 
C.  I.  B.  G.  after  the  armistice;  General  MacDougall,  C.  B.,  Chief  of  the 
Canadian  Forestry  Corps;  General  White,  C.  M.  G.,  in  charge  of  C.  F.  C. 
operations  in  France;  Lieut.-Col.  Lyle,  the  Canadian  member  of  the 
C.  I.  B.  G.;  and  to  Commandant  Parlongue,  Belgian  delegate  to  the 
C.  I.  B.  G.,  thanks  are  due  for  hearty  cooperation  and  assistance  in  a 
campaign  for  timber  supplies  which  overshadowed  for  the  time  being  the 
management  and  preservation  of  French  forests.  To  those  who  worked 
in  the  World  War  this  spirit  of  cooperation  has  left  the  pleasantest  of 
memories.  Many  whose  names  are  not  given  here  gave  freely  to  help 
the  American  E.  F.  As  a  matter  of  fact  these  very  efforts,  which  helped 
to  gain  the  victory  for  the  allied  cause,  were  detrimental  to  the  forests  of 


PREFACE  VU 

FVance.  Many  forests  were  clear  cut  with  no  satisfactory  provision  for 
regeneration,  and  in  others  the  growing  stock  of  sawlog  material  was  so 
reduced  that  ^'normal"  production  cannot  be  secured  for  a  century  or  more. 
Yet,  it  must  be  recognized  that  this  destructive  use  of  the  French  forests 
helped  to  save  France  and  her  armies.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  it  seems 
fitting  to  make  this  acknowledgment  to  those  who  cooperated  in  direct- 
ing and  facilitating  the  American  manufacture  of  French  timber  and  the 
acquisition  of  the  raw  supplies. 

THEODORE  S.  WOOLSEY,  Jr. 
January  1,  1920. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Preface v 

Introduction xiii 

CHAPTER  I 

Impressions  of  French  forestry 1 

Economic  needs  and  national  traits 1 

Significant  public  phases  of  French  forestry 2 

Forest  and  land  conservation 6 

Private  forestry  in  France 12 

Forest  problems  of  France  and  the  United  States 15 

CHAPTER  II 

The  role  of  forests 17 

The  value  of  forests 17 

Forest  influences 19 

CHAPTER  III 

Forest  regions  and  important  species 25 

Physical  and  climatic  features  —  industry 25 

Forest  regions 29 

Important  forest  species 40 

CHAPTER  IV 

Forest  statistical  data 45 

Private  forest  owners 45 

CHAPTER  V 

Natural  regeneration 65 

French  policy 65 

French  silvicultural  methods 70 

High  forest  systems 71 

Coppice  systems ., 92 

Care  of  the  stand  after  regeneration 105 

CHAPTER  VI 

Artificial  reforestation 114 

French  policy 114 

Seed 117 

Nurseries 122 

Planting 125 

Field  sowing 132 


X  CONTENTS 

{ 

CHAPTER  VII 

Control  of  erosion  in  the  mountains 140 

French  policy  and  summary  of  reforestation 140 

The  damage 147 

Corrective  measures 153 

Typical  reforestation  areas 168 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Forestry  in  the  Landes 169 

The  dunes 169 

History  of  reclaiming  the  Landes 173 

Fixing  the  sand 177 

Management  of  maritime  pine  forests 186 

CHAPTER  IX 

Government  regulation  and  working  plans 206 

Mensuration  in  working  plans 206 

Regulation  of  cutting 215 

Working  plans 243 

CHAPTER  X 

Features  of  French  national  forest  administration 261 

Brief  summary  of  legislation 261 

Administrative  organization  and  education 268 

Protection 275 

Betterments 290 

Sale  of  timber 293 

CHAPTER  XI 

Private  forestry  in  France 315 

General  discussion 315 

Examples  of  the  best  private  forestry 323 

CHAPTER  XII 

The  American  Forest  Engineers  in  France 336 

Timber  in  modern  warfare 336 

The  organization  of  Forest  Engineers 338 

The  Forestry  section  of  the  Expeditionary  Force 340 

Sawmills  and  logging  equipment 343 

The  production  of  fuel  wood 347 

What  the  Forest  Engineers  accomplished 348 

Cooperation  with  the  forest  agencies  of  France 351 

Forest  troops  loaned  to  French  and  British  armies 357 

What  the  American  woodsmen  learned  in  France 358 

The  war  a  vindication  of  French  forestry 358 

APPENDIXES 
A  to  L 360-536 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

A  valley  in  Alsace-Lorraine Frontispiece 

Fig.  Page 

1  Rainfall  and  summer  temperatures 26 

2  The  richest  silver  fir  (with  spruce)  stands  in  France  are  found  in  the  State 

forest  of  La  Joux  (Jura) 32 

3  Larch  and  cembric  pine  in  the  Canton  of  Melezet,  communal  forest  of  Villaro- 

din-Bourget 33 

4  (o)  The  communal  forest  of  Manigod  (Haute-Savoie) 39 

4  (6)  The  communal  forest  of  Gets 39 

5  Distribution  of  six  important  forest  trees 42 

6  (a  to  /)  State  forest  of  Hez-Froidmont 58-59 

7  (a)  Natural  regeneration  of  spruce 85 

7  (6)  Spruce  stand  in  the   Melezet  Canton,   communal   forest  of  Villarodin- 

Bourget 85 

8  Pure  larch  in  the  communal  forest  of  Tignes 90 

9  (a)  Pole  stand  of  spruce  in  the  communal  forest  of  Beaufort 109 

9  (6)  Spruce  and  fir  in  the  Canton  du  Mont,  communal  forest  of  Thones-Ville . .  109 

10  (a)  Costly  system  of  dams  to  prevent  erosion  in  the  bed  of  a  French  torrent . .  154 

10  (6)  An  expensive  masonry  dam,  Gave  de  Pau  (Hautes-Pyrenees) 154 

10  (c)  Log  and  dry  stone  dams  to  prevent  erosion  at  Var-Moyen  (Alpes-Mari- 

times) 155 

10  (d)  Wattle  work  on  small  side  gullies  and  masonry  dam  in  main  ravine  in 

Ubaye  area  (Basses- Alpes) 155 

11  (a)  Retaining  walls  on  a  hillside  that  had  been  slipping  down 159 

11  (6)  Walls  to  prevent  avalanches  with  an  inspection  trail  in  the  foreground. .  .  159 

11  (c)  Walls  to  prevent  avalanches 159 

12  Paved  drains  at  Bastan  (Hautes-Pyrenees) 161 

13  (a)  Wattle  work  in  a  ravine  in  the  Verdon-Superieur  (Basses- Alpes)  area.  ...  163 

13  (6)  Bed  of  small  ravine  stabilized  by  wattle  work 163 

14  (a)  The  Rata  ravine  at  Ubaye  (Basses- Alpes)  after  the  reclamation  work  was 

finished 166 

14  (b)  A  mountain  village  in  the  Pyrenees  menaced  by  erosion 166 

14  (c)  Preventing  further  erosion  by  larch  plantations  in  Ubaye  area  (Basses- 

Alpes) 166 

15  Protection  dune  at  Lacanau-O'cean  in  State  forest  of  Lacanau  (Gironde)  ....  171 

16  Barrel  price  of  turpentine  at  Bordeaux 185 

17  (a)  Maritime  pine  57  years  old  during  improvement  felling 194 

17  (b)  Small  tree  being  tapped  to  death  prior  to  utilization  for  mine  props 194 

18  French  turpentine  tools 197 

19  (a  and  b)  Examples  of  stand  graphics 216-217 

20  (a  and  b)  Growing  stock  compared  with  present  stock  and  with  the  normal 

stand 257 

21  A  graded  trail,  which  serves  as  a  compartment  boundary,  and  which  can  be  used 

by  tourists 291 


INTRODUCTION 

No  student  can  fail  to  see  that  forestry  may  attain  its  optimum  de- 
velopment under  the  favorable  climatic,  regenerative,  and  vegetative 
conditions  that  exist  in  France.  Dr.  Martin,  of  Tharandt,  remarked, 
after  a  tour  of  French  forests,  that  "Natural  regeneration  is  more  suc- 
cessful and  far  more  general  than  in  Germany  because  of  the  mild  cli- 
mate, sufficient  rainfall,  and  prolific  seeding."  Natural  regeneration  of 
sessile  oak  in  the  valley  of  the  Adour  is  not  only  certain  but  easily  ob- 
tained; and  what  could  be  simpler  than  the  clear  cutting  of  maritime 
pine,  followed  by  complete  seeding?  Even  the  high  forests  of  peduncu- 
late oak  in  mixture  with  beech  are  naturally  regenerated  because  the  soil 
and  seed  may  be  made  ready  for  regeneration  by  the  application  of  forest 
science.^  The  silver-fir  stands  in  the  Vosges,  Jura,  Savoie,  Haute-Savoie, 
and  the  Pyrenees  regenerate  naturally.  Even  spruce  can  be  reproduced 
with  but  little  artificial  aid.  But  when  Martin  predicted,  in  1906,  that 
artificial  forestation  was  on  the  increase  in  France,  he  missed  the  mark. 
With  the  shortage  and  high  cost  of  labor  to-day,  France  is  further  away 
from  artificial  regeneration  than  ever  before,  except  to  repair  the  ravages 
of  war  and  counteract  the  results  of  past  improvident  and  excessive 
exploitation. 

The  value  and  necessity  of  maintaining  a  conservative  forest  policy  is 
to-day  recognized  in  France  as  never  before.  It  is  generally  admitted 
that  the  area  (18.7  per  cent)  already  in  forest  is  insufficient.  France  had 
to  import  heavily  before  the  war  and  her  timber  needs  cannot  be  met 
from  local  sources  even  with  the  return  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  What 
countries  will  furnish  this  timber  deficit  is  difficult  to  predict.  The  cost 
of  importing  timber  from  the  United  States  has  been  accentuated  by  the 
increase  in  steamship  and  railway  freight  rates,  and  by  the  unfavorable 
rate  of  exchange,  since  to-day  it  takes  10  to  11  French  francs  to  equal  one 
dollar.  Even  with  the  timber  France  can  buy  from  countries  with  de- 
preciated currency  and  with  the  timber  she  should  receive  from  Germany 
as  reparation,  every  acre  of  waste  land  should  be  forested.  France  can- 
not afford  to  neglect  maintaining  and  increasing  her  natural  forest  re- 
sources, not  only  for  their  direct  returns,  but  also  for  their  indirect  value 

1  Soil  preparation  is  usually  obligatory,  and  it  is  often  difficult  to  maintain  the  proper 
proportion  of  oak  in  the  north  or  west  of  France  because  good  oak-seed  years  occur  only 
every  10  to  12  years. 

xiii 


XIV  INTRODUCTION 

as  protection  against  unfavorable  climatic  conditions,  erosion,  drought, 
frost,  and  hail,  as  well  as  providing  a  playground  for  the  millions  that  will 
flock  to  France  during  the  reconstruction  period.  French  statesmen 
have  seen  France  saved  by  her  forests,  and  the  agitation  in  the  press 
against  overcutting  during  the  last  phases  of  the  war  was  merely  a  re- 
action from  the  excesses  made  necessary  by  war  demands.  When  the 
history  of  the  defense  of  France  is  written  the  part  played  by  French 
forests  should  be  recognized.  These  forests  gave  fuel  and  lumber  during 
the  crisis  of  ocean  transportation,  when  every  available  ship  was  required 
for  men,  munitions,  food,  and  other  necessities  which  could  not  be  wholly 
supplied  from  local  sources.  Then,  too,  the  large  forested  areas  in  the 
line  of  actual  fighting  proved  a  point  of  defense  which  apparently  could 
not  have  been  spared.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  what  would  have 
occurred  without  the  forests  of  Compiegne  and  Villers-Cotterets.  Had 
France  wasted  her  forest  resources  in  the  past  (like  Spain  and  Italy)  the 
war  might  have  been  a  draw  or  a  defeat,  instead  of  a  victory. 

In  the  past  French  forests  have  suffered  from  abuse.  Much  of  the 
damage  in  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  Central  Plateau,  Landes,  and  Gironde 
occurred  during  or  before  the  Middle  Ages,  and  a  part  of  the  damage  at 
least  resulted  either  directly  or  indirectly  from  war.  The  two  great 
achievements  of  French  forestry  are  the  repair  of  this  damage  and  the 
reforestation  of  eroded  soils  in  the  mountains  as  well  as  the  reclamation 
of  the  sand  dunes  along  the  Gulf  of  Gascogne  and  Pas-de-Calais.  The 
leaders  responsible  for  these  two  achievements,  Demontzey  and  Bremon- 
tier,  will  long  live  in  the  history  of  France.  Who  will  successfully  re- 
forest and  rehabilitate  the  land  damaged  by  the  war  of  1914?  There 
are  more  than  a  million  acres  to  be  restored  to  productivity,  as  well  as 
innumerable  forests  whose  growing  stocks  must  be  enriched  by  economy 
at  a  time  when  the  economic  demands  for  wood  products  will  be  at  least 
double  the  normal  consumption. 

There  are  certain  features  of  French  forest  administration  and  manage- 
ment that  deserve  emphasis:  the  State,  Communal,  and  Institutional 
forests  are  almost  invariably  managed  on  longer  rotations  than  are 
private  forests  of  the  same  species  and  situation.  It  is  evident  from 
what  is  taught  at  Nancy,  that,  in  a  narrow  sense,  the  rotations  in  State 
forests  are  clearly  not  financial :  (1)  In  protection  forests  the  trees  should, 
in  theory,  be  left  standing  until  they  decline  in  vigor;  the  product  will 
then  have  but  small  value.  (2)  In  a  great  country  like  France  commerce 
requires  wood  of  large  size.  To  obtain  this  it  must  be  cut  at  an  advanced 
age.  This  leads  to  retaining  a  considerable  unnecessary  capital,  and  de- 
creases the  interest  returns  to  a  figure  that  is  too  small  for  the  private 
owner.  These  two  considerations  justify  the  State  ownership  of  a 
certain  number  of  forests,  which  alone  can  logically  accept  this  situation 


INTRODUCTION  XV 

(low  returns)  for  the  general  welfare.  In  times  of  emergencies,  such  as 
have  just  passed,  the  wisdom  of  maintaining  State  forests  as  storehouses 
of  heavy  timber  cannot  be  questioned.  On  the  other  hand  an  unneces- 
sarily long  rotation  means  an  excess  growing  stock,  or  forest  capital, 
which  must  earn  so  much  greater  income  to  be  profitable;  besides  there  is 
apt  to  be  more  damage  from  fungi,  insects,  and  windfall.  Yet,  because  of 
the  favorable  climatic  and  soil  conditions  already  emphasized,  little 
silvicultural  damage  has  resulted.  The  tendency  in  State  management, 
where  cHmate  and  species  permit,  is  toward  the  high-forest  systems  and 
away  from  coppice  and  coppice-under-standards.  These  conversions 
also  necessitate  cutting  less  than  the  growth  for  many  years,  as  well 
as  increasing  the  rotation.  There  is  always  a  safety  valve,  however, 
because,  as  Professor  Jolyet  puts  it,  "Prudence  demands  frequent  inven- 
tories —  repeated  every  ten  years  for  example  —  establishing  the  oscilla- 
tion of  standing  timber  volumes."  This  frequent  stock-taking  is  a  safe- 
guard against  retaining  overmature  timber,  because  the  working-plans 
officer  is  sure  to  demand  its  removal.  But  on  the  whole  the  average 
French  State  forester  is  perhaps  overconservative.  This  has  been  inbred 
into  him,  for  the  French  code  itself  prescribes  that  25  per  cent  of  the 
yield  in  communal  forests  shall  be  set  aside  for  emergencies.  This  rule 
was  due  to  the  overcutting  of  two  centuries  ago.  During  the  past  few 
years  some  State  forests  have  been  cut  to  the  extent  of  ten  to  eighteen 
annual  yields  and  perhaps  this  will  prove  to  French  foresters  that  the 
growing  stock  in  such  forests  as  Risol  and  Levier  (Jura)  have  been  ex- 
cessive and  can  be  reduced  without  danger.  Private  forests,  chiefly 
coppice  and  coppice-under-standards,  on  the  contrary,  are  heavily  cut  — 
perhaps  overcut  —  on  short  rotations,  which  is  liable  to  gradually  im- 
poverish the  soil.  The  high  prices  prevailing  since  1916  have  tempted 
many  private  owners  to  dispose  of  their  forests  entirely  or  at  least  to 
make  inroads  on  the  growing  stock.  This  was  but  natural  when  prices 
doul)led  in  1917  and  trebled  in  1918.  Undoubtedly  the  private  forests 
in  France  yield  a  higher  rate  of  interest  on  the  investment  than  do  State 
forests,  but  the  product  is  inferior  and  not  so  essential  to  French  in- 
dustry. Private  owners  are  practically  unfettered  in  the  treatment, 
management,  and  exploitation  of  their  forest  lands,  provided  the  clearing 
of  timber  is  not  intended.     According  to  the  Forest  Code : 

"  Opposition  to  the  clearing  can  only  be  formulated  for  the  timber  whose  preserva- 
tion is  recognized  as  being  necessary  — 

"  1.   For  the  maintenance  of  soil  on  mountains  or  slopes. 

"  2.   As  a  protection  against  soil  erosion  and  silting  up  of  creeks,  rivers,  and  torrents. 

"3.    For  the  preservation  of  springs  and  water  courses. 

"  4.  For  the  protection  of  dunes  and  coasts  against  erosion  by  the  sea  and  encroach- 
ment by  sand. 

"5.  As  a  protection  of  territory  in  that  part  of  the  frontier  zone  which  shall  be  de- 
termined by  regulation  of  the  civil  authorities. 

"  6.   For  the  sake  of  public  health." 


XVI  INTRODUCTION 

Exactly  the  same  law  ^  applies  to  Algeria  and  Corsica  and  it  is  rigidly 
enforced  where  large  areas  are  to  be  deforested  and  where  the  public 
interest  is  at  stake.     It  does  not  apply  to  — 

1.  Timber  sown  and  planted  and  less  than  20  years  old. 

2.  Parks  or  fenced  gardens. 

3.  Isolated  stands  less  than  10  hectares  (24.7  acres)  in  extent  and  if 
not  on  mountains  or  slopes.  But  the  private  owner  is  exempt  from  his 
land  tax  for  "areas  sown  or  planted  on  the  summits  or  slopes  of  mountains 
and  upon  the  dunes  or  waste  lands." 

This  law  against  the  clearing  of  land  is  fully  justified  by  the  forest  his- 
tory of  France.  A  country  with  only  about  18.7  per  cent  of  forested 
area  cannot  afford  to  allow  further  deforestation,  even  if  unintentional. 
For  this  reason  excessive  cutting  or  abusive  treatment  which  would  result 
in  complete  destruction  comes  under  the  prohibition  of  this  law.  Who 
would  advocate  further  deforestation  of  mountain  land  after  the  disasters 
of  erosion  in  the  French  Alps  and  Pyrenees;  or  the  deforestation  of  sand 
dunes  after  the  difficulties  of  reparation  have  been  driven  home?  The 
observance  of  this  law  against  cutting  strategic  forests  along  frontiers  has 
been  fully  justified  by  the  war  of  1914,  when  France  was  protected  against 
German  drives.  Ample  provision  ^  is  made  for  the  enforcement  of  the 
law,  and  for  reparation  in  case  the  law  is  violated,  but  on  the  other  hand 
its  application  is  liberal  when  it  comes  to  clear  cutting,  followed  by  natural 
or  artificial  regeneration,  as  is  the  practice  in  the  maritime-pine  stands  in 
the  Landes. 

The  art  of  the  French  forester  lies  in  his  keen  perception  of  the  true 
objective  and  in  his  simple  methods.  In  thinnings  he  attacks  the  stand 
in  its  top  story,  to  allow  the  development  of  the  trees  that  will  form  the 
future  commercial  stand.  He  deals  with  stands  rather  than  with  trees  — 
the  correct  viewpoint.  In  the  regulation  of  yield  of  selection  forests  he 
computes  the  cut  with  an  admittedly  inaccurate  formula,  but  he  gets  his 
desired  results  —  a  reasonably  equal  annual  cut  —  and  he  realizes  that 
with  oft-repeated  inventories  the  inaccuracies  of  the  formula  will  he  cor- 
rected. His  mensuration  is  a  rough  guess,  many  refinements  (used  even 
in  the  United  States  with  its  extensive  conditions)  being  omitted  as  un- 
necessary to  the  objective.  If  he  makes  an  error  in  estimating  the 
volume  of  a  sale  this  slack  is  taken  up  in  the  bidding,  and  there  are 
stringent  laws  against  illegal  combinations  in  restraint  of  true  competi- 
tion. Timber  sales  are  kept  small  so  as  to  give  the  small  local  millman  a 
chance  as  well  as  to  increase  competition.  No  logging  is  done  by  the 
State,  as  in  Germany,  except  experimentally  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 

2  See  Part  VI  of  the  Algerian  Forest  Code,  pp.  184-188,  French  Forests  and  Forestry, 
Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr.,  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc. 

3  See  Chapter  X  on  "  Legislation." 


INTRODUCTION  XVll 

It  is  as  a  silviculturist  that  the  French  forester  is  at  his  best,  and  regu- 
lation statistics  are  rarely  allowed  to  interfere  with  silviculture.  One 
State  forester  was  deliberately  departing  from  his  working  plan  because 
good  silvics  demanded  a  group-selection  cutting  instead  of  the  shelter- 
wood. 

The  success  of  the  State  Forest  Administration  is  largely  due  to  its 
splendid 'personnel;  the  Director  is  the  only  political  appointee,  and  no 
doubt  this  position  will  soon  be  assumed  by  a  technical  forester  with 
breadth  of  vision.  Though  woefully  underpaid,  even  in  these  times,  the 
morale  of  the  service  has  not  been  broken  and  it  is  most  unusual  for  a 
forester  to  retire  to  take  a  more  lucrative  position  elsewhere.  The 
authority  is  clearly  decentralized  and  the  Conservator  (or  "District 
Supervisor"  as  the  position  really  is)  has  full  authority  to  handle  his 
district  without  undue  interference.  Given  more  money  for  a  modern 
office  estal^lishment  he  would  be  able  to  spend  more  time  in  the  forest 
with  his  inspectors  —  a  needed  improvement. 

One  of  the  perplexing  problems  which  confronts  the  American  student 
of  French  forests  is  to  understand  the  units  of  measure  in  common  use. 
For  example,  a  stand  of  200  cubic  meters,  or  steres  per  hectare,  conveys 
no  concrete  idea  to  the  forester  accustomed  to  speaking  in  terms  of  board 
feet  or  cords  per  acre.  To  avoid  this  difficulty  the  American  units  of 
measure  have  been  adopted  in  this  study  and  the  following  equivalents 
used  in  conversions: 

1  pound  (avoirdupois) =  0.4.53.59  kilogram 

1  pound  (Troy) =  0.37324  kilogram 

1  millimeter =  0.03937  inch 

1  centimeter =  0.3937  inch 

1  meter =  3.28083  feet 

1  meter =  1.09.3611  yards 

1  kilometer =  0.62137  mile 

1  square  millimeter =  0.00155  square  inch 

1  square  centimeter =  0.1550  square  inch 

1  square  meter =  10.764  square  feet 

1  square  meter =  1.196  square  yards 

1  square  kilometer =  0.3861  square  mile 

1  hectare =  2.471  acres 

1  cubic  millimeter =  0.000061  cubic  inch 

1  cubic  centimeter =  0.061  cubic  inch 

1  cubic  meter =  35.314  cubic  feet 

1  cubic  meter =  1.3079  cubic  yards 

1  liter =  1.0.5668  quarts  (liquid) 

1  liter =  0.26417  gallon  (liquid) 

1  liter =  0.9081  quart  (dry) 

1  liter =  0.11331  peck 

1  hectoliter =  2.83774  bushels 

1  gram =  15.4324  grains 


xviii  INTRODUCTION 

1  gram =    0.03527  ounce  (avoirdupois) 

1  gram =    0.03215  ounce  (Troy) 

1  kilogram =    2.20462  pounds  (avoirdupois) 

1  kilogram =    2.67923  pounds  (Troy) 

1  franc =  19.3  cents  (normal  rate) 

1  stere  ^ =    0.277  cord  (3.6  steres  =  1  cord) 

1  cubic  meter  (au  reel) =  285  board  feet  (mfg.) 

1  cubic  meter  (mfg.) =  420  board  feet  (mfg.) 

These  are  exact  equivalents  and  can  be  changed  back  to  the  metric 
system  without  error,  with  the  exception  of  the  board  feet  equivalent 
which  varies  with  the  size  of  the  timber,  method  of  manufacture,  and 
product.  A  cubic  meter  in  large  logs  yields  more  board  feet  than  from 
small  logs;  a  mill  ecjuipped  with  a  band  saw  yields  more  per  cubic  meter 
than  does  a  wasteful  circular  saw;  and  if  logs  are  cut  into  large  dimension 
stuff,  or  ties,  the  yield  from  a  cubic  meter  is  higher  than  if  the  product  is 
inch  boards.  The  only  authoritative  data  on  the  ratio  between  cubic 
meters  (au  reel)  on  the  stump  and  board  feet  are  those  secured  by  the 
U.  S.  Army  during  1917-19.  In  the  Landes  where  the  American  mills 
equipped  with  circular  saws  cut  148,585  cubic  meters  the  product  was 
41,437,304  board  feet,  mill  tally,  or  278  board  feet  to  one  cubic  meter. 
The  ratio  varied  from  a  minimum  of  227  board  feet  at  Sabres  to  287  at 
Candale.  For  general  calculations  it  may  be  said  that  3^  to  4|  cubic 
meters  of  standing  maritime  pine  is  equal  to  a  thousand  board  feet.  In 
the  Jura  silver-fir  stands  144,203  cubic  meters  yielded  43,639,876  board 
feet,  or  303  board  feet  to  the  cubic  meter.  Here  the  timber  was  larger 
than  in  the  Landes.  At  one  sawmill  (Morteau)  a  cubic  meter  averaged 
383  board  feet,  at  Mouthe  only  311.  In  round  figures  it  takes  2|  to  3| 
cubic  meters  of  silver  fir  to  cut  a  thousand  board  feet.  For  general  com- 
putations it  would  be  safe  to  count  4  cubic  meters  of  maritime  pine  or  3 
cubic  meters  of  silver  fir  to  the  thousand  board  feet.  In  the  Dijon  hard- 
wood belt  it  was  found  that  319  board  feet  were  secured  from  the  average 
cubic  meter,  or  3  to  the  thousand.  As  an  average  converting  factor  for 
all  saw  timber  logs  in  France  3h  cubic  meters  to  the  thousand  is  suggested, 
and  for  different  sized  timber,  the  following: 

Small  timber 4^  to  1,000  board  feet 

Medium  timber 4    to  1,000  board  feet 

Average  timber 3^0  1,000  board  feet 

Large  timber 3    to  1,000  board  feet 

Very  large  timber 2i  to  1,000  board  feet 

When  dealing  with  stands,  from  10  to  40  per  cent  must  be  deducted  for 
fuel. 

*  In  his  statistical  work  (Notes  sur  les  Forets  de  I'Algerie)  Marc  took  3  steres  of  fuel 
to  2  cubic  meters,  50  poles  to  1.30  cubic  meters,  ties  at  their  full  volume  less  30  per  cent. 
He  counted  1  cubic  meter  as  750  kilos  and  12  steres  to  one  ton  of  charcoal. 


INTRODUCTION  xix 

Frequently  it  is  of  convenience  to  use  rule-of-thumb  methods  for  quick, 
rough  calculations.  With  exchange  at  5.18  francs  to  the  dollar,  and 
taking  420  board  feet  to  the  manufactured  cubic  meter,  285  board  feet  to 
the  cubic  meter  of  standing  timber  (unmanufactured)  and  3.6  steres 
(stacked  cubic  meters)  to  the  cord,  we  have:  (a)  To  reduce  francs  per 
cubic  meter  of  manufactured  timber  to  dollars  per  thousand  board  feet, 
multiply  by  0.46.  (6)  To  reduce  francs  per  cubic  meter  of  standing 
timber  to  dollars  per  board  foot,  multiply  by  0.64.  (c)  To  reduce  francs 
per  stere  to  dollars  per  cord  take  0.7. 

For  example:  100  francs  a  cubic  meter  for  boards  is  equal  to  $46  a 
thousand;  50  francs  a  cubic  meter  of  standing  timber  is  equal  to  a  stump- 
age  rate  of  $37  a  thousand;  and  10  francs  per  stere  is  $7  a  cord.  It  is 
obvious  that  these  approximate  ratios  would  vary  with  the  rate  of  ex- 
change, and  in  case  (h)  to  the  per  cent  deducted  for  cordwood. 

Any  student  who  has  toured  the  forests  of  France  must  be  impressed 
with  the  occasional  difference  between  the  theoretical  forestry  that  is 
described  in  the  text-books  and  the  practical  forestry  one  sees  in  the 
different  regions.  The  writer  has  accordingly  tried  to  combine  the 
practice  with  the  theory.  An  excellent  illustration  of  the  difference  be- 
tween text-book  and  field  forestry  is  found  in  the  aleppo  pine  forests  in 
the  Provence,  already  alluded  to.  In  theory  these  light-demanding 
coniferous  stands  might  be  managed  by  the  shelterwood  system.  In 
actual  practice  not  more  than  15  to  20  per  c'ent  of  the  volume  is  removed 
in  gradual  selection  cuttings.  Yet  in  any  study  it  is  necessary  to  rely  on 
text-books.  Accordingly,  the  writer  addressed  the  Director  of  the  Waters 
and  Forests  Service  at  Paris  in  regard  to  the  foremost  standard  authori- 
ties.    These  are: 

(1)  Silviculture  —  Le  Traite  de  Sylviculture  de  MM.  Boppe  et  Jolyet  (Berger- 
Levrault,  Editeur  —  5  Rue  des  Beaux- Arts,  Paris) . 

(2)  Forest  Economy  —  (all  phases  of  forestry)  L'Economie  Forestiere  de  M.  Huffel 
—  3  Tomes.     (Laveur,  Editeur  —  13  Rue  des  St.  Peres,  Paris.) 

(3)  Forestation  —  Guide  de  Planter  et  Semer  —  D.  Cannon  (Laveur,  Editeur). 

(4)  Reboisement  —  Restauration  et  Conservation  des  Terrains  en  Montague  (Parties 
1,  2,  and  3,  Paris,  Imprimerie  Nationale,  1911). 

(5)  Forest  Law  —  Code  de  Legislation  Forestiere,  par  Puton  et  Guyot  (Laveur, 
fiditeur). 

(6)  Organization  —  Aide-Memoire  du  Forestier  (Imprimerie:  Jacquin,  Besangon 
(Doubs)). 

An  authoritative  synopsis  of  the  original  working  plans  of  some  notable 
forests  is  contained  in  the  Appendix.  The  formal  statistics  given  in 
Chapter  IV  is  from  "Statistique  des  Forets  de  France"  (Volumes  1 
and  2). 

Of  necessity  much  of  the  material  is  borrowed  from  authoritative  French 
sources,  and  no  claim  can  be  made  for  originality.     This  was  impossible 


XX  INTRODUCTION 

if  a  true  picture  of  French  forestry  was  to  be  drawn.  One  of  the  editorial 
problems  was,  then,  to  decide  what  should  be  quoted  and  what  should  be 
merely  digested.  Exact  translations  only  are  written  with  quotation 
marks.  Information  digested  (but  not  in  the  exact  words  of  the  original 
source)  is  not  quoted.  To  accurately  depict  the  French  viewpoint  it  was 
considered  advisable  in  many  cases  to  adhere  quite  literally  to  the  form  of 
expression  used  by  the  French  author,  and  yet,  because  of  the  need  for 
reducing  the  verbiage,  a  complete  translation  could  not  be  given.  Oc- 
casionally whole  chapters  of  a  French  work  have  been  condensed  and 
given  in  tabular  form,  as  for  example  Table  11. 

One  of  the  first  questions  that  confronts  the  student  is  which  forests  to 
visit.  There  are  many  communal  and  national  forests  in  France  under 
formal  technical  management  and  naturally  the  student  of  French 
forestry  should  visit  those  which  will  furnish  the  most  instructive  lessons 
typical  of  French  forest  management.  Conservateur  de  Lapasse,  now 
stationed  at  Bordeaux,  furnished  the  following  list  of  forests  with  relative 
data.     These  he  thought  were  most  worth  a  visit: 


INTRODUCTION 


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INTRODUCTION 


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INTRODUCTION  Xxiii 

The  foregoing  list  of  forests  is  not  necessarily  conclusive,  since  it  is  a 
matter  of  individual  opinion  which  are  the  most  typical  and  instructive. 
It  is,  therefore,  of  interest  to  give,  in  addition,  another  list  furnished  by 
Henry,  for  years  Assistant  Director  of  the  National  School  of  Forestry  at 
Nancy.  The  fact  that  many  of  the  forests  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
table  are  duplicated  by  Henry  make  it  all  the  more  authoritative,  espe- 
cially since  the  list  which  follows  was  compiled  in  collaboration  with  his 
professional  colleagues.  According  to  Henry:  ''In  such  a  vast  region  as 
the  Central  Plateau,  one  cannot  cite  a  single  characteristic  forest.  It  is 
necessary  to  examine  quite  a  number." 

This  list  is  classified  by  forest  regions  rather  than  by  conservations  or 
administrative  divisions: 

VOSGES 

1.  Periegelaine  Lorraine:  Forest  of  Haye  (Calcareous  soil),  Amance  (clay). 

2.  LaVoge:   Darney. 

3.  Basses-Vosges  (Gres  Vosgien) :  Celles,  Bois  Sauvages,  EUieux. 

4.  Hautes-Vosges  (Granite):  Gerardmer,  Rudlin. 

JURA 

1.  First  Plateau:  Forest  of  Moidons. 

2.  Second  Plateau:  La  Joux,  Levier. 

3.  Third  Plateau:   Pontarlier,  La  Fuvelle. 

4.  Haute-Jura:  La  Risoux,  Le  Mont  d'Or  (almost  wholly  grazing). 

ALPS 

L   North  Alps. 

(a)  Pre-Alpes  (Calcaires) :   Forest  of  Grande  Chartreuse,  La  Bauges 

(b)  Hautes-Alpes :  La  Maurienne,  La  Tarentaise  (Briangon). 
2.   South  Alps. 

(a)  Pre-Alpes  (Calcaires) :  Le  Luberon. 

(6)  Hautes-Alpes:  Vallee  de  Barcellonette,  Foret  des  Alpes-Maritimes  —  Massif 
d' Alios. 

CENTRAL    PLATEAU 

1.  North:  Le  Morvan. 

2.  South:  La  Montague  Noire  I'Aigonal. 

PYRENEES 

1.  East:  Forest  of  Entrevals. 

2.  Central  and  West:  Luchon,  Iraty. 

PROVEN5ALE 

Forest  of  Maures  et  de  I'Esterel. 

GIRONDINE 

1.  Oaks  de  I'Adour:  Forest  of  Titieux. 

2.  Maritime  Pine  of  the  Landes  and  the  Dunes :  Forests  near  Mimizan  and  Arcachon. 

Provided  we  may  judge  from  the  lessons  of  French  forest  history  the 
following  conclusions  are  fully  warranted,  and,  because  they  are  gener- 
ally applicable  to  countries  of  the  temperate  zone,  should  be  brought 
home  to  every  citizen  of  the  United  States: 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION 

(1)  No  great  nation  can  prosper  without  controlling  forest  destruction 
and  without  practicing  forestry.  Decadent  nations  (outside  the  tropical 
zone  about  which  we  know  little)  have  no  considerable  areas  of  valuable 
forests,  either  in  public  or  private  hands.  Under  modern  civilization, 
decadence  and  widespread,  permanent  devastation  of  an  existing  forest 
resource  are  inter-related,  especially  in  localities  with  somewhat  deficient 
rainfall.  With  forest  devastation  the  local  population  within  potential 
forest  areas  decreases. 

(2)  From  the  national  economic  viewpoint  the  indirect  benefits  of 
forests  have  a  bearing  on  the  nation's  health,  climate,  and  general 
prosperity. 

(3)  The  financial  returns  or  direct  benefits  from  ■permanent  forest  pro- 
duction are  usually  less  than  the  average  net  profits  secured  from  other 
forms  of  conservative  business,  and  the  risk  of  growing  forests  is  con- 
siderable —  the  more  extensive  the  conditions  usually  the  greater  is  the 
risk.  But  in  some  cases  private  forests  can  be  handled  properly  as  a 
conservative  investment  provided  the  economic  conditions  are  satisfac- 
tory and  provided  technical  and  financial  assistance  is  given  by  the  State. 

(4)  If  forest  production  and  an  equitable  annual  yield  is  to  be  sus- 
tained obHgatory  regulation  is  essential,  not  only  in  private  but  also  in 
pubhc  forest  management,  but  the  success  of  mandatory  forestry  on 
private  land  is  very  doubtful  if  the  owner  maintains  his  forest  solely  for 
its  return  in  money,  unless  the  State  cooperates. 

(5)  Where  private  owners  are  not  restrained  by  law  and  where  the  sole 
aim  is  immediate  financial  profit,  their  forests  are  usually  destroyed,  and 
during  the  process  of  disintegration  often  constitute  a  public  menace. 
This  rapid  realization  of  growing  stock  or  capital  is  because  the  forest  is 
usually  a  poor  permanent  investment  and  because  of  the  inherent  human 
tendency  toward  rapid  gain. 

(6)  The  far-reaching  results  of  forest  destruction  are  often  slow  in 
making  themselves  felt,  but  are  cumulative  in  their  adverse  effect  on  the 
public  interests.  The  correction  of  forest  denudation  is  so  slow  and  so 
exceedingly  expensive  that  most  if  not  all  mountain  forest  areas  should  be 
controlled  by  the  State. 

(7)  With  the  harvest  of  virgin  stands  stumpage  prices  (and  the  cost  of 
the  wood  products)  increase  until  they  attain  the  cost  of  producing  timber 
under  forest  management.  Even  when  all  the  timber  of  a  nation  is  being 
grown  as  a  crop,  prices  of  material  of  the  same  quality  tend  to  increase 
with  the  intensity  of  civilization. 

(8)  In  great  land  States  (such  as  many  of  the  United  States)  the 
business  of  forestry  with  its  related  industries  will,  next  to  agriculture,  be 
the  chief  source  of  prosperity.  The  value  of  forest  land  generally  de- 
creases after  forest  destruction  and  increases  according  to  the  amount  of 


INTRODUCTION  XXV 

net  revenue  earned  by  forest  production,  subject  to  the  development  of 
the  use  of  land  for  other  purposes. 

(9)  As  a  new  country  with  vast  timber  resources  develops  industrially 
the  per  capita  consumption  may  show  a  decline  as  a  result  of  the  use  of 
other  materials  for  construction;  there  is,  however,  a  certain  limit  beyond 
which  consumption  cannot  fall  without  serious  economic  handicaps.  The 
tendency  of  modern  commercial  progress  is  to  create  new  uses  for  woods 
which  overbalance  substitution  and  other  factors  checking  consumption. 
Similarly,  with  more  intensive  settlement,  forests  for  recreational  uses 
become  more  and  more  essential  to  national  efficiency  and  health, 

(10)  The  milder  the  climate  (in  the  temperate  zone)  the  more  rapid  is 
forest  production,  and  consequently  the  shorter  is  the  time  required  to 
grow  forest  crops  on  soils  of  similar  capacity.  Therefore,  large  areas  in 
the  United  States  are  admirably  adapted  to  forest  production. 

(11)  No  nation  has  learned  and  taken  to  heart  the  benefits  of  forestry 
without  first  experiencing  economic  shortage,  disasters  from  floods, 
erosion,  over-grazing,  and  other  adverse  results  of  forest  devastation. 

The  conclusion  is  inevitable  that  the  public  is  the  ideal  long-term  forest 
owner  because  it  can  take  a  part  of  its  profits  in  indirect  benefits;  there- 
fore, a  very  much  larger  proportion  of  the  forests  of  the  United  States 
should  be  owned  and  managed  by  the  Federal,  State,  and  local  govern- 
ments. Where  the  private-forest  owner  uses  his  property  so  as  to  damage 
the  interests  of  others  he  must  be  restrained  by  wise  laws,  properly  ad- 
ministered and  enforced,  but  the  success  of  mandatory  forestry  on  private 
lands  held  solely  for  direct  profits  is  very  doubtful,  unless  there  is  State 
cooperation. 
According  to  Marcel  Prevost  of  the  French  Academy: 
"  The  trees  of  France  must  be  protected.  Precisely  because  the  tree  lasts  so  much 
longer  than  the  human  life,  it  should  not  belong  absolutely  to  the  man  who  is  the  nomi- 
nal owner.  It  should  become  a  part  of  the  communal  inheritance.  Society  has  a  right 
to  exercise  a  'surveillance  '  over  the  owners  of  trees.  .  .  .  God  knows  I  do  not  favor 
any  intrusion  into  private  affairs  by  the  State !  Nevertheless,  if  I  were  a  legislator  I 
would  vote  for  a  law  which  would  forbid  the  whimsical  felling  of  high  forest  trees,  and 
which  would  require  every  Frenchman  to  set  out  at  least  two  trees  during  his  life  or  to 
pay  for  having  them  planted." 

What  better  exhortation  could  there  be  as  an  introduction  to  French 
forestry,  since  its  inherent  characteristic  is  "Sacrifice  of  present  benefits 
for  the  future  generation."  As  Boppe  put  it,  "Silviculture  is  a  science 
relating  to  the  phenomena  of  the  development  of  the  average  forest  and 
the  art  of  cutting  it  without  hindering  its  physiological  requirements." 
The  French  forester  does  not  wish  to  disturb  Nature's  equilibrium.  His 
work  is  in  the  forest  rather  than  on  paper.  If  I  have  correctly  portrayed 
the  spirit  of  the  French  forester  I  shall  be  satisfied. 

This  study  is  based  upon  a  three-months'  trip  through  French  forests  in 


XXvi  INTRODUCTION 

1905,  six  months  in  1912-13,  and  in  part  by  trips  through  forests  in  1917- 
19  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the  Engineers  (Forestry),  U.  S.  Army. 
This  volume  supplements  "  French  Forests  and  Forestry,"  published  in 
1917  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  which  described  the  forests  and  forestry 
of  Algeria,  Tunisia,  and  Corsica. 

Acknowledgment  is  made  to  C.  M.  Ballard  for  preparing  the  text  for 
publication  and  seeing  the  book  through  the  press,  to  Commandant 
Badre,  who  reviewed  the  technique,  and  to  many  friends  who  made 
valuable  suggestions.  The  photographs  were  taken  by  Commandant 
Thiollier  unless  otherwise  indicated. 


Studies  in  French  Forestry 

CHAPTER  I 

IMPRESSIONS   OF   FRENCH   FORESTRY 

By  W.  B.  Greeley 
Formerly  Lieut.-Col.,  20th  Engineers,  A.  E.  F. 

Economic  Needs  and  National  Traits  (p.  1).     Forestry  a  National  Art. 

Significant  Public  Phases  of  French  Forestry  (p.  2).  The  Special  Legal 
Status  of  Forests,  A  Penal  Code  of  Their  Own,  Laws  Dealing  with  Forest  Fires,  State 
Control  of  Forest  Devastation,  A  Striking  Infringement  of  Property  Rights,  Tax 
Exemptions  on  Forests. 

Forest  and  Land  Conservation  (p.  6).  Stabilization  of  the  Gascon  Sand  Dunes, 
Forestation  of  Communal  Lands,  Flood  Control  in  the  Alps,  Expropriation  of  the  Use  of 
Land  for  Forest  p]nterprises.  Private  Forests  in  Conservation  Projects,  The  Core  of 
Publicly  Owned  Forests,  Checkered  History  of  the  State  Forests  of  France,  The  Extent 
of  the  Public  Forests,  Their  Technical  Management,  The  Communal  Forests  of  France, 
Educational  Value  of  the  Public  Forests. 

Private  Forestry  in  France  (p.  12).  Its  Economic  Basis,  Forest  Versus  Farm 
Crops,  The  Importance  of  Private  Forestry  to  France,  Returns  from  Private  Forests, 
Forest  and  Sawmill  Divorced,  Lumber  Manufacture  Adapted  to  Forestry  Practice, 
Private  Forestry  on  Its  Own  Feet. 

Forest  Problems  of  France  and  the  United  States  (p.  15).  Intensive  Use  of 
Limited  Resources  in  France,  The  Handicap  of  Lumber  Shortage,  America's  Problem  — 
Idle  Land. 

Not  alone  in  its  technical  practice  does  the  forestry  of  France  offer  much 
of  interest  and  value  to  Americans.  In  the  attitude  of  the  French  people 
toward  their  forests,  in  the  historical  and  legislative  development  of  their 
forest  policy,  in  their  public  forest  enterprises,  and  in  the  economic  situa- 
tion of  France  as  regards  the  supply  and  use  of  timber,  the  United  States 
may  glean  a  deal  that  is  suggestive  and  illuminating.  Notwithstanding 
contrasts  between  new  and  old  world  conditions,  we  may  learn  much  in 
seeing  how  a  nation  just  as  democratic  and  individualistic  as  our  own  has 
met  a  forest  situation  similar  in  some  respects  to  what  America  herself  is 
approaching. 

Economic  Needs  and  National  Traits.  —  Forestry  in  France  rests  upon 
two  main  bases.  The  first  is  economic  necessity;  the  second,  national 
temperament.     The  shortage  of  home-grown  timber  compels  France  to 


2  IMPRESSIONS  OF  FRENCH  FORESTRY 

import  from  30  to  40  per  cent  of  the  wood  products  which  she  requires. 
Hence  the  timber  produced  in  her  own  forests  not  only  has  a  high  value 
but  is  utiHzed  far  more  closely  than  is  now  possible  in  the  United  States. 
Intensive  use  of  forest  land  —  particularly  the  maintenance  of  forests  on 

large  areas  of  mountain  slopes  and  sand  plains  unfit  for  farm  crops 

follows  of  necessity.  But,  to  an  almost  equal  degree,  forestry  in  France 
is  an  expression  of  the  thrift,  the  conservatism,  the  love  of  beauty,  and 
the  social  inheritances  of  the  French  people.  The  genius  of  the  French 
for  making  the  most  of  small  things,  developed  by  centuries  of  close  and 
frugal  living,  is  expressed  in  the  thrifty  growing  of  wood  on  odds  and 
ends  of  poor  land,  in  hedges,  in  the  rows  of  trees  bordering  roads,  canals, 
and  farms.  The  love  of  the  chase  and  the  social  prestige  conferred  by  the 
ownership  of  forests  and  hunting  preserves,  so  highly  prized  by  the  old 
seigneurs,  survive  in  modern  France.  Many  forests  have  been  preserved 
to  serve  as  a  beautiful  setting  for  a  chateau.  We  will  not  interpret 
forestry  in  France  rightly  as  a  purely  economic  development.  The 
national  traits  and  habits  of  her  people  have  contributed  largely  to  it  and 
are  reflected  in  her  forest  legislation  and  public  policies. 

Forestry  a  National  Art.  —  By  the  same  token,  the  American  is  im- 
pressed by  the  well-nigh  universal  understanding  of  forestry  on  the  part 
of  the  French  people.  Forestry  in  France  is  far  more  than  a  propaganda. 
Like  American  agriculture,  its  practice  is  much  older  than  its  science. 
It  is  a  rural  art,  ingrained  in  the  lives  and  habits  and  modes  of  thinking 
of  the  people.  Deputies  in  Parliament  write  newspaper  articles  on  forest 
fires  or  forest  taxation  or  reforestation  in  the  Alps.  The  local  silviculture 
is  a  part  of  the  farm  lore  of  the  region  —  on  the  same  footing  as  the  care 
of  vineyards  or  the  growing  of  wheat.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that 
forestry  practice  in  France  is  uniformly  good  or  that  her  forest  policies 
command  united  support.  The  French  are  far  too  individualistic  a  race 
for  that.  Local  antagonisms,  as  on  the  part  of  the  Alpine  mountaineers, 
have  handicapped  public  efforts;  and  the  commercial  considerations  of 
the  moment  have  outweighed  conservative  forest  management  in  the  case 
of  many  land  owners,  even  on  occasion  in  the  case  of  the  State  itself.  But 
a  striking  difference  exists  between  France  and  the  United  States  in  that 
forestry  with  us  is  still  largely  a  governmental  activity  alone,  an  educa- 
tional development  working  downward  from  the  top,  whereas  in  France 
it  is  an  established  art  —  a  common  possession  of  the  rural  population. 

SIGNIFICANT  PUBLIC   PHASES   OF  FRENCH  FORESTRY 

The  Special  Legal  Status  of  Forests.  —  Forest  conservation  has  thus 
become  almost  an  instinct  of  the  French  people.  This  makes  it  easier  to 
understand  certain  public  phases  of  forestry  in  France  which  are  of 
special  interest  and  suggestiveness  to  Americans.     First  among  them  is 


A  PENAL  CODE  OF  THEIR  OWN  3 

the  legal  recognition  of  forests  as  a  resource  standing  apart  from  other 
resources  in  its  need  for  extraordinary  care  and  protection.  In  this 
principle  of  French  law  are  reflected  the  timber  and  fuel-wood  famines, 
actual  or  threatened,  through  which  France  has  passed,  and  the  prolonged 
struggles  which  she  has  waged  to  check  sand  dunes  on  the  Gascon  Coast 
and  torrential  erosion  in  the  Alps.  Because  of  the  long  period  of  time 
required  to  restore  forests  once  destroyed  or  impaired  and  because  of  the 
far-reaching  public  interests  which  they  serve,  forest  property  is  given  a 
special  status  in  French  jurisprudence  both  as  regards  the  police  powers 
and  duties  of  the  State  and  as  regards  the  rights  of  private  ownership. 
Under  the  French  theory,  a  shortage  of  cereals  or  other  farm  crops  can  be 
made  good  in  a  year  or  two,  but  public  injury  from  the  destruction  of 
forests  may  be  irreparable  for  a  generation.  Hence,  the  State  must  in- 
tervene with  special  measures  for  the  protection  of  forests  which  are 
applicable  to  no  other  forms  of  property. 

A  Penal  Code  of  Their  Own.  —  Probably  the  most  striking  application 
of  this  principle  is  found  in  the  protective  features  of  the  National  Forest 
Code.  The  common  law  alone  is  regarded  as  inadequate  for  the  protec- 
tion of  forests  in  France,  which  are  placed  under  what  is  practically  a 
separate  penal  code  of  their  own.  This  code  applies  particularly  to  the 
forests  under  public  administration  but  certain  features  of  it  are  extended 
to  private  forests.  Furthermore,  the  private  forest  owner  may  place  his 
property  under  public  administration  and  thereby  obtain  the  full  pro- 
tective benefits  of  the  forest  code.  Many  penal  provisions  of  the  code 
were  taken  bodily  from  ordinances  of  Louis  XIV.  After  the  revolution- 
ary upheaval  had  subsided,  republican  France  extended  to  her  forests 
many  of  the  severe  and  restrictive  forms  of  protection  which  they  were 
accorded  under  the  "ancien  regime."  There  is  nothing  comparable  in 
French  jurisprudence  concerning  other  classes  of  property. 

In  the  maze  of  detailed  prohibitions  and  penalties  in  the  penal  section 
of  the  forest  code,  one  gains  a  deal  of  light  upon  French  conceptions  of 
forest  conservation.  A  fixed  schedule  of  fines  and  imprisonments  is 
applicable  for  trespass  and  other  violations  of  the  code  solely  upon  veri- 
fication of  the  fact  that  an  offense  was  committed.  Considerations  of 
good  faith  or  mitigating  circumstaneos  are  excluded.  Aside  from  penal- 
ties to  the  State  and  civil  damages  to  the  owner  of  the  forest  for  tangible 
losses  which  have  been  sustained,  the  code  authorizes  further  damages  for 
intangible  injuries  such  as  the  disruption  of  a  plan  of  management.  These 
are  adjudged  as  not  less  than  the  penal  fine.  Thus  the  trespasser  who 
cuts  green  timber,  however  innocently,  pays  a  fine  —  the  commercial  value 
of  the  stumpage  cut  —  and  an  additional  sum  representing  the  value  of  the 
trees  to  the  owner  for  further  growth  or  seed  production.  If  trees  are 
cut  which  were  planted  or  sown  by  hand  and  do  uot  exceed  five  years  in 


4  IMPRESSIONS  OF  FRENCH  FORESTRY 

age,  imprisonment  is  obligatory,  together  with  a  fine  of  3  francs  for  every 
tree. 

While  the  admission  of  mitigating  circumstances  is  forbidden,  the 
courts  are  compelled  to  impose  severer  penalties  when  a  trespass  is  re- 
peated within  twelve  months,  when  it  is  committed  at  night,  or  when 
illegal  cutting  is  dono  with  the  saw.  In  the  last  two  cases  the  purpose 
of  the  heavier  punishment  is  to  discourage  trespasses  under  circumstances 
which  render  them  difficult  of  detection.  The  difficulties  of  the  State 
service  in  preventing  unauthorized  grazing  on  public  forests  and  the 
stress  placed  upon  the  protection  of  forest  reproduction  from  injury  by 
grazing  have  led  to  exceptionally  severe  penalties  for  offenses  of  this  char- 
acter, involving  obligatory  imprisonment  in  most  cases.  The  mere  pres- 
ence of  sheep  or  cattle  in  a  public  forest  is  penalized  and  the  stated  fines 
are  doubled  if  the  animals  are  discovered  in  woods  under  10  years  of  age. 

Laws  Dealing  with  Forest  Fires.  —  The  provisions  of  the  forest  code 
dealing  with  fire  are  of  special  interest  to  Americans.  Fires  may  not  be 
set  for  any  purpose  within  600  yards  of  a  forest  under  public  administra- 
tion except  by  land  owners,  or  in  the  exercise  of  public  franchises,  or  with 
the  permission  of  a  forest  officer.  While  the  incendiary  firing  of  cut  tim- 
ber is  punished  by  imprisonment  for  limited  periods,  an  incendiary  fire  in 
a  forest  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  at  forced  labor  for  life,  a  distinc- 
tion which  well  illustrates  the  French  viewpoint  toward  forest  conser- 
vation. The  forests  of  the  Mediterranean  provinces  of  France,  which 
experience  a  summer  drought  and  fire  hazard  comparable  to  our  South- 
west, are  placed  under  the  protection  of  a  special  fire  code.  Surface 
burning  by  land  owners  to  destroy  underbrush,  a  practice  formerly  com- 
mon at  the  time  of  harvesting  cork  oak  bark,  is  expressly  forbidden. 
Neither  the  owner  of  the  land  nor  anyone  else  may  set  fires  within  600 
yards  of  any  area  of  forest  or  brush  land  from  June  1  to  September  13  in 
each  year.  The  departmental  governor  alone  may  authorize  the  use  of 
fire  within  forest  or  brush  lands  for  charcoal  burning  or  other  industrial 
purposes.  And  any  owner  of  forest  or  brush  land  in  this  region  can  com- 
pel his  neighbors  to  share  the  cost  of  a  fire  trench,  or  break,  at  the  ])oun- 
daries  of  adjoining  holdings.  These  breaks  must  be  from  60  to  150  feet 
wide  and  kept  clear  of  herbs,  brush,  and  resinous  trees. 

The  forest  penal  code,  which  these  examples  illustrate,  is  more  terrify- 
ing on  the  statute  books  than  in  actual  enforcement.  This  hardly  could 
be  otherwise  in  view  of  the  tact  and  diplomatic  skill  of  French  forest 
officers  and  their  effort  to  overcome  local  antagonisms  to  the  forest 
policies  of  the  State.  Nevertheless  it  is  a  striking  expression  of  the 
national  instinct  of  forest  conservation. 

State  Control  of  Forest  Devastation.  —  The  same  solicitude  toward 
forests  as  a  resource  requiring  exceptional  public  safeguards  is  illustrated 


A  STRIKING  INFRINGEMENT  OF  PROPERTY  RIGHTS  5 

by  the  laws  concerning  the  denudation  of  privately  owned  forest  lands. 
Here  again  the  minute  restrictions  of  the  old  kings  were  swept  aside  by 
the  great  outburst  of  democracy  and  individualism  in  the  Revolution. 
For  a  considerable  period  following  1791  private  owners  were  freed  from 
all  control  and  many  forests  were  destroyed.  This  was  in  part  a  neces- 
sary process  of  converting  forests  into  wheat  fields,  but  apparently  went 
too  far  and  contributed  to  the  acute  shortage  of  forest  ]3roducts  which 
France  experienced  near  the  middle  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.  In  time 
the  wave  of  revolutionary  freedom  was  checked  by  a  reawakening  of  the 
conservative  instincts  of  the  French  toward  their  natural  resources.  The 
law  against  the  devastation  of  forest  land,  which  was  enacted  substan- 
tially in  its  present  form  in  1859,  has  often  been  called  a  striking  anomaly 
in  the  jurisprudence  of  modern  France.  It  restricts  the  rights  of  private 
ownership  in  one  class  of  property  alone  —  forest  land  —  which  is 
singled  out  for  special  interference  and  control  by  the  State. 

The  French  Government  does  not  dictate  how  the  private  forest  owner 
shall  cut  his  timber  but,  with  the  exception  of  small,  isolated  tracts  or 
enclosed  areas  adjoining  dwellings,  holds  him  responsible  for  not  destroy- 
ing his  forest  or  converting  the  land  to  other  uses  without  prior  warrant 
from  the  State.  Violations  of  the  law  are  judged  solely  by  the  fact  that 
forest  land  has  actually  been  devastated.  Whether  this  resulted  from 
the  methods  of  cutting,  from  fire,  from  over-grazing,  or  from  dehberate 
clearing  for  agriculture  is  immaterial.  So  is  the  intent  or  good  faith  of 
the  owner.  If  "  defrichement "  has  actually  resulted,  without  permission 
in  advance,  the  owner  of  the  land  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  as  much  as  $115  per 
acre.  He  may  also  be  ordered  to  reforest  the  denuded  land  within  a 
prescribed  period. 

These  penalties  may  be  avoided  by  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  State 
to  the  destruction  of  a  forest  in  advance.  This  requires  a  declaration  of 
intent  by  the  owner  of  the  forest  eight  months  in  advance,  investigations  and 
reviews  by  various  forest  and  other  administrative  officials,  and  a  final 
decision  by  the  Minister  of  Agriculture.  The  request  of  an  owner  to  de- 
stroy his  forest  can  be  denied  on  the  ground  that  its  preservation  is 
essential  to  protect  water  sources,  to  protect  mountain  slopes  from 
erosion,  to  prevent  the  movement  of  sand  dunes,  or  to  safeguard  the  public 
health  or  the  national  defense.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
amend  the  law  so  that  the  destruction  of  a  private  forest  may  be  forbidden 
on  the  ground  that  it  is  needed  by  the  immediate  community  or  by  the 
country  at  large  for  growing  timber.  None  of  them  has  yet  overcome 
the  resistance  to  this  further  invasion  of  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the 
property  owner. 

A  Striking  Infringement  of  Property  Rights.  —  The  control  of  private 
forests  and  forest  devastation  thus  stands  as  an  interesting  compromise 


6  IMPRESSIONS  OF  FRENCH   FORESTRY 

between  the  French  instinct  for  forest  conservation  and  their  present-day 
spirit  of  personal  liberty.  With  its  limited  application  the  value  of  this 
law  exists  largely  as  a  support  of  the  efforts  of  the  Government  to  prevent 
deforestation  on  mountain  slopes  where  torrential  erosion  is  liable  to  occur. 
The  law  is  of  special  interest  to  Americans,  however,  because  it  expresses 
a  far-reaching  principle  —  the  responsibility  of  the  private  forest  owner 
for  keeping  his  land  productive  as  a  forest.  The  significance  of  this  in- 
fringement of  the  rights  of  private  ownership  can  be  appreciated  only  in 
the  light  of  the  sacredness  of  property  rights  in  France.  A  people  fully 
as  jealous  of  individual  liberties  as  ourselves  have  not  hesitated  to  curtail 
property  rights  —  in  the  case  of  forests  as  distinct  from  all  other  classes 
of  land  —  because  of  the  special  public  interests  which  forests  serve. 

Tax  Exemptions  on  Forests.  —  The  distinctive  value  of  forests  as  a 
national  resource  is  also  recognized  by  the  French  in  their  methods  of 
taxation.  All  forest  plantations  are  accorded  tax  exemptions  in  varying 
degrees  during  the  first  30  years.  This  exemption  from  tax  burdens  is 
complete  in  the  case  of  plantations  on  mountain  slopes  or  summits  or  on 
sand  dunes  or  other  barrens.  Otherwise  forests  in  France  are  taxed  on 
their  current  income.  Under  the  law  of  1907  land  in  all  forms  of  culture 
is  classified  periodically  in  accordance  with  its  productivity.  There  may 
thus  be  three  or  four  classes  of  forest  land  as  determined  by  soil,  timber 
species,  and  the  value  of  wood  products.  The  net  yearly  income  from 
each  class  of  forest  is  then  fixed  from  a  study  of  sample  areas.  All  forest 
properties  are  classified  and  assigned  an  income  rating.  This  represents 
the  average  net  yearly  receipts  for  wood  and  timber  after  deducting  costs 
of  upkeep,  fire  pi'otection,  administration,  thinnings,  planting,  and  other 
cultural  measures.  The  national  and  local  taxes  usually  amount  to  8  or 
10  per  cent  of  the  net  income. 

FOREST  AND   LAND    CONSERVATION 

Stabilization  of  the  Gascon  Sand  Dunes.  —  Another  striking  chapter 
in  the  economic  history  of  France,  in  keeping  with  her  national  attitude 
toward  forests,  has  been  the  recognition  of  forestry  and  related  land 
problems  as  a  special  field  for  public  initiative  and  development,  together 
with  the  value  of  "the  armor  of  the  forest"  for  stopping  destructive 
movements  of  soil  and  water.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, a  large  section  of  southwestern  France  was  menaced  by  the  sand 
dunes  along  the  Gascon  Coast.  Various  attempts  to  check  this  invasion 
during  the  preceding  century  had  been  futile.  Many  of  the  dunes  were 
moving  inland  at  rates  varying  from  30  to  100  feet  a  year,  burying  farms 
and  villages  in  their  path. 

A  successful  method  of  combatting  the  dunes  was  finally  evolved 


FLOOD  CONTROL  IN  THE  ALPS  7 

through  stabiHzing  the  outer  waves  of  sand  with  mats  of  brush  and  hardy 
herbs  and  then  sowing  the  ground  with  maritime  pine,  a  fast-growing 
pitch  pine  native  to  the  region.  A  national  project  for  stabiUzing  and 
foresting  the  entire  Gascon  dune  belt,  of  some  250,000  acres,  was  initiated 
in  1810  and  completed  during  the  following  60  years.  In  the  prosecution 
of  this  work,  section  by  section,  each  land  owner  was  given  the  choice  of 
doing  the  work  himself  under  State  supervision  or  of  placing  his  land 
under  the  custody  of  the  National  Government  which  then  proceeded 
with  reforestation  at  its  own  cost.  Once  the  forest  was  established  the 
owner  could  acquire  possession  of  his  land  by  reimbursing  the  public  out- 
lay upon  it  with  interest.  Otherwise  the  State  retained  possession  until 
its  expenditures  had  been  recouped  from  sales  of  timber  and  naval  stores. 
This  process,  in  fact,  was  surprisingly  rapid,  owing  to  the  low  cost  of  plant- 
ing, the  rapid  growth  of  maritime  pine  in  the  humid  climate  of  the  region, 
and  its  early  yields  of  turpentine  and  timber.  The  Government  of 
France,  which  did  practically  all  the  planting  itself,  has  retained  in  the 
whole  dune  belt  some  150,000  acres.  Most  of  this  has  been  incorporated 
in  permanent  State  forests  which  form  a  pi'otective  belt  along  the  coast 
and  are  managed  with  special  precautions  to  prevent  fresh  outbreaks  of 
the  old  peril.  The  remaining  land  has  been  restored  to  its  original  private 
and  communal  owners. 

Forestation  of  Communal  Lands.  —  The  successful  reforestation  of  the 
dune  belt  led  to  another  public  forestry  enterprise  in  this  region.  A  law 
passed  in  1857  ordered  the  planting  of  all  the  barren  and  unused  land 
owned  by  communes  throughout  the  great  sand  plain  known  as  the 
Landes.  Again  the  State  stood  ready  to  shoulder  the  work  if  the  owners 
of  the  land  were  unwilling  or  unable  to  carry  it  out  and  to  retain  possession 
of  the  planted  forests  until  the  cost  of  their  creation  had  been  returned. 
This  time,  however,  State  planting  was  unnecessary.  The  communes 
carried  out  the  law  themselves  and  under  its  far-sighted  terms  185,000 
acres  were  added  to  the  public  forests  of  France. 

Flood  Control  in  the  Alps.  —  In  the  control  of  torrential  erosion  in  the 
Alps,  with  its  destructive  effects  upon  the  farm  lands  in  the  lower  valleys, 
France  has  undertaken  another  public  forestry  enterprise  of  a  far  more 
difficult  character.  The  erosion  was  traceable  directly  to  forest  denuda- 
tion and  excessive  grazing  of  the  Alpine  pastures.  The  difficulty  has  lain 
chiefly  in  the  resistance  of  the  mountain  people  to  outside  interference  in 
the  exercise  of  their  ancestral  rights  and  the  pastoral  pursuits  upon  which 
their  livelihood  largely  depends. 

Following  the  severe  floods  of  1859  a  law  "on  the  reforestation  of  the 
mountains"  authorized  the  designation  of  restoration  areas  within  which 
existing  forests  were  placed  under  public  control  and  the  planting  of  de- 
nuded lands  was  decreed  as  necessary  in  the  public  interest.     Private 


8  IMPRESSIONS  OF  FRENCH  FORESTRY 

owners  who  declined  to  reforest  their  lands  were  expropriated  by  the 
State,  with  indemnities,  but  could  reacquire  their  property  within  five 
years  after  planting  had  been  finished  by  reimbursing  the  Government 
for  all  outlays  expended  upon  it.  Communal  lands,  under  hke  conditions, 
were  not  condemned  but  were  taken  possession  of  by  the  State,  to  be 
planted  and  held  until  revenues  from  the  newly  created  forests  had  wiped 
out  the  account. 

Under  the  obstacles  created  by  hostile  local  sentiment  and  the  reluc- 
tance of  the  French  Government  to  deal  with  it  forcefully,  this  project  has 
made  but  slow  progress.  The  law  was  changed  in  1882  owing  to  the 
opposition  of  the  mountain  communes  to  what  they  asserted,  with  some 
degree  of  justice,  was  the  practical  confiscation  of  their  lands  without 
indemnity;  and  since  that  time  all  areas  where  planting  or  other  intensive 
measures  were  needed  have  been  acquired  outright  by  the  State.  The 
protection  of  mountain  watersheds  in  France  has  thus  taken  a  course 
almost  identical  with  that  in  the  United  States  under  the  terms  of  the 
Weeks  law,  that  is,  public  acquisition  and  absolute  control  of  important 
"key"  areas.  The  French  Government  has  thus  acquired  about  200,000 
acres  on  the  headwaters  of  important  streams  in  the  Alps,  and  the  work  is 
still  being  continued.  In  addition  some  52,500  acres  of  communal  lands 
were  reforested  under  the  earlier  law  and  placed  under  public  adminis- 
tration. 

Under  the  law  of  1882  France  has  also  attempted  to  enforce  a  new  and 
significant  principle  in  watershed  protection.  This  is  the  designation  of 
large  protection  belts  in  the  mountains,  surrounding  the  limited  areas  in 
which  serious  erosion  is  actually  taking  place  and  must  be  combatted  by 
intensive  methods.  In  these  protective  zones,  which  were  designed  to 
prevent  the  starting  of  fresh  torrents,  the  administration  was  empowered 
to  forbid  any  use  of  land  or  forest  which  would  destroy  the  vegetative 
cover.  And  to  extend  further  the  general  scheme  of  prevention,  the 
grazing  of  certain  communal  pasture  lands  was  placed  under  public  con- 
trol. The  administrative  procedure  devised  for  carrying  out  this  system 
has  been  exceedingly  cumbersome  and  has  sought  to  conciliate  local  oppo- 
sition at  every  turn  with  many  provisions  for  safeguards  and  indemnities. 
Its  practical  value  has  been  very  small,  and  the  effort  of  the  French 
Forest  Service  to  check  mountain  floods  has  of  late  years  been  concen- 
trated mainly  upon  the  acquisition  of  land  at  critical  points  by  the  State 
and  its  systematic  reforestation. 

The  actual  work  done  in  the  Alpine  gorges  and  on  their  adjoining 
slopes  is  an  example  of  intensive  conservation  fully  as  striking  as  the 
stabilization  of  the  sand  dunes.  Tree  planting  is  the  primary  method, 
but  it  was  necessary  at  many  points  to  hold  the  soil  or  stop  the  cut- 
ting action  of  streams  before  planting  was  possible  or  would  be  effective. 


THE  CORE  OF  PUBLICLY  OWNED  FORESTS  9 

Small  gullies  have  been  blocked  with  dams  of  sod  or  loose  stones  or  with 
brush  rip  raps.  More  elaborate  dams  of  rubble  or  masonry  have  been 
built  in  the  channels  of  many  torrents,  sometimes  at  intervals  of  a  few 
chains  to  check  erosion  and  the  rush  of  floodwater  and  afford  soil-collect- 
ing basins  which  would  later  be  planted  with  trees.  Rubble  or  masonry 
dams  or  walls  have  been  constructed  at  various  points  to  stop  the  caving 
of  banks  or  check  incipient  land-slips  or  snow-shdes.  Hardy  shrubs  have 
been  set  out  in  masses  of  glacial  drift  or  the  talus  of  a  slope  where  the 
ground  was  too  unstable  or  too  sterile  to  support  trees.  But  the  general 
aim  is  to  get  the  land  under  forest  cover  as  soon  as  it  can  be  done.  French 
foresters  and  engineers  are  agreed  that  an  extensive  mantle  of  forest  is  the 
final  solution  to  watershed  protection. 

Expropriation  of  the  Use  of  Land  for  Forest  Enterprises.  —  One  of  the 
legal  principles  developed  in  these  pul^lic  forest  enterprises  of  France  sug- 
gests a  modus  operandi  for  State  or  Federal  projects  in  America  where  the 
reforestation  of  private  land  is  deemed  necessary  in  the  public  interest. 
It  bears  points  of  similarity  to  the  plan  already  adopted  by  some  of  our 
States  to  encourage  the  planting  of  private  land.  This  principle  is  not 
the  purchase  or  condemnation  of  private  property  —  but  the  expropria- 
tion of  its  tenure,  or  occupancy,  for  a  sufficient  period  to  establish  forests, 
with  provision  for  ultimately  restoring  the  land  to  its  owner  after  it  has 
repaid  the  cost  of  the  enterprise.  Apphed  in  the  southwestern  sand 
plains  where  planting  was  cheap  and  tree  growth  rapid  and  where  returns 
from  the  new  forest  were  realized  in  a  relatively  short  time,  this  method 
succeeded.  Applied  in  the  Alps,  where  reforestation  was  much  more 
costly  and  the  climate  much  more  rigorous,  it  amounted  to  practical  con- 
fiscation and  failed.  In  both  instances  it  bears  proof  of  the  French  atti- 
tude toward  the  conservation  of  forests  and  soil  as  a  dominant  public 
interest,  taking  precedence  over  the  rights  of  private  property. 

Private  Forests  in  Conservation  Projects.  —  Another  illustration  of 
the  same  national  viewpoint,  l^rought  out  in  the  development  of  French 
policy  in  dealing  with  sand  dunes  and  mountain  torrents,  is  the  provision 
of  law  placing  all  forests  within  the  perimeters  of  control  or  restoration 
projects,  whatever  their  ownership,  under  the  "regime  forestier."  That 
is,  such  forests  not  merely  are  subject  to  the  law  preventing  denudation; 
they  can  be  cut  only  in  accordance  with  methods  approved  by  the  State 
service.  They  are  also  accorded  in  full  the  special  and  stringent  pro- 
tective measures  carried  by  the  penal  section  of  the  forest  code.  Private 
forests  on  the  critical  areas  embraced  in  public  conservation  projects  are 
thus  given  a  special  status  —  subject  both  to  public  control  and  an  ex- 
ceptional degree  of  public  protection. 

The  Core  of  Publicly  Owned  Forests.  —  Another  interesting  and  sug- 
gestive fact  about  France  is  the  extent  to  which  her  forestry  develop- 


10  IMPRESSIONS  OF  FRENCH  FORESTRY 

ments  and  activities  have  centered  around  and  grown  upon  a  core  of 
publicly,  owned  forests.  These  national  and  community  holdings  fit- 
tingly express  the  forestry  sense,  or  instinct,  of  the  French  people.  Their 
extension,  their  standards  of  administration,  their  educational  influence, 
the  technical  service  entrusted  with  their  care  —  these  have  been  first 
and  last  the  greatest  supports  of  forestry  development  in  France.  Yet 
their  history  has  not  been  one  of  smooth,  uninterrupted  progress.  In 
certain  chapters  it  reminds  us  strildngly  of  the  history  of  the  pubHc 
domain  in  the  United  States. 

Checkered  History  of  the  State  Forests  of  France.  —  The  first  effect 
of  the  French  Revolution  was  toward  the  nationalization  of  the  forests 
of  the  country.  The  royal  domains,  largely  forested,  were  declared  to  be 
the  property  of  the  State.  A  law  of  1789,  placing  church  property  at  the 
disposition  of  the  nation,  added  more  forests  to  the  public  holdings.  In 
1792  the  forests  owned  by  emigres  of  the  old  nobility  were  confiscated. 
Then  a  counter,  individualistic  movement,  tending  to  break  up  national 
control,  set  in.  In  the  reaction  against  the  abuses  and  usurpations  of  the 
old  seigneurs,  and  during  the  lax  administration  of  the  earlier  revolu- 
tionary period,  the  rural  communes  were  encouraged  to  take  possession  of 
the  old  royal,  noble,  or  ecclesiastical  forests  under  any  sort  of  pretext 
based  upon  entailed  rights  or  old  claims.  Many  properties  of  the  fugitive 
nobility  were  restored  to  their  former  owners.  Large  areas  of  State 
forests  were  sold  outright  under  the  individualistic  economic  theories  of 
the  times.  Every  subsequent  revolutionary  overturn  was  followed  by 
fresh  disposals  of  State  timberland.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  the  Third 
RepubHc  the  attitude  of  the  French  toward  their  public  domain  was 
similar  at  many  points  to  that  in  the  United  States  during  the  Nineteenth 
Century. 

Under  the  Third  Republic  the  policy  of  France  has  turned  definitely  in 
the  opposite  direction.  Alienations  of  national  forests  have  been  re- 
stricted practically  to  minor  adjustments  of  communal  claims.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  State  holdings  have  been  enlarged  steadily  by  plantations 
in  the  sand  dunes  and  by  the  purchase  and  reforestation  of  mountain 
lands  in  connection  with  the  protection  of  watersheds.  Most  important 
of  all,  the  forest  code  has  placed  public  forests  of  every  kind,  including 
communal  lands  and  the  properties  of  pubhc  institutions,  under  a  unified 
public  administration,  by  an  expert  service  of  exceptionally  high  technical 
standards  and  practical  ability. 

The  Extent  of  the  Public  Forests.  —  These  public  forests  now  comprise 
nearly  8,000,000  acres,  about  one-third  of  the  forested  area  of  France. 
3,000,000  acres  of  this  total  are  the  property  of  the  French  nation,  the 
community  forests  together  aggregating  considerably  more  than  the 
holdings  of  the  central  government. 


EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  THE   PUBLIC   FORESTS  11 

Their  Technical  Management.  —  The  forest  code  estabHshes  the 
principle  that  all  of  these  public  forests  must  be  handled  under  a  precise 
scheme  of  management,  the  main  point  of  which  is  to  fix  the  amount  of 
wood  which  may  be  cut  yearly  without  reducing  the  growing  stock,  or 
capital,  and  to  prescribe  the  methods  of  cutting  so  as  to  maintain  the 
productivity  of  the  forests.  The  importance  attached  by  the  French  to 
their  public  forests  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  the  management  plan 
for  each  unit  must  not  only  be  approved  by  the  high  council  of  the  Forest 
Service  and  by  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  but  must  be  authorized  by  a 
decree  of  the  President  of  the  Repubhc.  The  function  of  State  and  com- 
munal forests  is  settled  to  be  the  supplying  of  national  industries  with 
the  classes  of  products  which  they  most  need,  particularly  large  timber 
which  may  not  be  grown  on  private  lands  because  it  is  less  profitable. 
The  purpose  of  State  and  other  public  forests  is  thus  to  supplement  the 
materials  produced  iji  the  largest  quantities  by  other  owners  with  choice 
timber  whose  growing  is  long  and  costly,  a  distinction  which  often  dis- 
appears, however,  under  the  scale  of  values  fixed  by  supply  and  demand. 

The  Communal  Forests  of  France.  —  The  communal  forests  of  France 
are  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  suggestive  phases  of  her  public 
forestry.  The  French  Commune  may  be  compared  with  the  New  Eng- 
land township  —  a  self-governing,  rural  community  of  exact  geographical 
limits.  In  the  break-up  of  the  old  order  these  httle  communities,  which 
usually  had  held  entailed  rights  to  the  use  of  wood  and  forage  from  royal 
or  seigneurial  estates,  asserted  their  claims  so  vigorously  as  to  acquire 
many  small  tracts  of  forest  and  pasture  land  in  fee  simple.  Their  forest 
holdings  were  increased  in  various  ways,  as  through  the  planting  of 
185,000  acres  in  the  southwestern  sand  plains  under  State  supervision. 
To-day  they  form  a  sixth  of  the  forests  of  France.  Under  the  terms  of 
the  forest  code,  the  great  bulk  of  them  are  administered  as  part  and  parcel 
of  the  public  forests.  While  still  serving  their  original  purpose  of  fur- 
nishing supplies  of  wood,  especially  fuel,  for  local  use,  they  thus  are  im- 
portant contributors  to  the  national  lumber  pile. 

Some  communes  own  and  operate  their  own  small  sawmills.  These 
community  forests  are  important  sources  of  revenue  for  hundreds  of 
French  villages,  reducing  taxes  and  affording  the  means  for  constructing 
town  halls,  roads,  and  other  local  improvements.  The  situation  in 
France  would  be  paralleled  if  every  village  in  New  England  or  the  Lake 
States  owned  500  or  1,000  acres  of  forest,  kept  continuously  in  the  highest 
state  of  production,  furnishing  the  timber  locally  needed,  affording  a  sub- 
stantial income  for  community  purposes,  and  providing  steady  employ- 
ment for  a  number  of  its  citizens. 

Educational  Value  of  the  Public  Forests.  —  The  real  value  of  the  pubHc 
forests  of  France,  as  of  her  whole  forestry  system  expressed  in  the  "regime 


12  IMPRESSIONS  OF  FRENCH  FORESTRY 

forestier,"  can  be  gauged  only  in  an  appreciation  of  the  administrative 
skill  of  the  French,  of  their  practical  genius  for  cooperation,  and  of  the 
intelligence  of  many  rural  classes.  These  factors  have  extended  the 
technical  practice  in  public  forests  far  beyond  their  own  limited  areas. 
Public  forests  and  their  staff  of  trained  officers  are  to  be  found  in  every 
section  of  the  country.  They  set  the  standards  and  their  results  have 
demonstrated  good  forestry  to  every  timber  owner  in  France  —  in  his 
own  immediate  neighborhood.  How  to  cut  and  restock  timberland  has 
thus  become  a  common  knowledge  of  the  people.  The  local  forest 
officers  of  the  State  are  recognized  leaders  and  advisers  in  all  forestry 
matters.  Direct  forms  of  cooperation  with  private  land  owners  have 
resulted  in  the  special  recognition  given  to  associations  of  forest  own- 
ers and  in  the  opportunity  to  place  private  holdings  under  the  techni- 
cal methods  and  legal  protection  of  the  "regime."  The  public  forests 
have  thus  had  a  marked  educational  value  and  have  given  stimulus  and 
direction  to  the  whole  forestry  development  of  France. 

This  fact  is  indeed  suggestive  to  the  United  States.  In  our  first  steps 
toward  forest  conservation,  pubhc  forests,  Federal,  State,  and  municipal, 
should  have  a  dominating  part.  They  should  be  created  in  every  section 
and  be  identified  with  its  local  problems  of  fire  hazard,  of  timber  growth, 
and  of  provision  for  future  needs.  They  should  develop  the  technical 
practice  adapted  to  our  varied  forest  types  and  make  it  common  knowl- 
edge by  concrete  demonstration,  the  most  effective  of  all  educational 
measures.  In  democratic  America,  as  in  democratic  France,  a  core  of 
pubhc  forests  will  prove  the  key  to  progress. 

PRIVATE  FORESTRY  IN  FRANCE 

Its  Economic  Basis.  —  Private  forests  in  France  obviously  are  on  a 
footing  totally  different  from  that  in  the  United  States.  Aside  from  the 
national  conservatism  of  the  French,  their  love  for  forests  as  things  of 
beauty,  and  the  social  inheritances  which  put  their  forests  in  high  regard, 
the  high  price  and  close  utilization  of  wood  afford  an  economic  basis  for 
the  successive  cropping  of  timberland.  The  prevailing  stumpage  values 
of  French  timber  in  1917  averaged  at  least  five  times  the  prices  for  corre- 
sponding species  in  the  United  States.  The  American  Army,  for  ex- 
ample, paid  about  $36  per  thousand  feet  on  the  stump  for  oak  timber  of 
all  grades  in  the  Loire  River  Valley  and  up  to  $50  per  thousand  feet  for 
silver  fir  and  spruce  in  the  Vosges  Mountains.  A  crop  of  hardwood 
coppice,  grown  in  20  years,  brought  at  the  same  time  from  $50  to  $60  per 
acre  for  fuel  as  it  stood  in  the  woods.  These  were  inflated  war-time 
rates,  but  on  a  pre-war  basis  the  disparity  between  timber  values  in 
France  and  the  United  States  is  almost  equally  great.  This  is  due  not 
alone  to  the  shortage  of  timber  in  France  and  the  necessity  of  importing 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  PRIVATE  FORESTRY  TO   FRANCE  13 

a  third  of  the  lumber  which  the  country  uses.  Low  conversion  costs  are 
an  important  factor.  The  forests  of  France  for  the  most  part  are  very 
accessible.  The  simple  methods  of  manufacture  by  small  local  mills, 
with  almost  no  investment  or  overhead  charges,  are  inexpensive.  The 
wages  paid  to  forest  labor,  5  francs,  or  less  than  $1  per  day  in  1917  and 
still  less  before  the  war,  is  very  low.  With  lumber  prices  influenced  by 
the  importations  of  Baltic  and  other  foreign  stock,  with  keen  competition 
for  all  stumpage  put  upon  the  market,  the  standing  timber  gains  the 
benefit  of  the  low  costs  of  manufacture.  The  situation  in  the  United 
States,  where  manufacturing  charges  are  the  chief  element  in  the  mill 
price  of  lumber,  is  reversed  in  France.  The  standing  tree  takes  a  third  or 
more  of  the  selling  price  of  its  products. 

Forest  Versus  Farm  Crops.  —  France  contains  large  areas  of  land  — 
in  her  eastern  and  southern  mountains,  in  the  southwestern  sand  plains, 
and  in  the  rugged  hills  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Marne  and  Seine  — 
which  are  fit  only  for  timber  production  or  for  grazing.  The  presence  of 
such  land  —  of  relatively  low  value  —  is  a  further  stimulus  to  private 
forestry;  1,500,000  acres  of  private  forests,  for  example,  were  created  out- 
right by  planting  maritime  pine  in  the  Landes.  Her  forests  are  not  hm- 
ited,  however,  to  areas  too  poor  for  cultivation.  The  economic  balance 
between  forests  and  farm  crops  has  shifted  at  various  periods  in  French 
history.  At  the  time  of  the  Revolution  the  country  was  short  of  agri- 
cultural products,  especially  cereals,  and  a  large  acreage  of  forest  was  put 
in  tillage.  Fifty  or  sixty  years  later  the  pendulum  swung  back.  Short- 
age of  farm  labor  appears  to  have  been  the  immediate  cause.  Many 
rural  proprietors  in  central  and  northern  France,  finding  their  fields  lying 
fallow  year  after  year,  resorted  to  tree  planting.  There  has  been  no  im- 
portant change  since  that  time  with  probably  a  shght  tendency  in  later 
years  to  increase  the  farm  area  at  the  expense  of  the  forest. 

We  in  the  United  States  are  prone  to  think  that  the  farm  must  always 
be  given  right  of  way  over  the  forest;  and  doubtless  that  is  the  safest 
guide  in  our  present  stage  of  development.  The  economic  growth  of 
France  has  carried  her  beyond  such  broad  assumptions.  The  demand 
for  wheat  and  the  profit  in  growing  it  compared  with  the  demand  for 
timber  and  fuel  and  the  profit  in  growing  these  products  are  the  considera- 
tions which  govern.  The  area  devoted  to  forest  is  fixed  by  the  balance 
struck  — over  comparatively  long  periods  of  time  —  between  all  the 
economic  necessities  of  the  country;  and  that  balance  has  not  thus  far 
hmited  her  forests,  either  publicly  or  privately  owned,  to  non-agricultural 
lands.  This  sort  of  readjustment  is  impending  in  some  of  the  older  parts 
of  the  United  States. 

The  Importance  of  Private  Forestry  to  France.  —  Two-thirds  of  the 
forests  of  France  are  privately  owned.     Her  16,000,000  acres  of  private 


14  IMPRESSIONS  OF  FRENCH  FORESTRY 

forests,  which  for  the  most  part  are  fairly  well  cared  for  and  kept  in  con- 
tinuous production,  are  a  striking  object  lesson  to  Americans  who  are 
wont  to  regard  forestry  as  possible  only  for  the  Nation  or  State.  About  30 
per  cent  of  them  are  devoted  to  the  production  of  hardwood  fuel.  Other- 
wise their  technical  management,  while  less  regular  and  uniform  and  usu- 
ally less  conservative,  does  not  differ  in  essential  respects  from  that  of  the 
pubhc  forests.  Upon  her  privately  owned  forests  France  depends  for  the 
bulk  of  her  lumber  and  fuel  wood. 

Returns  from  Private  Forests.  —  While  aesthetic  and  social  considera- 
tions and  the  play  of  national  conservatism  have  their  part  in  this  result, 
forestry  is  a  real  business  in  France.  Large  areas  of  woodland  are  held  as 
long-term  investments  and  often  are  highly  regarded  as  stable  securities 
for  the  investment  of  family  or  institutional  funds.  Well-managed  oak 
and  beech  forests  yield  net  revenues  of  from  2^  to  4  per  cent.  Such 
forests  may  furnish  a  crop  of  coppice  every  20  or  25  years  and  at  the  same 
time  usually  carry  an  over  story  of  high-grade  timber,  which  may  require 
200  or  240  years  to  mature  but  is  actually  harvested  in  small  quantities 
at  every  periodic  cutting.  A  large  forest  property  is  split  into  lots  or 
compartments  containing  sprouts  or  timber  of  different  ages.  Some 
material  is  harvested  every  year  or  at  least  every  4  or  5  years.  There  is 
thus  an  actual  current  revenue  in  keeping  with  the  size  of  the  whole 
property;  and  the  problem  of  accrued  carrying  charges,  which  is  so  bur- 
densome to  the  owner  of  undeveloped  timber  in  the  United  States, 
scarcely  exists  in  France. 

Forestry  as  a  commercial  business  is  most  highly  developed  in  the 
pineries  of  the  Landes  where  the  low  value  of  the  land  and  the  combined 
yields  of  naval  stores  and  timber  make  it  exceptionally  profitable.  Net 
returns  of  6  per  cent  on  investments  in  southern  pineries  are  not  un- 
common. Here  also  the  revenue  is  practically  continuous.  The  larger 
properties  contain  blocks  of  timber  of  varying  ages,  and  aside  from  a 
steady  return  from  turpentine  orcharding,  realize  every  few  years  upon  a 
small  cut  of  stumpage. 

Forest  and  Sawmill  Divorced.  —  The  great  bulk  of  the  French  forests 
is  in  separate  hands  from  the  timber-using  industries.  This  has  an  im- 
portant bearing  upon  their  management.  The  forest  is  relatively  inde- 
pendent of  the  sawmill.  The  forest  owner  determines  the  amount  and 
location  of  the  stumpage  which  he  wishes  to  cut  from  year  to  year. 
Foresters  or  forest  rangers  are  employed  on  all  of  the  larger  properties, 
and  the  cutting  area  is  selected,  marked,  and  estimated  by  them.  The 
sawmills  are  uniformly  small  and  most  of  them  are  portable.  In  the 
eastern  mountains  there  are  many  little  stationary  mills,  driven  by  steam 
or  water  power,  which  obtain  their  logs  from  the  yearly  cuttings  on  any 
one  of  a  dozen  or  more  forest  properties  in  their  vicinity.     Logs  are 


INTENSIVE  USE  OF  LIMITED   RESOURCES   IN   FRANCE  15 

hauled  by  ox  teams,  in  full  tree  lengths,  for  distances  up  to  15  or  20  miles, 
to  these  little  mills.  In  the  level  pineries  of  the  south  a  light  steam  trac- 
tor of  the  "locomobile"  type,  operating  a  band  saw  3  or  4  inches  wide,  is 
almost  universal.  These  little  mills  roam  about  the  Landes,  picldng  up  a 
few  hundred  cubic  meters  of  timber  here  and  there,  sawing  it  into  boards, 
and  then  passing  on,  leaving  neat,  triangular  cribs  of  lumber  to  be  hauled 
out  by  the  two- wheeled  mule  carts  of  the  region  whenever  it  has  seasoned 
sufficiently. 

Lumber  Manufacture  Adapted  to  Forestry  Practice.  —  In  a  word,  the 
lumber  manufacturing  industry  has  grown  up  on  and  adapted  itself  to 
a  system  of  forest  management  which  permits  but  small  cuttings  at  any 
one  place  in  any  one  year  or  series  of  years.  Cases  are  rare  when  the  well- 
being  and  permanence  of  the  forest  are  sacrificed  to  the  requirements  of  a 
manufacturing  enterprise  —  an  exact  opposite  of  the  situation  so  com- 
mon in  the  United  States  where  the  manufacturer  owns  the  timber  and 
has  denuded  one  forest  region  after  another  in  order  to  supply  his  large 
stationary  mills  to  their  maximum  capacity.  While  this  relation  is 
largely  a  result  rather  than  a  cause  of  the  economic  status  of  private 
forestry  in  France,  it  indicates  the  industrial  adjustments  which  will  be- 
come necessary  in  America  as  our  emphasis  shifts  from  supplying  saw- 
mills to  growing  timber. 

Private  Forestry  On  Its  Own  Feet.  —  Private  forestry  in  France  stands 
largely  upon  its  own  merits.  It  is  mainly  a  free  reaction  to  the  economic 
requirements  of  the  country  and  an  expression  of  the  thrift  and  habits  of 
its  people.  Aside  from  tax  exemptions  on  plantations  under  30  years  of 
age  and  assistance  in  technical  practice,  it  receives  no  public  subsidies  or 
support.  The  laws  against  devastation  have  restricted  the  decrease  of 
forest  areas  in  the  French  mountains  —  but  elsewhere  have  not  had  an 
important  effect.  It  is  probable  that  the  greatest  public  leverage  upon  the 
private  owner  to  keep  his  timberland  productive  has  been  the  stimulus 
and  example  of  the  pubhcly  owned  forests,  with  their  wide  distribution 
throughout  France  and  their  high  standards  of  technical  practice. 

FOREST  PROBLEMS  OF  FRANCE  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Intensive  Use  of  Limited  Resources  in  France.  —  The  forest  problem 
of  France  is  totally  difi^erent  from  that  of  the  United  States.  Intensive 
use  of  a  limited  land  area  to  support  her  dense  population  is  forced  upon 
France.  Her  situation  would  be  paralleled  if  a  third  of  the  people  in 
the  United  States  were  crowded  into  an  area  somewhat  smaller  than 
the  State  of  Texas.  At  the  best,  France  must  import  a  large  volume  of 
wood  products.  France  has  had  to  strike  a  close  balance  between  her 
needs  for  lumber  and  her  needs  for  farm  crops  and,  notwithstanding  the 
number  of  mouths  to  be  fed,  has  had  to  devote  a  considerable  acreage  of 


16  IMPRESSIONS  OF  FRENCH   FORESTRY 

agricultural  land  to  timber  production.  Intensive  methods  of  growing 
successive  crops  of  timber  form  a  necessary  part  of  her  national  economy. 
The  shortage  and  high  cost  of  wood  have  given  an  impetus  to  the  practice 
of  forestry  as  a  business  which  is  scarcely  approached  in  any  part  of  the 
United  States. 

The  Handicap  of  Lumber  Shortage.  —  Lack  of  cheap  lumber  is  an 
economic  handicap  in  France.  It  is  apparent,  particularly  in  her  rural 
districts,  where  a  new  structure  of  any  kind  is  a  rare  sight  and  the  ancient, 
moss-covered  farm  buildings  give  an  impression  of  decadence  which  is 
only  partly  real  but  nevertheless  portrays  forcibly  the  low  standards  of 
rural  improvements  which  not  only  reduce  the  comfort  and  wholesome- 
ness  of  country  life  but  inevitably  lower  the  efficiency  of  agricultural  in- 
dustries. The  manufacturing  industries  of  France  suffer  from  the 
scarcity  and  high  cost  of  timber.  The  per-capita  consumption  of  lumber 
is  not  more  than  100  board  feet  per  annum,  less  than  one-third  that  of  the 
United  States.  In  other  words,  France  illustrates  the  evils  of  a  situation 
where  lumber  is  a  luxury,  in  part  —  an  imported  luxury.  Her  18  per 
cent  of  forested  land  is  not  enough.  Her  intensive  forestry  can  but 
partially  offset  the  effects  of  a  shortage  of  timber-producing  land. 

America's  Problem  —  Idle  Land.  —  It  is  not  our  problem  in  the 
United  States  to  strike  a  close  balance  between  the  forest  and  the  farm. 
That  can  be  left  to  the  economic  adjustments  of  the  future.  We  have  an 
ample  area  of  forest  land  beyond  all  requirements  for  agriculture.  It  is 
rather  our  problem  to  put  idle  land  to  use.  The  United  States  contains 
probably  500,000,000  acres  of  forest  land.  Our  uncut  virgin  timber  has 
been  reduced  to  not  more  than  150,000,000  acres.  Of  the  350,000,000 
acres  of  cutover  land  at  least  a  third  has  been  reduced  by  heavy  cutting 
and  forest  fires  to  unproductive  wastes.  An  area  of  forest  land  at  least 
five  times  that  of  all  the  forests  of  France  combined  is  producing  nothing. 

Timber  has  been  cheap  and  plentiful  in  the  United  States  as  compared 
with  other  nations.  Our  per-capita  consumption  of  lumber  is  two  or 
three  times  that  of  any  of  our  principal  competitors.  It  is  our  problem 
to  keep  timber  cheap  and  plentiful,  to  make  it  unnecessary  to  restrict  the 
use  of  wood  in  domestic  industries  or  export  trade,  to  avoid  reductions  in 
the  per-capita  consumption  of  lumber  toward  the  lowest  limits  of  civilized 
existence  which  it  has  reached  in  France.  This  does  not  require  as  yet 
the  practice  of  intensive  European  forestry.  It  can  be  accomplished  by 
the  simplest  measures  of  protection  and  regeneration  which  will  keep 
timberland  productive.  The  starting  point  must  be  to  stop  the  devasta- 
tion of  the  forest  lands  now  being  cut  and  to  put  our  millions  of  idle  acres 
at  work  growing  trees.  This  will  require  not  only  a  large  share  of  public 
cooperation  but  also,  as  in  France,  a  recognition  of  the  obligations  carried 
by  forest  ownership. 


CHAPTER  II  > 
THE  ROLE   OF   FORESTS 

The  Value  of  Forests  (p.  17).  Objective,  Dangers  of  Deforestation,  Fundamen- 
tal Causes,  Obligation  of  the  State. 

Forest  Influences  (p.  19).  Effect  on  Temperature  (Air  Soil),  Wind,  Frost,  Hail, 
Humidity  and  Rainfall,  Water  Level,  Springs,  Floods,  Avalanches  and  Erosion,  Health, 
Recreation,  and  Beauty,  Literature  and  Art. 

THE  VALUE   OF  FORESTS 

Objective.  —  The  objective  of  this  chapter  is  to  give  the  American 
forester  an  insight  into  French  views  —  somewhat  ideahstic  to  be  sure  — 
on  the  role  that  the  forests  play  in  national  hfe  and  to  summarize  briefly 
the  technical  viewpoint  on  "forest  influences."  Huffel's  exposition  on 
forests  and  springs  is  given  in  full  in  the  Appendix,  p.  361,  and  Jacquot's 
statement  on  the  physical,  economic,  and  social  rule  of  forests,  on  p.  381. 

Dangers  of  Deforestation.  —  If  forests  fail  to  yield  a  good  revenue, 
should  they  be  cut?  or  are  they  worth  financial  sacrifices?  French  policy 
is  based  on  the  economic  fact  that  her  forests  are  worth  the  sacrifice,  and 
her  forest  history  points  unfalteringly  to  the  evils  of  reckless  deforesta- 
tion. Who  could  view  the  eroded  Alps,  Pyrenees,  or  the  torrents  of  the 
Lozere  and  think  otherwise?  The  penalty  for  using  up  forest  capital  is 
too  great. 

"  When  the  mountains  are  baked  ^  all  is  ruined.  The  rains  .  .  .  fall  in  torrents 
and  rush  off  the  denuded  soil.  They  first  carry  off  the  vegetable  cover.  The  mountain 
shows  its  rocky  skeleton,  the  rocks  break  up,  cones  of  erosion  are  formed,  landslides, 
gullies,  unstable  slopes  become  so  many  running  sores  by  which  the  substance  of  the 
mountain  is  carried  down.  The  rocks  offer  more  or  less  resistance  according  to  their 
texture,  but  none  withstand.  Even  granite  splits  up  into  enormous  blocks  which  roll 
irresistibly  down  into  the  valleys.  .  .  .  When  the  highlands  are  ruined,  what  becomes 
of  the  plain?  .  .  .  The  river  becomes  a  torrent  when  it  rains,  carrying  down  earth, 
trees,  and  rocks.  Swollen  beyond  measure,  it  flows  over  the  plain  in  a  sudden  flood 
which  destroys  houses,  flocks,  villages,  and  people.  .  .  .  The  sudden  flood  is  char- 
acteristic of  denuded  countries  .  .  .  the  mountain  can  no  longer  supply  the  valley 
with  water.  Now  is  the  time  of  drought  and  famine.  Irrigation  is  impossible  for  the 
rivers  are  dry.  .  .  .  The  cultivators  try  to  continue  the  struggle  by  means  of 
reservoirs  and  costly  dams." 

What  a  picture,  but  how  true!     Look  at  deforested  countries  and  they 

1  G.  A.  Pearson  kindly  reviewed  this  chapter. 

2  Deboisement  et  Decadence.    F.  Regnault.     La  Revue,  March  1,  1904. 

17 


18  THE  ROLE  OF   FORESTS 

all  bear  the  same  evidence:  Palestine,  Assyria,  Arabia,  Greece,  Tunisia, 
Algeria,  Italy,  Spain,  Persia,  Sardinia,  Dalmatia.  To-day  England  is 
the  only  virile  Great  Power  without  extensive  forests;  what  she  has  are  in 
her  colonies.  It  appears  that  decadence  goes  hand  in  hand  with  de- 
forestation. Which  is  the  foundation  stone  of  a  nation's  dechne?  Is  the 
sequence  decadence-deforestation  or  deforestation-decadence?  Or  is  de- 
forestation simply  a  general  lack  of  foresight  coupled  with  poor  forest  man- 
agement? 

Fundamental  Causes.  —  What  is  the  fundamental  cause  of  deforesta- 
tion?    According  to  Regnault: 

"It  is  well  to  seek  the  causes.  They  are  of  various  kinds.  The  most  important  is 
civilization  itself.  Civilization  increases  the  sale  value  of  wood,  and  provides  the  means 
of  transport,  without  which  sales  would  be  very  limited.  It  awakes  greed  in  the  mind 
of  the  landowner  and  at  the  same  time  allows  him  to  satisfy  his  greed.  Thus  the  barest 
countries  are  always  the  seats  of  the  oldest  civilizations.  Certainly,  when  the  landowner 
finds  it  to  his  interest  to  plant,  he  does  not  hesitate  to  do  so.  Thus  the  trufHe  industry 
has  caused  the  plantation  of  more  than  148,000  acres  of  oak  in  the  Vaucluse;  and  re- 
cently the  oil  trade  has  caused  the  jilantation  of  an  immense  olive  forest  round  Sfax  in 
Tunis.     But  such  cases  are  quite  exceptional. 

"The  cutting  of  trees  is  a  source  of  immediate  profit,  but  it  entails  later  a  great  dimi- 
nution of  revenues.  Hence  reboisement  meets  with  great  difficulties,  not  only  in  the 
want  of  money,  but  in  the  hostility  of  the  inhabitants.  These  people  were  originally 
hunters,  woodsmen,  petty  cultivators,  but  especially  herdsmen,  enjoying  rich  pastures 
and  large  herds  of  cattle.  The  destruction  of  the  forest  forces  them  to  change  their  liveh- 
hood.  They  become  shepherds  and  goatherds,  for  sheep  and  goats  are  the  only  animals 
which  can  exist  on  the  soil  when  it  has  become  impoverished.  These  animals  live  on 
young  shoots  and  buds,  and  prevent  the  forest  from  growing  again.  The  shepherds 
themselves  oppose  every  attempt  at  reboisement,  pulling  up  young  trees,  destroying 
seedlings,  etc.,  for  they  fear  to  lose  their  living.  They  even  burn  the  forest  in  order  to 
obtain  further  areas,  until  the  mountain  disintegrates  and  their  last  resources  are 
swept  away  by  landslides  and  erosion. 

"The  political  condition  is  of  great  importance.  A  strong  government  enforces  respect 
for  the  forests." 

Obligation  of  the  State.  —  Speaking  of  the  deforestation  in  France 
Regnault  calls  upon  the  State  to  do  its  duty :  ^ 

"While  the  State  is  thus  so  badly  neglecting  its  duty,  all  the  authors  who  have  studied 
the  subject  of  deboisement  are  agreed  that  the  State  is  the  only  possible  source  of  salva- 
tion. They  wish  to  forbid  all  clearings  by  communes  or  by  private  persons,  and  to  make 
the  private  interest  yield  to  the  public  good.  A  despotic  government  can  indeed  en- 
force blind  obedience  on  the  part  of  its  subjects,  but  in  a  republic,  where  every  one  is  a 
judge  and  critic  of  policy,  the  best  laws  are  useless  unless  the  citizens  understand  their 
utility." 

After  a  careful  study  of  the  Loire  watershed,  Benardeau,  then  Conserva- 
tor of  Forests  at  Moulins  (Allier),  concluded  as  follows:* 

5  La  Foret,  A.  Jacquot,  1900. 

■*  Correction  de  la  Loire  et  de  ses  Affluents,  F.  Benardeau,  deuxi^.me  edition,  1906. 


EFFECT  ON   TEMPERATURE    (AIR  SOIL)  19 

"To  summarize:  forests  scarcely  cover  13  per  cent  of  the  surface  of  the  valley  of  the 
Loire,  while  the  average  for  France  reaches  18.7  per  cent.  Two  per  cent  only  of  the 
wooded  area  was  under  forestry  regulations.  .  .  .  We  must  not,  therefore,  be  too 
surprised  about  the  damage  which  everybody  regrets  today,  but  for  which  every  one  is 
in  a  way  responsible.  All  the  vital  interests  of  the  country,  its  military  force,  its  agri- 
culture, its  industry,  its  commerce,  its  navy,  the  climate,  temperature,  the  conservation 
of  the  soil  and  of  the  waters  which  supply  it,  even  the  existence  of  a  part  of  the  popula- 
tion which  lives  by  manual  labor  in  the  neighborhood  of  forests,  or  from  the  product  of 
its  stock  in  mountainous  regions,  have  an  interest  in  the  Loire  problem  which  is  really 
connected  with  the  most  serious  problems  of  economic  pohcy.  Considering  the  con- 
tinual development  of  material  interests  that  periodic  inundations  jeopardize,  the  public 
executive  power  will  not  hesitate  to  agree  to  the  necessary  sacrifices,  especially  if  they 
recall  that  the  single  flood  of  June  4,  1856,  not  counting  the  human  lives,  houses,  goods, 
manufactures,  and  harvests  destroyed,  has  cost  33.4  million  dollars  for  defence  better- 
ments and  lines  of  communications. 

"The  improvements  that  are  required,  owing  to  the  bad  condition  of  the  Loire  and 
Allier  Rivers,  are  just  as  useful  as  a  work  made  for  the  national  defense  and  where  the 
budget  (with  the  backing  of  public  opinion)  has  always  been  on  such  a  generous  scale. 
For  the  complete  suppression  of  erosion  and  of  sand  deposits,  it  appears  necessary  to 
give  the  Service  des  Eaux  et  Forets  sufficient  resources,  in  order  that  improvements  may 
be  made  in  advance  of  the  damage,  which  is  incessant  in  the  basins  of  these  rivers." 

It  is  true  that  the  discovery  of  iron,  cement,  coal,  gas,  and  electricity 
has  tremendously  reduced  the  need  of  wood.  Yet  a  French  writer  says: 
"Even  without  modern  uses  of  iron,  cement,  and  coal  there  is  an  in- 
sufficiency in  the  world's  wood  production  which  some  time  will  be  keenly 
felt  by  the  great  powers  of  the  world." 

There  is  therefore  every  incentive  to  inculcate  in  the  minds  of  all 
students  the  national  need  for  wise  forest  management.  This  study,  the 
French  beheve,  should  begin  in  primary  and  secondary  schools.  Arbor 
day  (fetes  de  I'Arbre)  celebrations  are  required  by  law.  There  are  French 
societies  organized  for  the  promulgation  of  forestry.  The  Jura  has  sixty- 
eight  such  societies  and  the  Touring  Club  de  France  has  a  standing  com- 
mittee on  conservation.  In  France  the  planting  of  trees  as  a  celebration 
at  births  is  often  practiced,  and  in  Alsace  trees  are  often  planted  at  both 
births  and  marriages.  To  celebrate  the  birth  of  the  "King  of  Rome"  in 
1811  an  entire  forest  was  planted.  It  is  felt  necessary  to  make  the  love 
of  forests  and  realization  of  the  necessity  for  their  wise  use  a  part  of 
French  national  life.^ 

FOREST  INFLUENCES 

Effect  on  Temperature  (Air  Soil).  —  According  to  investigations 
started  by  Mathieu  at  Nancy  in  1886,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
less  in  the  forest  than  outside.     Other  investigators  have  confirmed  these 

5  The  French  viewpoint  is  admirably  presented  by  Jacquot  in  his  summary  of  "The 
Forest,  from  a  Physical,  Economic,  and  Social  Viewpoint."  A  brief  and  translation  is 
given  in  the  Appendix,  p.  381. 


20  THE   ROLE  OF  FORESTS 

early  French  investigations.  The  results  of  an  experiment  (1869-1888) 
in  a  beech  forest  at  an  altitude  of  1,115  feet  showed  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature inside  the  forest  to  be  0.45°  C.  less  than  outside.  In  thirteen 
experiments  at  various  altitudes  in  pine,  spruce,  beech,  and  larch  forests, 
the  forest  temperature  averaged  0.66°  C.  less  than  in  the  open.  The 
difference  was  greater  in  summer  than  in  winter.  The  mean  maximum 
days  at  Nancy  averaged  24°  0.48'  C.  (76°  F.)  in  the  open  and  21°  0.51'  C. 
(70°  0.7'F.)  in  the  forest.  In  the  cold  weather  the  average  outside  the 
forest  was  -5°  0.12'  C.  (31.89°  F.),  inside  -4°  0.24'  C.  (31.91°  F.).  The 
investigation  thus  showed  that  the  temperature  extremes  were  raised  3° 
to  5°  C.  by  a  forest  cover,  but  that  the  temperature  in  the  forest  was 
warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer.  In  other  words,  the  forest  acts 
as  an  equahzer  of  temperature.^ 

The  Nancy  research  officers  estabhshed  the  following  laws:  (1)  The 
mean  annual  temperature  that  was  reached  is  |°  C.  less  in  the  forest  than 
in  a  nearby  open  area.  (2)  This  difference  in  temperature,  while  shght 
during  the  winter  months,  is  greater  in  summer.  (3)  The  minimum 
temperature  is  raised  in  the  forests  by  nearly  1°  C.  and  the  maximum 
lessened  about  2°  C.  In  other  words,  there  is  a  decided  difference  be- 
tween the  minimum  and  maximum  of  3°  C, 

In  addition  it  may  be  said  that  conifers  lessen  winter  extremes  of  tem- 
perature more  than  do  broadleaves  and  that  the  denser  the  summer 
foliage  the  cooler  the  forest  in  comparison  with  the  open  areas.  These 
differences  are  greatest  at  35  to  40  feet  above  the  soil. 

Investigations  by  Cuif  ^  show  conclusively  that  soil  is  almost  4°  C. 
warmer  during  July  in  the  open  than  under  high  forest  or  under  coppice. 
He  also  proved  that  soil  temperature  variations  outside  and  inside  the 
forests  are  less  extreme  than  the  variations  in  the  air  temperature  by  from 
2°  to  4°  C. 

Wind.  —  The  value  of  forests  as  shelter  belts  against  the  wind  is 
proved  for  agricultural  crops  and  for  water  surfaces  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion. 

Frost.  —  It  has  always  been  recognized  that  forest  cover  prevents 
frosts.  They  are  less  frequent  and  less  severe  under  cover,  which  is  the 
reason  why  the  shelterwood  system  must  be  applied  to  beech.  Without 
the  top  story  the  beech  seedlings  would  be  frost-killed.  In  1912  Cuif  ^ 
proved  that  the  forest  cover  prevented  damage  from  late  frosts  and 
showed  that  in  the  State  forest  of  Amance  (Meurthe-et-Moselle)  oak 

« Huffel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  45-67. 

^  Influence  du  Convert  de  la  Foret  sur  la  Temperature  du  sol  a  diverses  profondeurs, 
par  M.  E.  Cuif.     Bulletin  de  la  Societe  des  Sciences,  1909. 

*  Action  de  la  Foret  sur  les  Gelees  Tardives,  par  M.  E.  Cuif.  Annales  de  la  Science 
Agronomique  frangaise  et  etrangere.     Sept.,  1912. 


WATER  LEVEL  21 

plantations  after  cutting  were  badly  frosted  two  years  out  of  three,  while 
the  plantations  under  scattered  seed  trees  were  not  damaged. 

The  frost  penetrates  the  soil  about  one-half  as  far  in  the  forest  as  on  the 
outside.  According  to  four  experiments  (quoted  by  Huffel)  the  average 
soil  depth  of  frost  outside  the  forest  was  17  inches,  while  inside  the  ground 
was  frozen  only  to  the  depth  of  11^  inches. 

Hail.  —  Hailstorms  are  less  frequent  in  the  forest  than  outside.  Huffel 
quotes  Riniker  (1881  Die  Hagelschage),  who  says:  "In  general  hailstorms 
stop  at  the  border  of  well-stocked  mature  forests.  Both  on  the  plains  and 
in  the  mountains  one  often  sees  hailstorms  cut  in  two  or  divided  when 
they  pass  above  wooded  stands  .  .  .  small  coppice  would  not  do 
this."  France  had  studied  the  effect  of  hailstorms  on  forests  and  vice 
versa,  but  by  the  decree  of  January  20,  1892,  the  work  was  discontinued 
and  no  decisive  results  were  obtained.  Jacquot  notes  the  fact  that  of  the 
eighteen  departments  where  hail  does  the  most  damage  fourteen  are  the 
least  forested. 

Humidity  and  Rainfall.  —  Huffel^  says  that  "the  relative  humidity 
of  the  air  is  greater  under  a  stand  than  in  the  open,  not,  as  one  would  sup- 
pose, because  the  atmosphere  of  the  forest  holds  more  vapor,  but  because 
it  stands  at  a  lower  temperature  and  is  nearer  its  saturation  point." 
According  to  Fautrat's  experiments  in  the  Ermonville  Forest  in  1876  the 
air  under  the  stands  showed  7  per  cent  to  12  per  cent  greater  moisture 
content  than  in  the  open. 

French  foresters  believe  that  forests  mean  more  rainfall  and,  as  Huffel 
puts  it,  "The  rain  increases  according  to  the  progress  of  forestation,"  and 
"it  rains  more,  all  things  being  equal,  in  the  center  of  a  large  stand  than 
on  its  border,  and  more  on  the  border  than  a  few  miles  away,  that  the 
difference  appears  to  be  independent  of  the  season  of  the  year,  but  is 
slightly  greater  during  rainy  years  and  less  during  a  drought."  The 
French  viewpoint  is  given  more  fully  under  "Springs"  (in  the  Appendix, 
p.  361),  but  French  statistics  collected  near  Nancy  are  at  least  significant. 
If  the  rainfall  (a)  in  the  forest  is  represented  by  100,  the  rainfall  (6)  near 
the  forest  and  (c)  well  outside  would,  on  the  average,  be  (6)  93,3  per  cent 
and  (c)  76.5  per  cent.  It  is  at  least  safe  to  assume  that  forest  tends  to 
increase  rainfall. 

Water  Level.  —  Experiments  ^^  show  that  the  water  level  the  year 
round  is  unquestionably  lower  in  the  forests  than  in  openings,  and  that 
there  are  smaller  fluctuations  in  the  water  level  in  the  forests  than  else- 

^  Vol.  I,  pp.  67-81,  especially  p.  75.  It  should  be  stated  here  that  the  theory  that 
forests  increase  rainfall  (except  under  rare  circumstances)  is  not  accepted  by  American 
meteorologists. 

1"  E.  Henry  and  A.  Tolsky.  Les  Forets  de  Plaine  et  les  Eaux  Souterraines.  Annales 
de  la  Science  Agronomique  frangaise  et  etrangere,  1902-03. 


22  THE  ROLE  OF  FORESTS 

where.  The  level  is  lower  under  a  mature  stand  than  in  young  growth, 
the  differences  being  greater  in  a  dry  than  in  a  wet  climate.  Where  there 
is  a  great  deal  of  rainfall  the  difference  may  not  exceed  9  or  10  inches. 
Henry's  observations  at  Nancy  (see  Appendix,  p.  379)  confirmed  these 
conclusions  (about  1  foot  difference)  and  De  Lapasse  now  cites  proof  on  a 
large  scale.  It  was  already  proved  that  surface  water  in  the  Landes  and 
Gironde  had  dried  up,  after  extensive  areas  had  been  sown,  planted,  and 
drained,  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  but  it  was  not  until  1917  that  proof 
was  secured  that  if  these  forests  were  cut  the  water  level  would  rise  again. 
This  has  now  been  proved  in  the  forests  of  Porge  (Gironde)  where  8,649 
acres  were  clear-cut  during  the  period  from  1904  to  1911;  where  5,436 
acres  were  clear-cut  in  the  forest  of  Solferino  (Landes)  during  the  period 
from  1905  to  1911;  and  where  1,236  acres  were  clear-cut  in  the  forest  of 
Soulac.  In  the  latter  case  the  timber  was  65  years  old;  the  felling  began 
in  1912  and  was  finished  in  1914.  According  to  accurate  data  secured  by 
Conservateur  de  Lapasse  the  former  water  level  at  Soulac  was  3.3  feet 
below  the  floor  of  the  local  church.  At  the  end  of  1916  the  water  began 
to  flood  the  chapels  to  the  depth  of  2  inches  and  on  January  6,  1917,  the 
water  flooded  the  central  nave  and  the  church  itself  to  a  depth  of  6  inches 
and  the  chapels  to  a  depth  of  19  inches.  In  the  same  locality  (Soulac)  ^^ 
the  water  level  of  the  wells  rose  27|  inches;  the  local  hotel  cellars,  for- 
merly dry,  had  standing  water  to  a  depth  of  8  inches.  According  to  de 
Lapasse  this  is  proof  positive  that  clear  cutting  these  mature  pine  forests 
has  materially  raised  the  water  level.  Such  a  conclusion  is  of  immense 
importance  in  connection  with  drainage  problems. 

Springs.^'"  —  According  to  Huffel,  ground  in  a  forest  is  better  watered 
from  the  atmosphere  than  are  the  bordering  plains.  This  difference  is 
greater  in  winter  than  in  summer  —  may  be  20  per  cent  more.  In  the 
mountains  forests  unquestionably  diminish  run-off  and  bring  about  a 
greater  infiltration  of  water  which  may  ultimately  feed  springs.  This  is 
due  not  only  to  the  obstacles  which  trees,  roots,  and  litter  present  to 
prevent  run-off,  but  also  to  the  greater  porosity  of  the  forest  soil  and  to 
the  fact  that  snow  melts  slower  under  forest  cover.  Both  French  and 
Russian  experiments  have  proved,  however,  that  the  water  level  in  the 
forest  on  level  ground  is  about  one  foot  lower  than  in  the  fields.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  variation  in  water  level  is  less  in  the  forest;  the  infiltra- 
tion is  slower;  in  other  words,  the  forest  is  a  regulator  of  water  levels  (as 
with  temperature).  Huffel  concludes  that  forests  increase  precipitation, 
retain  a  part  of  the  rainfall  on  branches  and  return  it  to  the  air  directly, 

11  LTnfluence  de  la  Foret  sur  le  Regime  des  Eaux  a  Soulac,  pp.  1-8,  M.  de  Lapasse, 
1917. 

12  See  Appendix,  p.  361,  for  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  this  subject,  as  presented  by 
Huffel. 


HEALTH,  RECREATION,  AND  BEAUTY  23 

decrease  evaporation,  favor  infiltration  in  the  mountains  and  may  or  may 
not  favor  it  on  level  ground  in  cold  or  temperate  climates,  yet  he  concludes 
that  "Nevertheless,  it  must  be  observed  that  springs  are  only  numerous 
and  important  in  mountain  regions,  and  that  there  the  forests  are  favor- 
able to  them.'' 

Floods,  Avalanches,  and  Erosion.  —  No  one  can  read  Chapter  VII 
"Control  of  Erosion  in  the  Mountains,"  without  becoming  convinced  that 
forests  lessen  the  intensity  of  floods  and  avalanches  and  largely  decrease 
erosion  and  the  formation  of  "torrents." 

Health,  Recreation,  and  Beauty.  —  The  French  ^^  claim  that  the 
forests  have  exerted  a  beneficial  effect  on  the  health  of  mankind.  Life  in 
the  forest  is  especially  beneficial  in  various  nervous  diseases.  In  India 
there  is  less  cholera  in  the  forest  regions  than  in  plains.  In  the  forest  of 
Haguenau  there  was  less  disease  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  while 
the  cholera  epidemic  was  raging  in  Europe  proper.  The  leaves  of  trees 
seem  to  filter  the  air  and  forests  are  so-called  "reservoirs  of  pure  air." 
Forest  soil  is  especially  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  microbes.  In 
the  Landes,  after  the  sand  dunes  were  reclaimed,  the  birth  rate  rose  and 
the  death  rate  fell;  in  1878  Trelat  reported  that  the  fever  had  practically 
disappeared  in  those  regions.  "The  forests  furnish  pretty  places  for  the 
invalid  as  well  as  corners  of  recreation  .  .  .  this  need  of  the  beauti- 
ful is  deep  rooted  in  our  very  nature."  Fontainebleau,  Compiegne, 
Grande  Chartreuse,  and  Riidlin  are  famous  recreation  forests  in  France, 
but  there  are  many  others.  One  might  say  that  every  State  forest 
region  is  a  recreation  ground  for  the  French  people.  The  forests  around 
Nice,  the  Vosges  near  Gerardmer,  and  almost  the  entire  Alps  and  Pyre- 
nees are  visited  annually  by  thousands.  One  might  almost  say  that 
without  its  forests  France  would  not  be  worth  living  in.  Broilliard  ^^  in 
1911,  toward  the  end  of  a  hfe  spent  in  the  National  Forest  Service,  speaks 
of  the  forest  as  "poetry  and  perfume  of  the  earth."  He  says  that  the 
tree  gives  the  forest  its  charm,  since  it  is  found  in  a  thousand  forms  on  the 
slopes,  in  clumps,  in  battalions,  on  the  borders,  near  small  openings,  and 
even  around  the  former  Roman  Camp  at  Morey.  The  old  trees  act  as 
protectors  of  the  species.  In  his  old  age  he  still  can  dream  of  the  pretty 
paths,  openings,  undergrowth  of  varying  aspects  at  different  seasons, 
summer  tranquility,  autumn  fruits,  and  sombre  lines.  Huffel  claims 
that  "the  beauty  of  our  forests  is  an  object  of  public  utihty." 

On  June  29,  1899,  Daubree  ruled  that  since  "the  Federal  and  communal 
forests  often  contain  famous  trees,  because  of  historical  or  legendary  in- 
terest or  because  of  their  grandeur  or  exceptional  size,  such  trees  belong 
to  the  aesthetic  wealth  of  France.     They  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  land- 
is  ficonomie  Forestiere,  Vol.  I,  pp.  199-206. 
"Beautes  de  la  Foret,  par  Ch.  Broilliard,  1911. 


PROP tK  I  J    Lion/iAi 

H.  C.  State  College 

24  THE  r6le  of  forests 

scape,  they  bring  visitors  into  the  regions  where  without  them  they  would 
stay  away.  We  must  love  and  appreciate  our  forests.  The  local  people 
have  a  real  attachment  for  these  evidences  of  a  bygone  age  and  see  them 
disappear  with  regret.  I  attach  great  importance  to  this  and  they 
should  be  constantly  protected  by  the  Forest  Service.  They  should 
never,  under  any  pretext,  be  included  in  the  cut  as  long  as  they  show 
signs  of  life." 

Literature  and  Art„  —  Naturally  the  forest  has  stamped  its  mark  on 
French  literature.  Russeau  spent  much  of  his  time  in  France  and  did 
much  to  make  the  forests  popular,  Chateaubriand  drew  wonderful 
pictures  of  American  forests  but  they  were  not  very  real ;  they  were  more 
the  product  of  his  imagination.  Lamertine  was  a  great  admirer  of  the 
French  forests  and  La  Fontaine  was  the  son  of  a  professional  forester. 
William  Shenstone,  who  flourished  in  England  in  1760,  was  undoubtedly 
influenced  by  his  knowledge  of  the  French  forests. 

It  is  well  recognized  that  all  forms  of  art  are  founded  on  nature.  Some 
persons  believe  that  the  gothic  arch  was  suggested  by  the  arcades  of  the 
forest.  In  painting,  almost  every  landscape  owes  much  to  the  color  and 
shape  of  trees.  Of  the  earlier  French  painters  Claude  shows  most  love  of 
foliage,  but  few  of  his  pictures  look  as  if  he  had  painted  them  in  the 
woods.  In  every  European  forest  the  trees  are  so  dense  that  it  is  difficult 
to  paint  modern  forests.  In  the  words  of  a  Frenchman,  "You  foresters 
should  think  of  this  and  not  only  space  the  trees,  since  then  and  then  only 
may  the  carefully  tended  forests  become  useful  to  the  artist  as  well  as  to 
the  lumberman."  Diaz  was  a  man  who  spent  most  of  his  time  in  the 
woods.  The  Brabigan  school  painted  woods  more  or  less;  but  Corot 
(like  Claude)  had  no  use  for  a  "regular  forest."  What  he  wanted  was  a 
group  of  trees  for  the  purpose  of  composition. 

While  some  of  these  French  claims  regarding  forest  influences  may  be 
questioned  by  the  scientist,  yet  no  one  familiar  with  the  history  of  forest 
economics  can  question  for  a  moment  the  statement  that  no  nation  can 
afford  to  destroy  its  forests  because  their  direct  and  indirect  benefits  have 
an  increasingly  important  influence  on  national  efficiencyo 


CHAPTER   III 
FOREST  REGIONS  AND   IMPORTANT   SPECIES 

Physical  and  Climatic  Features  —  Industry  (p.  25).  Area  and  Topography, 
Climate,  Agriculture,  Other  Industries,  Water  Power,  Commerce,  Government. 

Forest  Regions  (p.  29).  Broad  Divisions,  Plains,  Parisienne  Zone,  Gironde  Zone, 
Proven^ale  Zone,  Mountains,  Vosges  Zone,  Jura  Zone,  Alps  Zone,  Central  Plateau 
Zone,  Pyrenees  Zone,  Some  Mountain  Forests  in  Detail,  Vosges,  Alps,  Pyrenees. 

Important  Forest  Species  (p.  40).  Acreage  and  Distribution,  Pedunculate  Oak, 
Sessile  Oak,  Beech,  Hornbeam,  Holm  Oak,  Cork  Oak,  Silver  Fir,  Scotch  Pine,  Maritime 
Pine,  Norway  Spruce,  European  Larch,  Aleppo  Pine,  Exotics,  Use  of  Exotics.  (See 
Appendix,  p.  387,  for  data  on  species.) 

PHYSICAL  AND   CLIMATIC  FEATURES  —  INDUSTRY  i 

Area  and  Topography.  —  France  is  a  western  country  in  western 
Europe,  hexagonal  in  form,  bounded  northwest  by  the  North  Sea,  Strait 
of  Dover  (Pas-de-Calais)  and  the  Enghsh  Channel  (La  Manche) ;  west  by 
the  Atlantic  Ocean;  southwest  by  Spain;  southeast  by  the  Mediterranean; 
east  by  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Germany;  northeast  by  Germany,  Luxem- 
burg, and  Belgium.  From  north  to  south  its  length  is  about  600  miles, 
measuring  from  Dunkirk  to  the  Col  de  Falgueres;  its  breadth  from  east 
to  west  is  528  miles,  from  the  Vosges  to  Cape  Saint  Mathieu  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  Brittany.  The  total  area  is  estimated  at  207,170  square 
miles,  including  the  island  of  Corsica,  which  comprises  3,367  square 
miles.  The  coast  hne  of  France  extends  for  384  miles  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 700  on  the  North  Sea,  the  Strait  of  Dover,  and  the  Channel,  and 
865  on  the  Atlantic.  The  country  has  the  advantage  of  being  separated 
from  its  neighbors  by  natural  barriers  of  great  strength  over  the  greater 
part  of  its  frontier,  the  Pyrenees  forming  a  powerful  bulwark  on  the 
southwest,  the  Alps  on  the  southeast,  and  the  Jura  and  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  Vosges  Mountains  on  the  east.  The  frontier  generally  follows 
the  crest  hne  of  these  ranges.  Germany  possessed  both  slopes  of  the 
Vosges  north  of  Mont  Donon,  from  which  point  the  northeast  boundary 
is  conventional  and  unprotected  by  nature.  France  is  geographically 
remarkable  for  its  possession  of  great  natural  and  historical  highways 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.     The  one  following 

■*  These  data  are  furnished  by  the  service  geographique  de  I'armee,  except  where 
otherwise  noted.  See  Appendix,  p.  495,  for  data  on  Alsace-Lorraine,  now  restored  to 
France. 

25 


26  FOREST  REGIONS  AND   IMPORTANT   SPECIES 

the  depression  between  the  Central  Plateau  and  the  eastern  mountains 
by  way  of  the  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and  Saone,  traverses  the  Cote  d'Or 
hills  and  so  gains  the  valley  of  the  Seine;  the  other  skirting  the  southern 
base  of  the  Cevennes,  reaches  the  ocean  by  way  of  the  Garonne  Valley. 
Another  natural  highway  traversing  the  lowlands  to  the  west  of  the 
Central  Plateau  unites  the  Seine  basin  with  that  of  the  Garonne. 

Climate.  —  The  north  and  northwest  of  France  bear  a  great  resem- 
blance, both  in  temperature  and  produce,  to  the  south  of  England,  rain 
occurring  frequently  and  the  country  being  consequently  suited  for 
pasture.  The  rains  are  less  frequent  in  the  interior  but  when  they  do 
occur  are  much  heavier,  so  there  is  much  less  difference  in  the  annual  rain- 
fall there  as  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  country  than  in  the  number  of 
rainy  days.  The  annual  rainfall  of  the  whole  of  France  averages  about 
32  inches;  the  precipitation  is  greatest  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  in 
the  elevated  regions  of  the  interior.  It  attains  over  60  inches  in  the  basin 
of  the  Adour  (71  inches  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Pyrenees),  and 
nearly  as  much  in  the  Vosges,  Morvan,  Cevennes,  and  parts  of  the  Central 
Plateau.     The  zone  of  level  country  extending  from  Rheims  and  Troyes 

to  Angers  and  Poitiers  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Loire  Valley  and  the 
Brie,  receives  less  than  24  inches  of 
rain  annually  (Paris  about  23  inches), 
as  also  does  the  Mediterranean  coast 
west  of  Marseilles. 

The    prevailing   winds,   mild   and 
humid,  are  west  winds  from  the  At- 
lantic.    Continental    climatic    influ- 
ences make  themselves  felt    in  the 
east  wind  which  is  frequent  in  winter 
and  in  the  east  of  France,  while  the 
Mistral,    a    violent   wind   from    the 
northwest,    is    characteristic    of   the 
Fig.  1  (after  Jolyet).— The  black  areas  Mediterranean     region.     The     local 
represent  rainfall  of  over  24  inches,  the  climates  ^  of  France  may  be  grouped 
hatched  area  16  to  23  inches,  and  the  dot-  ,        j-u       f  u       •         r,      ^^    i^^;   v.„ 

,  ,  ox    ic-    1         rru        4.-        r  under  the    followmg  seven  designa- 

ted areas  8  to  15  inches.     The  portions  of  °  ° 

France  left  blank  represent  summer  tern-  tions:  (1)  Sequan  chmate,  charac- 
peratures  of  over  68°  F.  terizing  the  Seine  basin  and  northern 

France,  with  a  mean  temperature  of 
50°  F.,  the  winters  being  cold  and  the  summers  mild.  (2)  Breton  cli- 
mate, with  a  mean  temperature  of  51°  F.,  the  winters  being  mild  and 
summers  temperate;  it  is  characterized  by  west  and  southwest  winds  and 
2  Based  on  the  six  Ecological  zones  proposed  by  Dr.  Mayr  of  Munich,  the  Nancy 
(Traits  Pratique  de  Sylviculture,  1916,  Jolyet,  pp.  414-418)  school  recognizes  the  fol- 


OTHER   INDUSTRIES  27 

by  frequent  fine  rains.  (3)  Girondin  climate,  characterizing  Bordeaux, 
Agen,  Pau,  etc.,  having  a  mean  temperature  of  53.6°  F.,  with  mild  winters 
and  hot  summers;  the  prevailing  wind  is  from  the  northwest;  the  average 
rainfall  about  28  inches.  (4)  Auvergne  cKmate,  comprising  the  Ceven- 
nes,  Central  Plateau,  Clermont,  Limoges,  and  Rodez;  mean  temperature 
51.8°  F.,  with  cold  winters  and  hot  summers.  (5)  Vosges  climate,  in- 
cluding Epinal,  Mezieres,  and  Nancy,  having  a  mean  temperature  of 
48.2°  F.,  with  long  and  severe  winters  and  hot  and  rainy  summers.  (6) 
Rhone  climate,  experienced  by  Lyons,  Chalon,  Macon,  and  Grenoble; 
mean  temperature  5L8°  F.,  with  cold  and  wet  winters  and  hot  summers; 
the  prevaihng  winds  are  north  and  south.  (7)  Mediterranean  chmate, 
at  Valence,  Nimes,  Nice,  and  Marseilles;  mean  temperature  57.5°  F., 
with  mild  winters  and  almost  rainless  summers. 

Agriculture.  —  Of  the  39,000,000  population  some  17,000,000  depend 
upon  agriculture  for  a  livelihood,  though  only  about  6,500,000  are  engaged 
in  work  on  the  land.  The  cultivable  land  occupies  some  195,000  square 
miles,  or  about  94  per  cent  of  the  total  area.  Of  this,  171,000  square 
miles  are  cultivated.  There  are  besides  12,300  square  miles  of  unculti- 
vable  area  covered  by  lakes,  rivers,  towns,  etc. ;  only  37,672  square  miles 
are  in  forests  (241.2  million  acres).  While  wheat  and  wine  constitute  the 
staples  of  French  agriculture,  the  distinguishing  characteristic  is  the 
variety  of  its  products.  Cereals  occupy  about  one-third  of  the  cultivated 
area.  For  the  production  of  wheat,  in  which  France  is  self-supporting, 
French  Flanders,  the  Seine  basin,  notably  Beauce  and  Brie,  and  the 
regions  bordering  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Loire  and  the  upper  course 
of  the  Garonne  are  the  chief  areas.  Rye  is  grown  in  the  poor  agricul- 
tural territories  of  the  Central  Plateau  and  in  the  Parisian  region.  Maize ' 
covers  considerable  areas  in  Landes,  Basses-Pyrenees,  and  other  south- 
western departments. 

Other  Industries.  —  In  France,  as  in  other  countries,  the  development 
of  machinery,  whether  run  by  steam,  water  power,  or  other  native  forces, 

lowing  zones  as  occurring  in  France: 

(1)  Laurentum,  with  minimum  temperature  of  —  10°C.,  where  "everywhere  orna- 
mental shrubs  with  persistent  leaves  can  be  cultivated  in  the  gardens." 

(2)  Castanetum,  with  occasional  temperatures  down  to  —25°  C,  where  the  mari- 
time pine  and  chestnut  can  be  grown. 

(3)  Carpinetum,  with  temperature  down  to  —.30°  C,  where  there  are  drought,  hot 
summers,  but  dangerous  frosts  and  extremes  of  cold.  This  includes  most  of  the  rich 
Normandy  forests. 

(4)  Mountains,  broadly  speaking  (for  the  same  exposure)  for  each  3.3  feet  of  altitude 
the  average  temperature  diminishes  1.2°  C.  and  the  rainfall  increases  10  per  cent.  Ex- 
ceptions occur,  depending  on  the  slope  of  the  mountain  and  on  the  latitude.  Typical 
of  the  mountain  climate  are  abrupt  changes  in  temperature,  severe  frosts  coupled  with 
intense  heat  (radiations  solaires)  during  the  day. 


28  FOREST  REGIONS  AND  IMPORTANT  SPECIES 

has  played  a  great  part  in  the  promotion  of  industry.  With  the  exception 
of  Loire,  Bouches-du-Rhone,  and  Rhone,  the  chief  industrial  depart- 
ments of  France  are  to  be  found  in  the  north  and  northeast  of  the  country. 
The  department  of  the  Seine,  comprising  Paris  and  its  suburbs,  which  has 
the  largest  manufacturing  population,  is  largely  occupied  with  the  manu- 
facture of  dress,  millinery,  and  articles  of  luxury  (perfumery,  etc.),  but  it 
plays  the  leading  part  in  almost  every  great  branch  of  industry  with  the 
exception  of  spinning  and  weaving.  The  typically  industrial  region  of 
France  is  the  department  of  the  Nord,  the  seat  of  the  woolen  industry, 
but  also  prominently  concerned  in  other  textile  industries,  in  metal  work, 
and  in  a  variety  of  other  manufactures,  fuel  for  which  is  supphed  by  its 
coal  fields. 

Water  Power.  —  France  is  relatively  poor  in  coal,  and  even  in  ordinary 
times  must  import  a  large  amount  for  use  by  its  factories.  Since  Ger- 
many's destruction  of  the  collieries  of  the  north,  which  have  supplied 
about  three-fourths  of  all  the  coal  mined  in  France,  the  situation  is  made 
difficult  even  with  the  Sarre  basin.  Fortunately  for  France,  she  is  rich 
in  hydraulic  power.  The  water  power  is  estimated  at  nine  to  ten  milhon 
horse  power.  Of  the  European  countries  only  Norway  and  Sweden 
possess  a  larger  amount  of  available  hydraulic  power.  Still  more  for- 
tunate for  France,  most  of  her  water  power  is  to  be  found  in  the  South, 
free  from  war  damage,  particularly  in  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  the  Ceven- 
nes,  and  the  Jura,  although  some  water  power  is  available  in  the  Vosges 
and  the  Central  Plateau.  During  the  war  the  water  power  development 
in  France  has  received  a  tremendous  stimulus.  Many  new  factories  have 
been  built  in  which  the  motive  power  is  electricity,  generated  by  hydraulic 
force,  for  the  manufacture  of  machinery,  munitions,  and  other  supplies 
necessary  for  the  army.  The  manufacture  of  products  necessary  for 
military  purposes  has  not  only  absorbed  all  the  power  which  at  first  was 
left  unutilized  because  of  the  discontinuance  of  a  number  of  factories  en- 
gaged in  the  production  of  ordinary  commodities,  but  it  was  soon  found 
necessary  to  increase  the  available  water  power.  Thus  several  of  the 
Pyrenees  water  power  companies  have  raised  the  dam  of  a  lake  which 
served  as  a  reservoir  by  seven  feet  and  thus  increased  its  reserve  in  water  by 
1,300,000  cubic  meters,  and  obtained  a  proportional  increase  in  the  avail- 
able waterpower.  Several  water  power  establishments  in  the  Alps  and  in 
the  Pyrenees  have  entirely  changed  their  equipment  and  adapted  their 
factories  for  the  manufacture  of  products  needed  by  the  Government. 
The  Government  has  rushed  the  completion  of  a  number  of  factories  in 
the  course  of  construction  and  has  taken  over  in  the  Central  Plateau 
several  waterfalls  for  the  development  of  water  power.  During  the  war 
the  Government  increased  the  available  hydraulic  power  by  at  least 
60,000  horse  power.     The  Government  not  only  sought  to  develop  water 


BROAD   DIVISIONS  29 

power  for  the  manufacture  of  war  necessities  on  its  own  initiative,  but 
also  secured  the  cooperation  of  private  hydraulic  companies.  This  de- 
velopment will  probably  decrease  the  use  of  coal  and  fuel  wood  during  the 
next  decade. 

Commerce.  —  Being  in  the  main  a  self-supporting  country,  France 
carries  on  most  of  her  trade  within  her  own  borders  and  ranks  below 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the  United  States  in  volume  of  exterior 
trade. 

Goverament.  —  The  principles  upon  which  the  French  constitution  is 
based  are  representative  government  (by  two  chambers),  manhood 
suffrage,  responsibility  of  ministers,  and  irresponsibihty  of  the  head  of  the 
State.  France  is  divided  into  86  administrative  departments  (including 
Corsica),  or  87  if  the  territory  of  Belfort,  a  remnant  of  the  Haut-Rhin  de- 
partment, be  included.  These  departments  are  subdivided  into  362 
arrondissements,  2,911  cantons,  and  36,222  communes.  (See  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  p.  495.) 

FOREST  REGIONS 

Broad  Divisions.  —  The  forest  regions  of  France  may  be  divided  into 

two  broad  divisions  —  the  plains  and  the  mountains.  As  might  be  sup- 
posed, conifers  predominate  in  the  mountains  and  the  broadleaf  species 
in  the  plains.  In  this  latter  region  there  are  ravines  and  hills  but  the 
maximum  altitude  does  not  exceed  1,970  feet.  The  winter  season  lasts 
4  to  5  months,  the  vegetative  season  7  to  8  months.  In  the  mountains 
the  winter  lasts  7  to  8  months  and,  at  altitudes  of  5,900  to  6,560  feet,  the 
snow  remains  until  June  15,  and  begins  to  fall  shortly  after  the  middle  of 
September.  There  is  no  spring  or  fall  —  only  winter  and  summer. 
Naturally  this  results  in  rapid  growth  with  very  regular  rings,  as  opposed 
to  the  somewhat  irregular  growth  in  the  plains  forests  owing  to  the  varia- 
tions of  climate  during  the  growing  season.  The  forest  divisions  of 
France  (as  distinguished  by  Boppe)  are: 

1.  Plains  — 

(a)  Parisienne:  (1)  West,  (2)  Center,  (3)  East. 

(b)  Gironde:  (1)  Oaks  of  Adour,  (2)  Landes,  Gascoyne. 

(c)  Provengale. 

2.  Mountains  — 

(a)  Vosges:  (1)  Lorraine  plains,  (2)  Basses-Vosges,  (3)  Hautes-Vosges,  (4)  (5)  see  text. 
(6)  Jura:  (1)  First  plateau,  (2)  Second  plateau,  1,640  to  1,968  feet,  (3)  Third  plateau, 
2,625  to  2,953  feet  (4)  Haute-Jura. 
(c)   Alps:  (1)  North,  (2)  South. 
id)  Central  Plateau:  (1)  North,  (2)  South, 
(e)   Pyrenees:  (1)  East,  (2)  Central,  (3)  West. 


30  FOREST  REGIONS  AND   IMPORTANT  SPECIES 

Plains.  —  From  the  foregoing  it  is  seen  that  the  plains  forests  may  be 
divided  into  three  general  zones:  (1)  Parisienne;  (2)  Gironde;  (3) 
Provengale. 

Parisienne  Zone.  —  The  Parisienne  Zone  includes  more  than  half  of 
France,  and  the  forest  wealth  is  composed  of  broadleaf  trees  except  where 
conifers  have  been  artificially  introduced.  Hornbeam  is  a  characteristic 
species,  sessile  oak  and  pedunculate  oak  the  most  numerous.  Beech 
abounds  but  it  is  not  necessarily  typical  of  the  region  because  it  extends 
into  the  mountain  zones.  The  Federal  administration  has  introduced 
such  species  as  ash,  maple,  and  elm  to  a  considerable  extent.  Less 
valuable  species  typical  of  this  zone  are  the  willows,  limes,  and  poplars. 
The  annual  rainfall  averages  27.5  inches,  most  of  it  occurring  in  the  sum- 
mer. Droughts  are  rare  and  on  the  whole  the  chmate  may  be  termed 
exceedingly  favorable  for  tree  growth.  It  is  partly  for  this  reason  that 
natural  regeneration  of  such  species  as  oak  is  comparatively  simple  in 
France  while  almost  unattainable  in  many  parts  of  Germany.  The  pre- 
vaihng  wind  is  west.  The  best  high  forests  in  France  that  produce  ex- 
ceedingly valuable  oak  logs  are  found  in  this  zone.  There  are,  of  course, 
coppice  and  coppice-under-standards. 

This  general  region  can  be  subdivided  into  three  parts:  (1)  West, 
wliich  includes  such  forests  as  Fontainebleau,  d'Orleans,  and  Montargis. 
This  hmited  area  is  bounded  by  the  valleys  of  the  Perche  and  Bretagne. 
The  chmate  is  exceedingly  mild  and  humid.  (2)  Center,  including  the 
Sologne,  where  a  moist  silicious  soil  has  been  partly  deforested.  This 
includes  the  Champagne  region  where  the  tree  growth  is  quite  ordinary. 
(3)  East,  which  includes  the  Argonne,  the  Langres  Plateau,  the  Plains  of 
Lorraine,  Franche-Comte,  and  Bourgogne.  Here  25  per  cent  of  the  area 
is  forested  and  most  of  it  is  in  coppice-under-standards,  although  con- 
versions are  the  order  of  the  day  where  soil  will  permit. 

Gironde  Zone.  —  The  second  important  zone  —  the  Gironde  —  fol- 
lows the  ocean  from  Bayonne  to  the  Loire,  and  includes  two  subdivisions : 
(1)  the  oaks  of  the  Adour,  and  (2)  the  maritime  pine  of  the  Landes- 
Gascoyne.  The  important  species  are  maritime  pine,  occidental  oak, 
and  pyrean  oak.  The  sessile  oak  is  almost  entirely  lacking,  and  the  holm 
oak  is  found  chiefly  on  limestone  soils.  The  maritime  pine,  which  now 
reproduces  naturally  but  originally  was  estabhshed  by  artificial  means 
(see  pp.  182),  is  the  species  of  the  Landes-Gascoyne.  It  grows  on  pure 
sand  and  has  increased  the  value  of  land  worthless  for  agriculture  many 
thousands  per  cent. 

Provencale  Zone.  —  The  third  important  zone  —  Provengale  —  is  dry 
and  hot  and  borders  the  Mediterranean  between  Nice  and  Port  Vendres. 
The  region  is  indented  by  the  Maritime  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees  at  each 
extremity  and  extends  up  the  Rhone  as  far  as  Valence.     The  important 


JURA  ZONE  31 

species  are  the  holm  oak,  white  oak,  aleppo  pine.  On  the  sihcious  soils  of 
the  Maures  and  the  Esterel  maritime  pine  and  cork  oak  form  the  predomi- 
nant stand  with  a  thick  undergrowth  of  heather.  In  this  region  trees 
rarely  attain  large  size,  but  yield  good  fuel  charcoal  and  tanbark.  The 
secondary  revenue  from  truffles  is  in  places  as  much  as  $38.60  per  acre. 
The  prevalent  northeast  wind,  known  as  the  "mistral,"  is  a  source  of 
danger  during  the  fire  season.  This  is  especially  significant  since  in  this 
region  there  is  much  less  rain  than  in  the  Parisienne. 

Mountains.  —  The  mountains  are  divided  into  five  main  zones:  (1) 
Vosges,  (2)  Jura,  (3)  Alps,  (4)  Central  Plateau,  (5)  Pyrenees. 

Vosges  Zone.  —  The  Vosges  begins  at  1,150  feet  elevation.  It  is  rich  in 
forests;  fir,  beech,  and  spruce  are  the  dominant  species  at  certain  points; 
oak  and  hornbeam  disappear  completely  toward  the  summits.  The  spruce 
continues  with  the  fir  to  the  highest  altitudes.  Much  Scotch  pine  has 
been  artificially  introduced.  The  zone  extends  to  a  maximum  altitude 
of  4,590  feet,  but  the  average  hmit  of  tree  growth  is  at  4,100  feet.  Be- 
tween the  maximum  and  minimum  altitudes  five  types  of  stands  have 
been  distinguished:  (1)  the  Lorraine  plain;  here  coppices  of  hornbeam, 
oak,  and  poor  quahty  birch  have  led  to  an  increase  in  the  per  cent  of  beech 
in  order  to  improve  the  soil.  Where,  however,  the  conditions  are  ex- 
ceedingly bad,  Scotch  pine  is  being  introduced.  (2)  Basses- Vosges ;  here 
silver  fir  is  the  typical  species.  (3)  Hautes- Vosges ;  on  account  of  the 
granitic  formation  it  is  well  watered,  but  the  forest  area  is  much  cut  up 
by  farms  and  grazing  lands.  Here  are  found  a  number  of  protection 
forests.  Two  less  important  subdivisions  are:  (4)  where  on  the  south 
slope  toward  the  Franche-Comte  plains  the  schists  give  place  to  syenites 
and  porphyries  and  the  fir  is  replaced  by  the  oak.  There  was  formerly  a 
good  deal  of  coppice  alternating  with  field  crops  in  this  region  and  there 
is  still  much  simple  coppice  grown  for  bark  production.  The  fifth  (5) 
(la  Vosge),  also  relatively  unimportant,  is  apparently  an  island  of  varie- 
gated sandstone  where  high  forests  of  oak  and  beech  predominate  on 
the  fine-grained  sand. 

Jura  Zone.  —  Exceedingly  rich  mountain  forests  are  found  in  the 
Jura.  They  are  less  extensive  than  in  the  Vosges  but  much  richer.  In 
the  Vosges  the  soil  is  silicious,  while  in  the  Jura  it  is  calcareous.  The  im- 
portant commercial  Jura  species  are  silver  fir  and  Norway  spruce.  In 
this  region  there  are  four  subdivisions,  based  on  altitude:  (1)  The  first 
plateau  really  belongs  more  to  the  plain  than  to  the  mountain  region,  but 
fir  has  been  introduced.  (2)  In  the  second  region,  with  an  altitude  of 
1,640  to  1,970  feet,  the  fir  is  mixed  with  spruce.  The  best  fir  forests  of 
France  are  found  on  the  rich  soil  above  this  first  escarpment  on  Jurassic 
formation.     The  forests  of  Levier  and  La  Joux  (Fig.  2)  are  world  famous. 


32 


FOREST  REGIONS  AND   IMPORTANT  SPECIES 


(3)  In  the  third  division  ^  the  average  elevation  is  2,620  to  2,950  feet  but 
extends  to  3,940  feet.  The  chmate  is  severe  and  the  production  less  than 
in  the  lower  zone.  After  windfall,  provided  insects  can  be  kept  out,  the 
soil  usually  seeds  naturally  to  a  good  stand.  With  fir,  spruce,  and  beech 
there  is  some  sycamore.  The  rainfall  averages  more  than  39  inches 
a  year.  The  forest  of  Risoux  is  typical.  (4)  The  Haute- Jura,  like  the 
Haute- Vosges,  is  chiefly  valuable  for  grazing,  such  as  is  found  in  the  forest 
of  La  Dole. 


Fig.  2.  —  The  richest  silver  fir  (with  spruce)  stands  in  France  are  found  in  the 
State  forest  of  La  Joux  (Jura).  Note  the  clear  boled  stand  from  natural  regeneration. 
During  the  war  the  Canadians  cut  heavily  in  this  superb  forest. 


Alps  Zone.  —  The  third  great  mountain  subdivision,  the  Alps,  ex- 
tends from  the  Lake  of  Geneva  to  the  Mediterranean  —  from  the  limit  of 
tree  growth  to  the  sea  level.  In  the  lower  mountains,  up  to  1,970  to  2,130 
feet,  one  finds  such  typical  plains  species  as  the  white  oak,  holm  oak, 

3  Jolyet  claims  the  third  Jura  plateau  is  a  myth  and  prefers  the  term  "Hautes  chaines 
du  Jura"  to  "Haute-Jura"  for  the  fourth  subdivision. 


CENTRAL  PLATEAU  ZONE 


33 


chestnut,  and  Scotch  pine.  At  higher  elevations  there  is  mountain  pine, 
larch,  and  cembric  pine.  (See  Fig.  3.)  This  latter  species  extends  to  the 
limit  of  tree  growth,  although  larch  is  considered  the  most  valuable  of  the 
Alpine  species.  The  most  notable  stands  are  the  beech  of  Vercors,  the 
spruce  of  Tarentaise,  the  mountain  pine  of  Embrunais,  the  fir  of  such  rich 
valleys  as  the  Var,  and  the  larch  of  Briangonnais,  of  Queyras,  and  of 
Comte  de  Nice.  French  foresters  divide  the  Alps  into  two  regions:  (1) 
North  Alps,  which  extends  as  far  as  Pelvoux.     The  valleys  face  the 


Fig.  3.  —  Larch  and  oembrio  pine  at  an  altitude  of  7,050  feet  (north  exposure) 
in  the  Canton  of  Melezet,  communal  forest  of  Villarodin-Bourget.  The  soil  must  be 
worked  to  facilitate  regeneration. 

north  and  the  stand  is  fairly  intact.  The  chief  species  are  beech,  fir, 
spruce,  while  larch  is  rare.  (2)  In  the  South  Alps,  from  Pelvoux  to  the 
Mediterranean,  there  are  southerly  exposures  and  a  variable  and  severe 
climate.  Here  is  found  the  greatest  damage  from  torrents.  There  are, 
however,  good  stands  of  fir  and  spruce,  while  the  larch  is  exceedingly  im- 
portant. There  are  also  aspen,  Scotch  pine,  and  chestnut.  Consider- 
able damage  from  grazing  is  experienced. 

Central  Plateau  Zone.  —  The  Central  Plateau  includes  the  mountains 
of  Morvan,  where  beech  is  the  important  species,  and  the  Cevennes,  with 
its  .stands  of  Austrian  pine. 


34  FOREST  REGIONS  AND   IMPORTANT  SPECIES 

Pyrenees  Zone.  —  The  fifth  and  last  mountain  zone,  to  my  mind  per- 
haps the  most  attractive  for  the  traveler,  has  been  divided  into  two 
divisions:  (1)  The  Eastern  Pyrenees  and  (2)  the  Central  and  Western 
Pyrenees  which  is  influenced  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  dividing  fine 
between  this  zone  and  the  eastern  zone  is  the  basin  of  the  Aude  and  the 
Ariege.  In  the  eastern  zone  the  climate  is  more  hke  the  Maritime  Alps 
but  moister,  the  rains  being  less  torrential,  however,  and  consequently 
the  floods  are  not  so  dangerous.  The  cliief  species  are  fir,  beech,  and 
mountain  pine.  In  the  Department  of  the  Aude  the  fir  is  almost  as  good 
as  in  the  Vosges  and  Jura.  Here  the  mountain  pine  does  not  form  pure 
dense  stands  but  is  found  in  mixture  with  spruce  and  larch.  There  has 
been  considerable  overgrazing.  A  typical  forest  area  is  the  Montague 
Noire.  In  the  second  division  (central  and  western)  there  are  irregular 
west  winds,  and  there  is  more  rain  and  better  forage.  The  same  species 
are  grown  as  in  the  eastern  division  but  the  stands  are  denser,  with  a 
larger  percentage  of  beech  mixed  with  the  conifers.  Scotch  pine  largely 
replaces  the  mountain  pine.  Typical  forests  are  Luchon,  Bareges,  and 
Cauterets. 

Some  Mountain  Forests  in  Detail.  —  Of  all  the  forest  zones  or  regions 
of  France,  those  of  the  four  great  mountain  areas  —  Vosges,  Jura,  Alps, 
and  Pyrenees  —  are  most  interesting  to  the  American  forester.  For  a 
more  intimate  view  of  local  conditions  in  the  Jura  reference  is  made  to  the 
Appendix  where  the  essentials  of  a  working  plan  for  the  forest  of  Grande 
Cote  is  reproduced.  Let  us  consider  in  greater  detail  some  of  these 
mountain  regions. 

Vosges.  —  Before  the  Vosges  ^  were  acquired  by  the  State  they  be- 
longed to  the  Due  de  Lorraine,  to  lesser  nobles,  and  to  various  abbeys. 
Since  they  were  largely  maintained  for  fuel  and  for  shooting  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  a  great  deal  of  forested  area  still  remains  —  37  per  cent  of  the 
total  land  acreage  being  now  in  forest.     A  total  of  520,041  acres  of  forest 

is  divided  as  follows: 

Acres 

State 139,522 

Communal 291,563 

Private 88,956 

Total 520,041 

Considering  the  region  as  a  whole,  and  separating  the  area  of  plains 
forests  from  the  Vosges  forests  proper,  the  species,  in  order  of  importance, 
are:  Beech,  60  per  cent;  oak,  30  per  cent;  miscellaneous  species,  10  per 
cent.  Of  the  strictly  mountain  area  the  species  on  the  Vosges  sandstone 
in  order  of  importance  are:  Fir,  75  per  cent;  beech  and  miscellaneous 

^  Sommaire  sur  les  Forets  domaniales  du  Departement  des  Vosges.     Mongenot. 


VOSGES  35 

species,  18  per  cent;  Scotch  pine,  6  per  cent;  spruce,  1  per  cent;  on  the 
mountain  granite  formation  fir  comprises  51  per  cent;  spruce,  18  per  cent; 
pine,  1  per  cent;  and  beech,  30  per  cent.  It  is  clear  then  that  in  the 
mountains  fir  is  the  important  species,  and  mature,  fully  stocked  stands 
yield  from  350  to  as  high  as  1,000  cubic  meters  (12,360  to  35,314  cubic 
feet)  per  hectare;  about  26,000  to  74,000  feet  board  measure  per  acre. 
In  the  so-called  plains  forests  of  the  Vosges  the  product  in  logs  is  only  30 
per  cent,  due  to  the  larger  proportion  of  broadleaf  trees,  while  in  the 
mountains  sawlogs  ("work  wood")  reach  55  per  cent  of  the  total  pro- 
duction. On  20,000  hectares  (49,420  acres)  of  coniferous  forests  the 
average  volume  from  forested  hectares  was  317  cubic  meters  (11,194.5 
cubic  feet),  about  23,000  feet  board  measure  to  the  acre,  and  on  the  vari- 
ous forests  included  in  this  average,  the  average  by  forests  varied  from 
196  to  390  cubic  meters  (6,921.5  to  13,772.5  cubic  feet  per  hectare),  or 
about  14,000  to  30,000  feet  board  measure  to  the  acre.  The  total  average 
yield  in  cubic  meters  for  the  entire  Vosges  was  245,574  (8,672,200.2  cubic 
feet)  in  1870-79;  231,835  (8,187,021.2  cubic  feet)  for  1880-89;  and  314,046 
(11,090,220.4  cubic  feet)  for  1890-99,  these  latter  yield  figures  being  con- 
siderably above  normal  owing  to  increased  windfall  and  the  consequently 
forced  cut.  The  price  per  cubic  meter  (35.3  cubic  feet)  since  1877  has 
been  1  to  3  francs  (19  to  58  cents)  higher  in  the  mountains  than  in  the 
Vosges  plains,  due  in  part  to  the  larger  proportion  of  logs  and  to  the  de- 
creasing demand  for  hardwood  fuel.  The  average  price  per  cubic  meter 
(35.3  cubic  feet)  taken  to  the  nearest  franc  for  the  whole  region  was  8 
francs  ($1.54)  in  1871,  16  ($3.09)  in  1876,  15  ($2.89)  in  1879,  8  ($1.54)  in 
1887,  13  ($2.51)  in  1898;  in  1914  the  price  had  risen  to  20  francs  ($3.86) 
and  in  1918  to  55  francs  ($10.61).  In  the  mountain  region  it  is  of  interest 
that  the  price  for  logs  on  the  Vosges  sandstone  brought  1  to  6  francs 
(19  cents  to  $1.16)  more  than  for  the  same  class  of  material  on  the  granite 
formation;  it  is  safe  to  draw  the  conclusion  that,  during  1890-99,  the 
price  was  at  least  on  an  average  of  5  francs  (96  cents)  more.  The  table 
which  follows  shows  the  money  yield  per  forested  hectare  (2.5  acres)  in 
even  francs  (and  in  dollars  per  acre)  by  10-year  periods  from  1870  to  1900, 
separately  for  the  mountains  and  plains  forests  and  averaged  for  the 
whole  region.     The  figures  in  parentheses  are  dollars  per  acre: 

1870 

Mountains 55(.$4.24) 

Plains 30($2.32) 

Average 45($3.47)       50($3.85)       55(14.24)         85($6.55) 

The  decreasing  net  values  for  the  plains  forests  and  the  increasing 
values  of  the  mountain  forests  is  due  to  the  decreasing  price  of  fuel  and 


1880 

1890 

1900 

55 ($4.24) 

65(15.02) 

100($7.72) 

35(12.70) 

30($2.32) 

45($3.47) 

36  FOREST  REGIONS  AXD   HIPORTAXT  SPECIES 

the  increase  in  the  price  of  sawlogs.  This  increase  and  decrease  is  tj^pical 
of  almost  all  portions  of  Europe  since  the  introduction  of  coal  and  the 
scarcity  of  logs  of  large  dimensions.  Naturally  it  should  influence  the 
silvicultural  poUcy  pursued.  It  means  that  high  forest  systems  should 
replace  coppice  and  coppice-under-standards  whenever  local  conditions 
permit.  The  conversion  is  not  always  simple  from  the  economic  stand- 
point on  account  of  the  demand  of  the  communes  for  a  steady  revenue. 
Conversions  mean  increasing  the  gromng  stock,  an  economy  which  com- 
munes cannot  always  afford,  because  of  their  local  needs  for  wood  and 
because  of  the  money  returns  from  auctions  of  timber  which  make  taxa- 
tion that  much  less. 

Alps.  —  According  to  Huffel  ^  the  Alps  comprise  19,305  square  miles, 
one-fifth  of  which  is  forested;  of  this  forest  area  nearly  two-thirds  is  in 
private  hands  and  one-tliird  communal  —  the  remainder  State  forests,  not 
including  areas  under  reforestation.  The  forests  tributarj^  to  Xice  have 
typified  systematic  grazing  devastation.  The  basin  of  the  Durance  is  the 
most  devastated  because  drought  has  accentuated  the  evils  of  overgrazing 
and  overcutting,  and  the  torrential  rains  have  completed  the  damage. 
The  Department  of  the  Basses-Alpes  is  only  18  per  cent  adiuilly  forested 
(26.3  per  cent  classed  as  "forest")  and  on  an  average  produces  but  one- 
half  a  cubic  meter  (17.6  cubic  feet)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year  for  the 
area  under  "forest";  four-fifths  of  this  production  is  firewood,  equal  to 
about  one-tenth  cord  per  acre  per  year.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  most 
of  this  area  belongs  to  the  communes,  the  State  owning  only  a  few  refores- 
tation areas.  The  basin  of  the  Drome  and  the  basin  of  the  Isere  and 
Haute-Savoie  have  favorable  chmates  and  soil.  The  area  is  in  the  transi- 
tion zone  between  the  South  (dry)  Alps  and  the  North  (wet)  Alps.  Of 
217,448  acres  of  communal  forest,  half  the  area  is  in  high  forest,  a  quarter 
in  coppice,  and  the  rest  blank.  During  the  period  1877  to  1886  it  pro- 
duced only  1.9  cubic  meters  (67.1  cubic  feet)  per  hectare  per  year,  or  a 
revenue  of  33  francs  ($6.37),  w^hile  the  coppice  production  was  1  cubic 
meter  (35.3  cubic  feet)  or  a  revenue  of  1.27  francs  ($0,245),  since  the  fire- 
wood brought  but  httle  return  —  a  combined  yield  of  about  three-fifths 
of  a  cord  per  acre  per  year.  From  the  reforested  areas  of  this  region  the 
revenue  is  as  yet  nothing.  Of  the  two  important  Federal  forests  near 
Gap  the  forest  of  Durbon  jdelds  1  cubic  meter  (35.3  cubic  feet)  or  10 
francs  ($1.93)  per  hectare  per  year,  (77  cents  per  acre),  and  the  forest  of 
Boscodon  2.5  cubic  meters  (88.3  cubic  feet)  or  30  francs  ($5.79)  per  year 
($2.32  per  acre).  The  larch  forests  of  the  Alps,  Embrunais,  and  Brian- 
gonnais  are  considered  the  most  interesting.  The  forest  of  jNIont- 
Gene^Te  at  the  source  of  the  Durance,  at  an  altitude  of  6,235  to  8,200  feet, 
comprises  2,281  acres  of  which  1,359  acres  are  forested.  It  is  a  high 
5  Economie  Forestiere,  Vol.  HI,  pp.  391-397. 


ALPS  37 

forest  with  a  150-year  rotation  and  includes  cembric  pine,  Scotch  pine, 
and  larch.  In  the  communal  forest  of  Puy-Saint-Pierre,  below  Briangon, 
the  larch  is  managed  on  a  200-year  rotation.  In  the  aggregate  the  larch 
forests  of  France  comprise  about  121,000  acres  and  are  treated  as  regular 
high  forests,  except  when  maintained  purely  for  protection  purposes, 
when  light  selection  cuttings  are  made. 

In  the  Haute-Dauphine  there  are  several  Federal  forests  in  good  con- 
dition. The  best  known  is  the  Grande  Chartreuse,  north  of  Grenoble. 
Of  the  total  of  16,061  acres  13,343  acres  are  productive.  Before  the 
aboHshment  of  the  monastery  368  acres  were  reserved  simply  as  a  scenic 
forest.  Since  the  separation  of  the  church  from  the  State  this  has  been 
added  to  the  productive  area  and  is  now  being  conservatively  lumbered. 
The  rotation  is  162  to  225  years.  For  the  period  1865  to  1905  the  aver- 
age production  for  the  whole  area  of  this  forest  was  1.8  cubic  meters  (53.6 
cubic  feet)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year,  or  2.2  cubic  meters  (77.7  cubic 
feet)  for  the  productive  areas  (120  board  feet).  The  gross  revenue  for  the 
whole  forest  during  this  same  period  was  17  francs  ($3.28)  per  hectare  per 
year,  or  a  net  of  10.3  francs  ($1.99)  for  the  productive  area,  20.5  francs 
($3.96)  and  12.4  francs  ($2.39),  equal  to  $1.58  gross  and  96  cents  net  per 
acre  per  year. 

The  Savoie  comprises  some  56,833  acres  of  forests;  here  the  climate  is 
considered  favorable  and  it  is  the  best  wooded  part  of  the  French  Alps. 
Six-tenths  of  the  forest  area  is  communal  and  the  State  owns  but  1,483 
acres  —  the  forest  of  Belle  Vaux  above  Thonon  where  the  spruce  pre- 
dominates. A  typical  communal  forest  of  this  region  is  that  of  Vailly 
opposite  Lausanne  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  At  an  average  altitude  of 
3,600  feet  spruce  is  50  per  cent  of  the  stand,  beech  29,  and  fir  21.  The 
average  revenue,  1886-1902,  was  7.17  francs  ($1.38)  per  hectare  per  year, 
or  but  55  cents  per  acre. 

It  is  significant  that  the  proportion  between  fuel  and  logs  is  as  211  is  to 
110,  where,  as  the  working-plans  officer  says,  the  proportion  ought  to  be 
as  60  is  to  100. 

Another  interesting  forest  in  Savoie  is  in  the  valley  of  Fier,^  near  the 
little  village  of  Thones,  comprising  321  acres.  It  shows  what  recovery 
can  be  made  when  a  forest  is  properly  managed.  The  growing  stock  in- 
creased from  54,000  cubic  meters  (1,906,956  cubic  feet)  in  1895  to  60,000 
cubic  meters  (2,118,840  cubic  feet)  in  1900,  notwithstanding  the  regular 
annual  cut.  Wliile  this  forest  is  considered  almost  normal  to-day,  in 
1840  the  growing  stock  had  been  so  reduced  that  the  commune  proposed 
to  open  it  to  goat  grazing,  something  that  is  rarely  done  except  in  the  case 
of  brush  land.  The  recovery  which  this  region  has  made  under  French 
forest  management  is  a  lasting  tribute  to  the  foresters  of  the  Repubhc. 
^  Une  Jolie  Foret.     A.  Schseffer,  pp.  1-4. 


38  FOREST  REGIONS  AND   IMPORTANT  SPECIES 

This  region  was  only  ceded  by  Italy  in  1860,  and  prior  to  that  date  the 
forests  had  been  overcut  and  damaged,  the  prices  were  low,  and  there  was 
a  large  amount  of  overmature  diseased  timber.  A.  Schaeffer,  for  many 
years  chief  of  working  plans,  with  headquarters  at  Grenoble,  has  studied 
the  rotation,  cutting  period,  stand  per  hectare,  increment,  and  financial 
yield  before  and  after  past  working  plan  revisions,  and  has  proved  that 
the  conservative  management  introduced  by  the  French  is  successful. 
These  forests,  classed  according  to  yield  production,  may  be  grouped  in 
fom'  classes: 

1.  Those  forests  with  a  yield  of  over  6  cubic  meters  (211.9  cubic  feet) 
per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year.  These  are  found  on  the  sandstones, 
schists,  warm  calcareous  soils,  and  alluvial  soils  near  the  lakes  of  Geneva, 
Annecy,  and  Bourget.  Such  jdelds  are  almost  comparable  with  the 
famous  Jura  and  Vosges. 

2.  The  second-  and  third-class  forests  are  yields  between  4  and  6 
meters  (141.3  and  211.9  cubic  feet)  and  between  3,  4,  and  2  meters  (141.3 
and  70.6  cubic  feet)  respectively.  Here,  either  the  soil  or  the  climatic 
conditions  are  naturally  poor  producers.  Sometimes  this  intermediate 
yield  is  due  to  the  mediocre  combination  of  both  climate  and  soil. 

4.  The  fourth  class  of  forests  is  where  the  production  is  less  than  2 
cubic  meters  (70.6  cubic  feet)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year.  These  are 
located  in  the  high  valleys  or  rocky  slopes  where  the  climate  is  severe  or 
relatively  dry.     (See  Fig.  4,  a  and  6.) 

Pyrenees.  —  The  forests  of  the  Pyrenees  may  be  differentiated  in  two 
ways,  by  geographical  location  or  by  zones  of  altitude.  The  geographical 
differentiation  has  already  been  described.  On  account  of  their  impor- 
tance and  interest  to  the  American  forester,  it  is  well  worth  while  to  add 
the  altitude  zones  in  order  to  make  the  regional  distribution  complete. 

In  the  first  altitude  zone,  above  3,280  feet,  fir  and  beech  are  found  pure 
and  in  mixture.  Fir  predominates  in  the  central  and  beech  in  the  eastern 
and  western  Pyrenees.  Mountain  pine  and  Scotch  pine  predominate 
near  Mont-Louis.  The  limit  of  tree  growth  is  7,530  feet  for  mountain 
pine,  6,890  feet  for  fir,  6,230  feet  for  beech;  usually  typical  grazing  forests 
begin  at  an  altitude  of  from  5,580  to  5,740  feet;  sessile  oak  reaches  5,085 
feet  in  the  eastern  and  pedunculate  oak  4,593  feet  in  the  western  Pyrenees. 

The  second  zone,  1,640  to  3,280  feet,  has  beech  as  the  chief  species  with 
fir  and  oak  as  secondary. 

In  the  third  zone,  1,640  to  560  feet,  there  is  oak  with  beech  and  chestnut, 
sessile  oak  in  the  eastern  and  pedunculate  in  the  western  and  central 
Pyrenees. 

The  fourth  zone,  below  660  feet,  has  the  same  species  as  the  third  zone 
with  the  addition  of  holm  oak  and  maritime  pine. 


PYREENEES 


39 


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flT3        ^   O   OJ    QJ 

."S  b  '-I  "^ 

:?s  all's 

:  a;  o  =«  i^-*^ 


40 


FOREST  REGIONS  AND  IMPORTANT  SPECIES 


IMPORTANT   FOREST   SPECIES 

Acreage  and  Distribution.  —  The  figures  that  follow  show  the  propor- 
tionate area  stocked  with  each  of  the  principal  species  in  France  in  the 
forests  under  State  supervision.  These  statistics  are  based  on  Huffel's 
figures  of  1904,  corrected  proportionately  to  conform  to  the  official  statis- 
tics on  total  forest  area  pubhshed  in  1912  by  the  Service  des  Eaux  et 
Forets. 

According  to  these  figures,  broadleaf  trees  occupy  77  per  cent  of  the 
area  as  against  23  per  cent  for  the  conifers.  There  are  no  accurate  figures 
for  private  forests,  nor  for  communal  and  institutional  forests  not  under 
State  supervision,  but  Huffel  estimates  that  for  all  of  France  the  timber 
oaks  occupy  35  per  cent  of  the  ground,  the  holm  oak  4  per  cent,  misceha- 
neous  broadleaf  trees  41  per  cent,  and  the  conifers  about  20  per  cent. 
Table  2  follows: 


TABLE  2. —  AREA  OCCUPIED  BY  BROADLEAVES  AND  CONIFERS 


Species 

Acres, 
productive  forest 

Per  cent  of  total  area, 
productive  forest 

Oak                                                 

1,796.000 

1,194,000 

717,000 

264,000 

1,053,000 

5,024,000 

455,000 
430,000 
262,000 
178,000 
116,000 
30,000 
54,000 

1,525,000 

27.5 

Beech   

18.2 

TTfirnbipmn                                                 .... 

11.0 

TTnlm  nnk                                                        .  .  . 

4.0 

Miscellaneous  broadleaves 

16.0 

Fir                        

76.7 
7.1 

6.5 

4.0 

Spruce                         

2.7 

Larch                                 

1.8 

Aleppo  pine                       

0.4 

Miscellaneous                 

0.8 

23.3 

Grand  total     

6,549,000 

100.00 

As  the  foregoing  table  indicates,  the  occurrence  of  the  various  species 
depends  chiefly  on  climatic  conditions  and  the  oak  is  unquestionably  by 
far  the  most  important  and  typical  timber  species.  The  timber  oaks  not 
only  occupy  27.5  per  cent  of  the  total  productive  forest  area  under  work- 
ing plans  but  are  also  encouraged  in  regeneration  in  their  fight  against 
other  species,  and  in  many  State  forests  the  oak  is  grown  to  unprofital^ly 
long  rotations  in  order  to  supply  industry  with  the  class  of  wood  which  it 
requires.  Two  important  species  are  the  sessile  and  pedunculate  oak; 
they  occur  in  mixture  and  separately.     Oak  is  found  all  over  France  ex- 


ACREAGE   AND   DISTRIBUTION  41 

cept  in  the  higher  mountains  and  in  the  regions  bordering  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  essential  silvicultural  characteristic 
of  each  of  these  species  is  given  on  pp.  387. 

Beech  is  the  second  important  species  and  occupies  18.2  per  cent  of  the 
productive  forest  area.  It  is  found  everywhere  except  in  the  highest 
mountains,  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  plains  of  the  southern  Atlantic 
coast  line,  including  the  Gironde,  Landes,  and  Dordogne.  The  distribu- 
tion of  beech  is  shown  in  Fig.  5, 

The  hornbeam,  although  it  occupies  11  per  cent  of  the  productive  area, 
is  not  an  important  timber  species  notwithstanding  its  wide  distribution. 
It  does  not  grow  to  large  size  and  its  chief  function  is  to  supply  fuel  and 
to  maintain  soil  conditions.  The  distribution  of  hornbeam  is  shown  in 
Fig.  5. 

The  holm  oak  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  regions  not  occupied  by  the 
timber  oaks,  by  beech,  and  by  hornbeam.  It  is  often  found  in  mixture 
with  cork  oak  (whose  distribution  is  given  in  Fig.  5)  and  with  aleppo 
pine. 

Silver  fir  occupies  7.1  per  cent  of  the  productive  forest  area  and  is 
especially  adapted  to  the  climate  prevailing  in  northern,  eastern,  and 
central  France,  and  is  a  typical  species  of  the  Vosges,  Jura,  Alps,  and 
Pyi-enees.     It  reaches  its  optimum  development  in  the  Jura. 

Notwithstanding  that  Scotch  pine  occupies  6.5  per  cent  of  the  produc- 
tive forest  area,  it  does  not  grow  naturally  in  level  country,  but  only  in 
the  mountains  of  the  Vosges,  Central  Plateau,  Alps,  and  Pyrenees;  it  has 
not  grown  naturally  in  the  Jura,  since  in  that  department  it  cannot  main- 
tain its  struggle  for  existence  on  limestone  soil.  But  because  of  its  use 
for  forestation  it  is  found  in  every  department  in  France  except  ten;  it 
forms  at  least  one-tenth  the  stand  of  technically  administered  forests  in 
twenty-six  departments. 

The  maritime. pine  commercially  is  one  of  the  most  important  timber 
species  of  France,  but  is  limited  to  a  comparatively  small  region,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  5. 

Norway  spruce  is  found  only  in  the  higher  mountain  regions  of  the 
Jura,  Vosges,  and  Alps,  and  does  not  grow  naturally  in  the  Pyrenees. 
Outside  of  these  mountain  regions  it  is  unimportant,  since  the  mild 
climatic  conditions  of  the  plains  do  not  favor  its  growth. 

The  larch  also  is  confined  even  more  markedly  to  the  higher  mountain 
regions.     Its  natural  habitat  is  the  Alps. 

These  five  broadleaved  species  and  six  conifers  are  the  important  trees 
of  France.  How  they  are  distributed  in  the  different  forest  regions  has 
already  been  explained.  To  give  a  more  intimate  view  of  French  silvi- 
culture, the  writer  has  included  monographs  on  these  principal  species. 
The  data  are  not  original;  much  are  freely  translated  from  authoritative 


FOREST   REGIONS  AND  IMPORTANT  SPECIES 


E  —  Maritime  pine  (Pin  maritime)  F  —  Aleppo  pine  {Pin  d'alep) 

Fig.  5  (after  Jolyet).  —  Distribution  of  six  important  forest  trees  in  France. 
Key:  Dominant,  ■■;    subordinate,    ^Mi    rare,    li^u^^l ;    very  rare  or  lack- 


ing, L 


USE  OF  EXOTICS  43 

sources,  but  it  was  considered  very  essential  to  present  the  data  so  as  to 
give,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  French  viewpoint  on  the  silvics  of  each 
important  species.  In  order  not  to  encumber  the  text  these  data  on 
species  are  given  in  the  Appendix. 

Exotics.  —  Jolyet,  on  the  authority  of  Belgian  and  French  authors, 
cites  the  following  exotics  as  of  possible  value  in  France: 

Red  oak  (Quercus  rubra  L.),  rapid  growth;  hardy. 

June  oak  {Quercus  pedunculata,  var.  tardissima  Simonkai),  hardy. 

White  ash  (Fraxinus  americana  L.),  hardy;  rapid  growth. 

"Parrotia"  (Parrotia  persica  C.  A.  Meyer),  much  hke  beech  but  can  develop  on  dry, 
shallow,  limestone  soils;  Carpinetum  zone. 

Common  walnut  (JugJans  regia  L.),  cabinet  wood;  Carpinetum  zone. 

Black  walnut  (Juglans  nigra  L.),  cabinet  wood;  Carpinetum  zone. 

Butternut;  White  walnut  {Juglans  cinerea  L.),  cabinet  wood;  a  hardier  tree:  Carpine- 
tum zone. 

Shellbark  hickory  {Hicoria  ovata  (Mill.)  Britton),  cabinet  wood;  Carpinetum  zone. 

Mocker  nut  hickory  {Hickoria  alba  (L.)  Britton),  cabinet  wood;  Carpinetum  zone. 

Yellow  birch  (Betula  lutea  Michxf.),  cabinet  wood. 

Black  cherry  {Primus  serotina  Ehrh.),  cabinet  wood;  Carpinetum  zone. 

Aspen  {Populus  Iremuloides  Michaux),  furnishes  soft  wood;  hardy. 

Yellow  linden  {Tilia  rubra  var.  euchlora  C.  Koch),  furnishes  soft  wood;  hardy;  from 
Crimea. 

Manchurian  hnden  {Tilia  mandschurica  Ruprecht  and  Maximovicz),  furnishes  soft 
wood;  hardy. 

Honoki;  Japanese  magnoha  {Magnolia  hypoleuca  Siebold  and  Zuccarini),  furnishes 
soft  wood;  rapid  growth. 

Yellow  poplar  {Liriodendron  tulipifera  L.),  furnishes  soft  wood;  Carpinetum  zone. 

Locust  {Robinia  pseudacacia  L.),  a  durable  hard  wood;  hardy. 

Tree  of  heaven;  Allan  thus  {Ailantus  glandulosa  Desf  ontaines) ,  rapid  growth  and 
hardy;  near  ocean  in  Laurentum  zone,  and  in  Castanetum  zone. 

Chinese  "cedar";  Cedrela  {Cedrela  sinensis  A.  Jussieu),  quality  of  ash  but  hardier; 
near  ocean  in  Laurentum  zone,  and  in  Castanetum  zone. 

Keaki  {Zelkova  acuminata  Planchon),  wood  like  elm;  requires  fresh  soil;  Carpinetum 
zone. 

Douglas  fir  {Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  (Poit)  Britton),  rapid  growth;  hardy. 

White  fir  {Abies  concolor  (Gord)  Parry),  rapid  growth;  hardy. 

Oriental  spruce  {Picea  orientalis  Carr.),  drought  enduring;  comes  from  Asia  Minor 
between  Trebizond  and  Erzerum. 

Lodgepole  pine  {Pinus  coniorta  Loudon),  hardy  for  "Karst"  soils. 

White  pine  {Pinus  strobus  L.),  rapid  grower;  hardy;  hable  to  borers  and  parasites, 

Norway  pine;  Red  pine  {Pinus  resinosa  Alton),  rapid  grower;  hardy;  free  from  insect 
danger. 

Use  of  Exotics.  —  Certain  conclusions  can  be  reached  regarding  the 
introduction  of  exotic  species: 

(1)  Exotic  species  are  almost  always  uncertain,  even  after  they  have 
reached  the  saphng  or  pole  age.     Local  species  should  be  favored. 

(2)  If  exotics  are  used  they  should  never  be  employed  on  a  large  scale 


44  FOREST  REGIONS   AND   IMPORTANT  SPECIES 

until  they  have  been  thoroughly  tested  over  a  rotation  under  similar 
conditions. 

(3)  When  employed  there  must  be  a  definite  justification  for  not  using 
local  trees  — 

(a)  QuaHty  of  wood  (not  contained  in  local  species)  required  by  na- 
tional wood  industries. 

(b)  Rapid  growth  or  hardiness  under  adverse  soil  or  chmatic  conditions. 
France  is  poor  in  tree  species  (see  p.  40)  and  particularly  needs  cabinet 

woods  and  woods  easy  to  work,  like  yellow  poplar.  She  requires  trees 
hardy  on  unfavorable  sites,  but  nevertheless,  because  of  the  high  cost  of 
foreign  tree  seeds  the  use  of  exotics,  even  though  of  proven  worth,  is 
rarely  practicable.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions  to  tliis  fundamental 
rule  —  notably  Scotch  pine,  whose  range  has  been  increased  largely  by 
artificial  means.  Too  often  the  forester  may  be  tempted  to  use  an  exotic 
which  has  been  grown  successfully  in  botanical  gardens.  This  is  poor 
practice  and  should  not  be  followed.  Beware  of  exotics,  because  they 
rarely  succeed  and  are  subject  to  insect  and  fungous  damage! 


CHAPTER  IV 
FOREST  STATISTICAL  DATA 

Private  Forest  Owners  (p.  45).  Ownership,  System  of  Cutting,  and  Production, 
Forest  Areas  and  Per  Cent  of  Species  by  Departments,  Analysis  of  General  Statistics, 
Management  Statistics,  Costs  of  Administration,  Statistics  of  Fir  Stands  in  the  Jura, 
Statistics  for  Levier. 

Private  Forest  Owners.  —  About  one-tenth  the  French  forest  area 
belongs  to  the  State,  two-tenths  to  communes  and  pubHc  institutions, 
and  seven-tenths  to  private  owners.  There  is  an  incredible  number  of 
small  owners,  a  fact  never  before  noted  by  Enghsh  or  American  writers. 
In  1912  there  were  1,538,526  private  forest  owners^  (excluding  the  com- 
munes, which  are  really  groups  of  small  joint  owners).  There  were  fully 
1,446,200  owners  with  less  than  25  acres,  only  82,285  owners  with  forests 
of  25  to  1,253  acres,  and  but  742  owners  of  forests  over  1,235  acres.  Take 
any  department  at  random:  In  the  Puy-de-D6me  101,510  acres  out  of 
the  total  area  are  in  the  hands  of  32,684  owners,  each  owning  less  than  25 
acres,  and  there  are  only  628  owners  who  possess  more  than  25  acres  each. 
Even  in  the  Seine-et-Marne,  just  west  of  Paris,  there  are  50,787  acres  in 
the  hands  of  31,085  owners.  Out  of  ten  departments,  taken  at  random, 
there  were  97,710  owners  with  less  than  25  acres  of  forest  each,  their 
average  holdings  being  3.2  acres.  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance;  it  is 
the  key  to  the  stability  of  France.  In  other  countries  the  forests  are 
usually  in  the  hands  of  large  owners;  in  the  Republic  of  France  the  forest 
land,  as  well  as  the  agricultural  land,  is  divided  among  the  people.  There 
are  few  large  estates  remaining.  Out  of  all  the  private  forests  in  France 
there  are  only  seventy-nine  over  2,500  acres;  in  twenty-one  departments 
there  are  none  of  this  size.  In  the  United  States  there  are  millions  of 
farmers  owning  small  woodlots,  but  according  to  the  Society  of  American 
Foresters : 

"A  few  men  have  secured  vast  amounts  of  private  timber  and  timberlands.  Already 
1,802  owners  control  more  than  79,000,000  acres  of  the  forest  lands  of  the  United  States. 
In  Florida  182  holders  own  more  than  9,000,000  acres.  In  Michigan  over  5,000,000 
acres  are  held  by  32  owners.  In  Louisiana  27  holders  own  more  than  6,000,000  acres. 
In  the  Pacific  Northwest  three  owners  have  more  than  9,000,000  acres.  And  these  are  but 
typical  instances." 

1  The  figures  of  the  total  number  of  owners,  given  in  the  official  French  Forest  Atlas 
of  1912,  do  not  check  with  the  owners  under  the  various  size  classes.  This  discrepancy 
cannot  be  explained  but  does  not  affect  the  conclusions. 

45 


4:6 


FOREST  STATISTICAL  DATA 


From  a  national  and  political  standpoint  France  is  unquestionably  the 
gainer  by  having  her  forests  in  small  holdings.  From  the  standpoint  of 
forest  management  and  the  treatment  of  individual  stands  small  owner- 
ship necessarily  implies  that  each  owner  will  cut  spasmodically  to  satisfy 
his  needs  in  the  village  or  farm.  The  large  owner,  on  the  contrary,  upon 
competent  technical  advice,  manages  his  forest  as  a  permanent  business 
and  adheres  fairly  well  to  a  sustained  annual  yield  and  to  regulated  fell- 
ings. Other  things  being  equal,  having  forests  in  small  holdings  benefits  a 
nation  hut  deteriorates  the  stand. 

Ownership,  System  of  Cutting,  and  Production.  —  The  summaries 
that  follow  (taken  from  the  official  statistics  of  1912)  have  been  some- 
what modified  by  the  cutting  and  destruction  made  necessary  by  a  great 
war.  But  fundamentally  the  statistics  will  probably  remain  correct  as 
regards  forest  area  because  of  the  stringent  laws  against  deforestation. 
For  the  next  hundred  years  the  wood  production  will  probably  be  at  least 
10  per  cent  less  than  during  the  past  century.  This  means  that  in  the 
next  decade  the  production  will  be,  say,  20  per  cent  less,  while  during  the 
period  2010  to  2019  the  loss  may  be  only  1  per  cent.  In  other  words,  the 
recovery  will  be  gradual  and  progressive  if  a  proper  forest  policy  is  fol- 
lowed. Detailed  statistics  (p.  50)  show  that  18.7  per  cent  of  the  total 
area  of  France  is  in  forests.  A  summary  of  forest  ownership,  system  of 
management,  and  annual  production  follows: 


TABLE  3. 


SUMMARY    OF   FOREST   OWNERSHIP,    SYSTEMS   OF   MAN- 
AGEMENT,  AND  ANNUAL  PRODUCTION 


Total 
area, 
acres 

Unpro- 
ductive, 
acres 

Coppice, 
acres 

Coppice- 
under- 
stand- 
ards, 
acres 

Under 
conver- 
sion, 
acres 

High 

forest, 
acres 

Annual  production  " 

Ownership 

1,000 
board  feet 

Cords 

State 

2,963,861 

4,815,148 
15,988,857 

662,590 

366,226 

188,632 
610,901 

81,357 

64,109 

645,992 
4,856,214 

202,627 

792,539 

2,471,332 
5,856,947 

43,735 

241,186 

33,008 
106,314 

3,590 

1,529,825 

1,476,186 
4,558,481 

3,311,836 

288,745 

355,061 
1,205,555 

68,292 

496,664 

Communes  and  pub- 
lic institutions 

Private 

Communes  and  pub- 
lic institutions 

943,422 
3,157,516 

66,719 

Totals 

24,430,456 

1,247,116 

5,768,942 

9,134,553 

384,098 

10,876,328 

1,917,756 

4,664,379 

"A  factor  of  3.5  cubic  meters  of  logs  to  1,000  board  feet  and  3.6  steres  of  fuel  to 
one  cord  was  used  to  obtain  the  column  "Annual  production."  Because  of  deple- 
tion during  the  war  these  statistics  are  probably  10  to  20  per  cent  too  high. 


Table  4  which  follows  shows  the  average  annual  per  hectare  production 
in  cubic  meters  by  departments. 

These  data  are  classed  especially  for  Federal,  communal,  and  institu- 


OWNERSHIP,   ETC. 


47 


TABLE  4.  — AVERAGE  ANNUAL  PER  HECTARE  PRODUCTION  IN  CUBIC 
METERS  BY  DEPARTMENTS 


Department 


Ain 

Aisne 

Allier 

Alpes  (Basses) 

Alpes  (Hautes) 

Alpes-Maritimes 

Ardeche 

Ardennes 

Ariege 

Aube 

Aude 

Aveyron 

Belfort  (Territoire  de) . 

Bouches-du-Rhone 

Calvados 

Cantal 

Charente 

Charente  Inferieure. .  .  . 

Cher 

Correze 

Corse 

Coted'Or 

C6tes-du-Nord 

Creuse 

Dordogne 

Doubs 

Drdme 

Eure 

Eure-et-Loir 

Finistere 

Card 

Garonne  (Haute) 

Gers 

Gironde 

Herault 

Ule-et-Vilaine 

Indre 

Indre-et-Loir 

Isere 

Jura 

Landes 

Loir-et-Cher 

Loire 

Loire  (Haute) 

Loire-Inferieure 

Loiret 

Lot 

Lot-et-Garonne 

Lozere 

Maine-et-Loire 

Manche 


Under  technical  management 


Logs        Fuel 


4.0 
2  1 
LO 


0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
0.9 
0.3 
0.7 
LI 


L4 
2.0 
0.4 
0.3 
0.9 
LO 
0.2 
0.6 


0.4 


6.8 
0.3 
1.4 
1.1 
1.3 


0.3 
1.6' 


1.4 
0.5 
0.8 
1.3 
2.1 
1.6 
1.2 


0.25 

1.1 

0.3 


1.8 
0.08 


1.2 

2.7 
1.4 

o;r 

0'55 

2.6 

0.8 

2.5 

0.7 

0.8 


3.4 
1.0 
2.1 
1.6 
1.5 
2.0 
0.4 
2.7 

3^3' 

1.2' 
0.3 
2.8 
1.9 
1.4 
0.2 
0.9 
3.4 
0.2 

1.9 
2.0 
2.2 
0.2 
3.2 
0.6 
2.0 

0.25 

1.2 

2.5 


1.5 
6.32 


Communal  and 
institution 


Logs 


1.3 

1.6 

0.6 

0.05 

0.26 

0.4 

0.1 

0.4 

1.2 

0.6 

0.2 

0.1 

0.4 

0.2 

0'6' 
0.1 
0.1 
0.7 

0^1 
0.4 

0'2' 

L7 
0.3 
0.2 
0.05 


0.5 
0.6 
1.0 

0^5' 
0.3 

0'8' 
1.1 
1.4 
0.8 
2.4 
1.1 

o^r 

0^3 
0.2 

0'4 


1.0 

2.6 

2.6 

0.35 

0.24 

0.2 

1.3 

2.4 

0.8 

3.1 

0.6 

0.9 

3.9 

0.3 

L2' 
1.8 
2.2 
3  2 
2.2 
0.5 
2.5 

2'2' 

2'7' 
0.8 
2.1 
1.15 

LO' 
1.5 
2.9 
1.2 
0.4 
2.0 
2.4 

0'8' 
2.6 
1.0 
2.0 
0.8 
0.4 

4^1' 

2^5' 
0.5 

2^5' 


Logs        Fuel 


0.2 

0,8 

0.3 

0.08 

0.15 

0.1 

0.5 

1.0 

0.1 

0.5 

0.5 

0.1 

0.3 


0.1 
0.4 
0.5 
0.3 
0.4 
0.6 
1.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
1.4 

0'3 
0.2 
0.1 
0.4 
0.7 
2.7 
0.4 
2.9 
2.3 
0.3 
0.1 
0.1 
1.1 
0.4 
0.1 
0.2 


1.8 

2.1 

2.7 

0.62 

0.45 

0.5 

0.8 

2.2 

0,9 

2,0 

1.4 


2.3 
3.1 
2.7 
0.4 
0.7 
2.5 
2.7 
2.6 
1.3 
1.8 
0.9 
1.9 
1.9 
2.7 
0.8 
1.9 
1.8 
2.0 
0.5 
2.5 
2.7 
1,8 
1,7 
1,6 
1,0 
1,8 
1,1 
1,2 
3,2 
2,0 


Logs        Fuel 


0,1 
0,4 
0,3 
0.3 
0.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0,4 

0^4 

0^1 

0,1 

0,05 

0,02 

0,1 

0^2' 
0,6 

0'4' 
0,3 
0,6 
0,2 

0^7' 

0^1 
0,1 


0,2 
1,3 

o^r 

0,5 

0^2' 
0,3 
3,0 
0,1 
3.7 
1.5 

o'r 

0.1 
0.9 
0.3 

0^2' 


PROPERTY  UiSKAKi 

n.  C.  State  College 

48  FOREST  STATISTICAL  DATA 


TABLE  A.  — Continued 


Under  technical  manangement 

Private 

Comn 

Department 

Federal 

Communal  and 
institution 

aunal 

Logs 

Fuel 

Log.s 

Fuel 

Logs 

Fuel 

Logs 

Fuel 

Marne 

Haute-Marne 

Mayenne 

Meurthe-et-Moselle 

1.5 
0.8 
3.7 
1.0 
0.8 
1.9 
0.6 
2.5 
1.0 
0.7 
1.9 
1.3 
0.6 
0.3 
0.1 
3.6 
1.9 
1.5 
2.0 

3.4 
2.2 
1.6 
2.6 
2.6 
2.7 
3.8 
1.7 
2.0 
1.8 
2.3 
0.5 
3.0 
1.2 
0.1 
1.2 
2.1 
2.6 
1.5 
0.3 
0.1 
3.8 
1.6 
2.5 
3.2 
4.4 
3.0 
1.3 
3.8 
0.4 
0.5 
1.6 
1.4 
1.5 
1.9 
3.0 

0.9 
0.6 

0'5' 
0.5 

0^6 
2.3 
0.3 

0^6 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

o'g' 

0.7 
0.2 
0.7 
0.7 
0.2 
0.9 
0.3 
1.4 

0'7' 

o;4' 

0.1 

o.r 

L4' 
0.3 

3.1 
2.3 

2.'7' 
2.5 

4^6' 
2.2 
2.0 

2^2' 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
0.4 

3^6 
3.5 
2.8 
0.7 
0.9 
3.2 
3.1 
2.2 
3.9 
2.6 
2.5 
1.7 
3.0 
0.6 
0.5 

2^4' 

2^0' 

2.7 

0.4 
0.6 
0.2 
0.8 
0.5 
1.0 
0.4 
1.4 
0.6 
0.5 
1.2 
0.8 
0.3 
0.4 
0.8 
1.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.2 
0.5 
0.5 

0^3' 
0.2 
0.5 
0.1 
0.9 
0.2 
0.1 
0.3 

0^2' 
0.1 
0.2 
0.9 
0.3 

1.9 
2.1 
1.5 
1.7 
2.0 
2.0 
4.0 
2.0 
2.4 
2.6 
2.6 
1.1 
2.0 
1.7 
1.1 
2.0 
3.1 
2.7 
1.9 
1.3 
1.2 
0.5 
3.0 
2.3 
2.3 
3.0 
2.2 
1.7 
0.9 
0.5 
0.5 
2.5 
2.0 
3.1 
1.5 
2.6 

0.2 
0.4 
0.2 
0.3 
0.3 
1.8 

LO' 
0.5 

LO' 
0.3 
0,1 
0.2 
0.1 

o^r 

0.1 
0.2 
0.3 
0.4 

0^3 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 

0.8 

0:3' 

0:3' 
0.5 
0.2 

0.8 
1.1 
2.0 
1.1 

1.4 

0.3 

Nievre 

Nord 

Oise                  

5.0 
1.5 
2.1 

Orne                     

2.2 

Pas-de-Calais 

Puy-du-D6me 

Pyrenees  (Basses) 

Pyrenees  (Haute) 

2.4 
0.3 
1.5 
0.6 

Pyrenees-Orientales 

Rhone 

0.6 
3.3 

Saone  (Haute) 

2.2 

2.1 

Sarthe 

Savoie                

2.2 
0.4 

Savoie  (Haute) 

0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
1.4 
0.9 
0.6 
0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.1 
0.4 
0.8 
0.2 
2.5 
0.6 

0.5 

Seine                       

0.6 

Seine-et-Marne             

2.5 

Seine-et-Oise                          .... 

2.4 

Seine-I  nf  er  ie  ure 

1.7 

Sevres  (Deux) 

3.6 

2.6 

Tarn 

1.4 

Var                

0.4 

0.1 

Vendee              

1.5 

Vienne                     

3.5 

Vosges                            

1.3 

Yonne                                    .... 

2.1 

tional  forests  which  are  under  technical  State  management  and  for 
private  and  communal  forests  which  are  ordinarily  not  under  technical 
supervision.  The  figures  for  each  class  of  owner  are  divided  into  logs  and 
fuel,  and  represent,  the  number  of  cubic  meters  which  the  forests  produce 
per  hectare  and  per  year.  In  order  to  reduce  these  figures  to  American 
units  of  measure  (board  feet  and  cords)  the  figures  in  the  log  column 
should  be  divided  by  3.5  and  figures  in  the  fuel  column  by  0.277,  the 
approximate  answers  being  1,000  board  feet  and  cords.  A  study  of  these 
figures  shows  clearly  that  the  forests  under  technical  management  pro- 
duce a  much  higher  proportion  of  sawlogs  to  fuel  than  do  the  private  or 


FOREST  AREAS  49 

communal  forests  not  under  management;  for  example,  take  the  depart- 
ment of  Ain:  the  Federal  forests  produce  more  than  three  times  as  much 
saw  timber  as  fuel,  while  the  private  forests  produce  nine  times  as  much 
fuel  as  saw  timber, 

A  somewhat  similar  ratio  holds  for  other  departments. 

Forest  Areas  and  Per  Cent  of  Species  by  Departments.  —  Table  5 
which  follows  shows  by  departments:  (a)  per  cent  forested;  (6)  total  forest 
area,  areas  under  technical  management,  and  areas  not  under  State  work- 
ing plans;  (c)  for  the  forests  under  technical  management  the  per  cent  of 
the  important  species  given  to  the  nearest  tenth. 


50 


FOREST  STATISTICAL  DATA 


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FOREST   AREAS 


51 


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52 


FOREST  STATISTICAL  DATA 


A  comparison  of  the  ten  most  heavily  forested  departments  with  those 
least  timbered  is  given  below: 

TABLE  6.  —  MOST  HEAVILY  AND  THE  LEAST  FORESTED  DEPARTMENTS 


Numerical 

Most  heavily  forested 

Least  forested 

order 

Department 

Per  cent  forested 

Department 

Per  cent  forested 

2 

Landes 

Gironde 

55.4 
46.2 
49.5 
36.9 
35.7 
33.8 
32.5 
31.5 
29.8 
29.8 

Manche 

Seine 

Vendee.. 

3.2 

3  7 

3 

Var 

Vosges 

4  3 

4 

Finistere 

Loire-Inferieure.. 
C6tes-du-Nord. .  . 
Pas-de-Calais .... 
Mayenne 

4  4 

5 

Ariege 

4  5 

6 

Jura 

4  7 

7 
8 
9 

Saone  (Haute) .... 
Marne  (Haute) .  .  . 
Cote  d'Or 

5.4 
5.8 
5.9 

10 

6.5 

38.1 

4.8 

An  analysis  of  the  heavily  forested  departments  discloses  that  two  were 
sand  wastes  (Hke  parts  of  Minnesota  and  Michigan)  but  were  reforested ; 
five  are  mountainous,  or  very  hilly;  and  two  are  hilly  or  too  wet  for  agri- 
culture. The  least  forested  departments  are  largelj^  agricultural  land  or 
moors.  When  it  is  considered  that  the  final  use  of  this  land  has  been 
evolved  after  centuries  of  settlement,  the  present-day  use  is  significant, 
and  it  is  especially  noteworthy  that  there  is  to-day  much  land  growing 
timber  which  is  suitable  for  agriculture,  yet  the  French  Forest  Code 
recognizes  that  it  is  in  the  public  interest  to  retain  the  land  now  under 
forest  for  the  production  of  timber,  even  ivhere  it  could  grow  agricultural 
crops. 

Analysis  of  General  Statistics.  —  General.  —  The  following  facts  are 
shown  by  Tables  3  to  6:  (o)  Out  of  24.5  million  acres  of  forest  land  less 
than  one-third  is  under  technical  forest  management.  (6)  Less  than  5 
per  cent  of  the  entire  forest  area  is  unproductive.  A  larger  proportion  of 
State  and  communal  forest  land  is  unproductive  because  the  State  and 
communes  own  most  of  the  mountain  slopes  requiring  conservative  cut- 
ting, and  where  considerable  areas  cannot  support  tree  growth,  (c)  More 
than  two-thirds  of  the  private  forests  are  treated  under  coppice,  or  coppice- 
under-standards;  less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  this  area  is  being 
converted  into  high  forest.  Only  two-fifths  of  French  forests  are  under 
high  forest,  (d)  The  total  annual  production  of  French  forests  is  esti- 
mated at  1,917,756,000  feet  board  measure  and  4,664,379  cords  of  fuel. 

State  Forests.  —  According  to  the  original  statistics  on  State  forests: 


ANALYSIS  OF  GENERAL  STATLSTICS  53 

(a)  There  are  no  State  forests  in  the  departments  of  C6tes-du-Nord, 
Dordogne,  Lot,  Lot-et-Garonne,  Rhone,  Vienne  (Haute).  (6)  The  six 
departments  with  the  most  State  forest  area,  in  the  order  of  importance, 
are:  Ariege,  Alpes  (Basses)  Vosges,  Cote  d'Or,  Loiret,  Drome,  (c)  The 
six  heaviest  producing  (State  forest)  departments,  in  the  order  of  their 
importance,  are:  Vosges,  Seine-Inferieure,  Cote  d'Or,  Aisne,^  Jura, 
Meurthe-et-Moselle.2  (d)  The  unproductive  land  in  the  State  forests  is 
chiefly  in  the  mountains,  notably  in  the  departments  of  Ariege,  Alpes 
(Hautes),  Pyrenees-Orientales,  Drome,  Isere,  Alpes  (Basses). 

Communal  and  Institution  Forests.  — •  There  are  no  communal  and  in- 
stitution forests  under  State  control  in  the  following  departments:  (a) 
Calvados,  C6tes-du-Nord,  Finistere,  Indre-et-Loire  (Inferieure),  Lot, 
Maine-et-Loire,  Mayenne,  Morbihan,  Orne,  Vendee.  The  largest  areas 
are  in  the  (h)  Vosges,  Saone  (Haute),  Cote  d'Or,  Doubs,  Meuse,  Marne 
(Haute),  but  as  regards  production  (c)  Saone  (Haute)  is  first  with  Doubs, 
Vosges,  Jura,  Meuse,  Cote  d'Or,  in  the  order  named,  (d)  The  unproduc- 
tive land  is  also  in  the  mountains,  notably  in  the  following  departments : 
Alpes  (Hautes), Var,  Ardeche,  Isere,  Pyrenees-Orientales,  Alpes  (Basses). 

Private  Foi^ests.  —  The  statistical  data  on  private  forests  and  on  com- 
munal and  institution  forests  not  under  management  is  less  trustworthy, 
(a)  .But  it  is  certain  that  there  is  privately  owned  forest  land  in  every  de- 
partment of  France,  with  a  minimum  ownership  of  but  121  acres  in  the 
Seine  which  includes  Paris  (this  corresponds  to  the  District  of  Columbia 
in  the  United  States).  (&)  The  largest  areas  of  privately  owned  forests 
are  in  the  Landes,  Gironde,  Dordogne,  Var,  Nievre,  Marne.  The  Var 
moimtain  forests  produce  but  httle  saw  timber  though  the  acreage  is 
large,  (c)  The  heaviest  production  of  private  forest  land  is  found  in  the 
Landes  and  Gironde,  together  3,008,483  cubic  meters  (corresponding  to 
445,253,000  feet  board  measure  and  340,963  cords  of  fuel),  Nievre,  Dor- 
dogne, Marne,  Cote  d'Or,  together  1,871,144  cubic  meters  (or  about 
88,928,000  feet  board  measure  and  481,563  cords).  Certain  features  of 
production  are  illustrated  by  these  figures  and  by  the  original  statistics. 
In  the  Landes  the  fuel  produced  was  about  one-third  the  volume  of  the 
timber,  while  in  the  Gironde  (also  a  maritime  pine  producing  department) 
the  ratio  of  fuel  to  timber  was  as  8  is  to  6.  Moreover,  in  the  Nievre, 
Dordogne,  Marne,  and  Cote  d'Or,  where  private  forests  are  largely  cop- 
pice and  coppice-under-standards,  the  total  timber  production  was  but 
one-fifth  that  of  the  Landes  and  Gironde,  but  the  fuel  produced  exceeded 
the  latter  two  departments  by  more  than  140,000  cords,  (d)  There  is 
less  unproductive  forest  privately  owned  than  pubhcly  owned,  although 
the  total  area  of  private  forest  is  about  double  that  in  the  hands  of  the 
State,  communes,  and  institutions. 

2  Heavily  devastated  by  the  war  operations  of  the  Germans  and  the  French. 


54 


FOREST  STATISTICAL   DATA 


Management  Statistics.  —  Unquestionably  the  management  of  French 
State  forests  is  over-conservative.  No  systematic  attempt  has  been 
made  to  follow  financial  rotations.  There  have  been  excess  growing 
stocks,^  due  in  many  cases  to  over-careful  working  plans  that  followed  an 
era  of  overcutting.  In  communal  forests,  managed  by  the  State,  this 
excess  is  usually  25  per  cent  and  often  more.  As  contrasted  with  those 
publicly  managed,  the  forests  in  private  hands  are  managed  on  shorter 
rotations  and  far  too  great  an  acreage  is  in  coppice,  or  coppice-under- 
standards.  As  an  illustration  of  this  tendency  to  short  rotations  we 
find  eight-tenths  of  the  private  forests  in  coppice  or  coppice-under- 
standards,  no-tenths  in  conversion,  and  only  two-tenths  in  high  forest. 
With  State  forests  five-tenths  in  high  forest,  three-tenths  in  coppice 
and  coppice-under-standards,  and  two-tenths  in  conversion. 

This  variance  in  the  length  of  rotations  is  further  illustrated  by  the  de- 
tailed statistics  for  each  department.     Take  some  typical  examples: 


VOSGES   (CONIFERS) 


System  of  treatment 


Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 

Conversions 

High  forest 


Length  of  rotation  in  years 


Under 
State  control 


25-40 
100-132 
120-150 


Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 


15-25  (few  35) 

'"'80^100'(few'l20)"" 

Some  are  cut  for  paper 
pulp  at  30. 


For  the  high  forests  under  State  control  the  prevalent  rotation  is  144 
years,  while  notable  State  forests  like  Gerardmer,  Ban  d'fitival,  la  Bresse, 
Cornimont,  and  Champ  have  150-year  rotations. 


SAVOIE    (HAUTE)    (CONIFERS) 


System  of  treatment 


Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards 

Conversions 

High  forest 


Length  of  rotation  in  years 


Under 
State  control 


144-180 


Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 


6-10 
10-25 


30-100 


3  For  example,  in  the  State  forest  of  Berce  (Sarthe)  there  are  compartments  with  700 
to  800  cubic  meters  of  oak  to  the  hectare,  worth  30,000  to  40,000  francs.  In  the  forest  of 
Levier  silver  fir  runs  as  high  as  1,000  cubic  meters  per  hectare,  or  25,000  francs,  on  soil 
worth  100  to  200  francs  per  hectare. 


MANAGEMENT  STATISTICS 


55 


The  rotation  of  180  years  is  chiefly  for  forests  at  high  altitudes  where 
the  growth  of  spruce  or  fir  is  slower.  Chamonix  is  200  years  (see  p.  252), 
Samoens  162  to  180,  and  the  forest  of  Houches  180  to  240.  These  are  all 
selection  forests  in  a  severe  mountain  climate. 


SAVOIE   (CONIFERS) 


System  of  treatment 


Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 

Conversions 

High  forest 


Length  of  rotation  in  years 


144-180 


Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 


6-10 
10-25 


30-120 


These  long  high  forest  rotations  are  for  selection  forests  in  the  moun- 
tains. A  few  run  even  higher,  notably  Pussy  communal  at  200,  Tignes 
communal  180  to  240,  and  Bramans  198  to  264.  The  State  forest  of  Belle- 
vaux  is  144  years.  These  communal  forests  with  long  rotations  were 
formerly  overcut  and  are  now  being  improved  and  a  suitable  growing 
stock  accumulated. 


VAR   (MARITIME  PINE,  ALEPPO  PINE,   HOLM  OAK,   COMMON  OAK) 


Length  of  rotation  in  years 

System  of  treatment 

Under 
State  control 

Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 

Coppice ... 

18-25 
25-30 

10-18 

High  forest . 

60-80 

50-60  and  less 

PYRfiN^ES-ORIENTALES  (MOUNTAIN  PINE,  HOLM  OAK,  BEECH,  MISCELLANEOUS) 


Length 

of  rotation  in  years 

System  of  treatment 

Under 
State  control 

Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 

Coppice 

18-26 
32-40 

15-20 

High  forest 

150-180 

Devastated 

56 


FOREST  STATISTICAL  DATA 


The  mountain  pine  in  the  regular  State  high  forest  of  Barres  is  handled 
on  a  180  to  200  year  rotation,  and  the  fir  and  mountain  pine  in  the  com- 
munal forest  of  Bolquere,  240  years. 

ORNE   (BROADLEAVES) 


System  of  treatment 


Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 

Conversions 

High  forest 


Length  of  rotation  in  years 


Under 
State  control 


20-30 
150-180 
150-180 


Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 


8-12 


Short 


The  oak  and  beech  in  the  State  forest  of  Econnes  is  managed  on  a  ro- 
tation of  180  years;  State  forest  of  Bourse  180  years;  State  forest  of  Bel- 
leme  200  years;  State  forest  of  Reno-Valdieu  180  years.  The  pine  which 
has  been  introduced  in  this  region  is  not  yet  mature. 


OISE    (BROADLEAVES) 

Length  of  rotation  in  years 

System  of  treatment 

Under 
State  control 

Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 

. 

10-15 

CoDDice-und6r-stiindtirds                               .  ■ 

20-35 

18-25 

80-150 

The  State  forest  of  Hez-Froidmont  (see  Fig.  6  (ato/)),  oak,  beech,  etc.,  has 
a  rotation  of  150  years.  Compiegne  (where  the  Germans  were  stopped) 
150  for  high  forest  and  35  for  the  coppice  and  coppice-under-standards. 


HAUTE-MARNE   (BROADLEAVES) 


System  of  treatment 


Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 

Conversions 

High  forest 


Length  of  rotation  in  years 


Lender 
State  control 


25-40 


144-150 
144-150 


Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 


14-25  (few  30-40) 


COSTS  OF  ADMINISTRATION 


57 


There  are  no  rich  notable  State  forests  in  this  department.  The  State 
forest  of  d'Auberive  is  managed  on  a  150-year  rotation;  Bussieres  144;  de 
la  Haie-Renault  144;  all  of  these  are  being  converted  from  coppice  and 
coppice-under-standards  to  high  forest. 


YONNE 

(BROADLEAVES) 

Length  of  rotation  in  years 

System  of  treatment 

Under 
State  control 

Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 

12-18 

Coppice-under-standards 

Conversions 

20-30 
150-180 
150-180 

20-25 

High  forest 

40-50  (Scotch  pine) 

Here  four-fifths  the  forest  area  is  under  rotations  of  less  than  25  years. 

LANDES    (MARITIME   PINE) 


Length  of  rotation  in  years 

System  of  treatment 

Under 
State  control 

Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 

10-20 

Coppice-under-standards 

20-25 

Conversions 

High  forest  . 

60-120      { 

60-80 

12-16 

GIRONDE   (MARITIME  PINE) 


System  of  treatment 


Coppice 

Coppice-under-standards 

Conversions 

High  forest 


Length  of  rotation  in  years 


Under 
State  control 


1^25 
15-25 


50-72 


Private  or  uncon- 
trolled communal 


12-15 
20-25 


45-60  (resin) 
1.5-30  (mine  props) 


Costs  of  Administration.  —  As  Huffel  points  out,  it  is  difficult  to  say 
authoritatively  just  what  it  costs  to  manage  the  State  forests  because  the 
budget  provides  also  for  the  management  of  communal  forests  and  public 
establishments,  for  game  and  fish  protection,  for  control  of  deforestation, 
for  the  reforestation  of  eroded  mountain  lands,  for  dune  protection  and  for 


Fig.  6  (a  to  c).  —  State  forest  of  Hez-Froidmont.  First  working  group:  (a  —  top 
left)  Oak  and  beech  saplings;  (6  —  top  right)  Poles;  (c  — bottom)  Seed  felling  in 
course  of  exploitation,  illustrating  thorough  utilization  and  use  of  long,  clear  lengths. 

58 


Fig  6  {d  to/).-State  forest  of  Hez-Froidmont.  (d-top  left)  Appearance  after 
seed  felling  is  completed;  (e  — top  right),  (/-bottom)  Secondary  felling  showing 
regeneration  secm-ed  by  seed  felling.  The  advance  growth  in  the  background  will  be 
cut  back,  so  as  to  assure  an  even-aged  stand.  cq 


60  FOREST  STATISTICAL  DATA 

grazing  betterments.  Much  the  same  thing  is  true  in  the  United  States, 
where  the  Forest  Service  has  a  lump-sum  appropriation  to  cover  all  man- 
ner of  scientific  work  and  investigations  as  well  as  for  the  management 
and  protection  of  the  National  Forests.     Huffel^  makes  the  conclusion: 

"Taking  everj'thing  into  consideration,  it  is  estimated  that  $173,700  is  about  the 
expense  for  the  management  of  the  State  forests;  this  figure  corresponds  to  6  cents  per 
acre.  It  is  estimated  that  protection  costs  16  cents  per  productive  acre;  maintenance 
absorbs  12  cents  per  acre;  communal  and  departmental  tax  16  cents  per  acre.  We  have 
then  the  following  revenues  and  costs  per  productive  acre  in  State  forests  for  1892 
(which  is  considered  a  typical  year) : 

Per  cent  of 
gross  revenue 

$2.26  Net  yield,  or 81.2 

.06  Cost  of  management,  or 2.5 

.16  Cost  of  protection,  or 5.8 

.12  Maintenance,  or 4.5 

.16  Communal  and  departmental  tax,  or 5.9 

$2.76  Gross  revenue 99.9 

"The  expense  for  the  personnel  in  France  represents  only  23  cents  per  productive 
acre,  or  8.3  per  cent  of  the  gross  revenue." 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  this  cost  figure  is  less  than  those  for  Ba- 
varia, Prussia,  Saxony,  or  Wiirtemberg  where  the  lowest  (Wiirtemberg) 
absorbs  12.1  per  cent  of  the  gross  revenue  for  personnel. 

Statistics  of  Fir  Stands  in  the  Jura.  —  One  of  the  questions  asked  by- 
private  forest  owners  and  others  interested  in  the  yield  of  forests  is :  What 
will  forests  (naturally  regenerated)  return  in  lumber  or  money?  The 
answers  given  to  this  question  by  normal  yield  tables,  usually  based  on 
planted  stands,  are  often  so  high  that  they  cannot  be  apphed,  without 
much  guesswork  and  modification,  to  American  conditions.  Actual 
averages  of  compartments  or  whole  forests  are  more  rehable  for  the  pur- 
poses of  judging  what  forestry  can  attain.  (See  also  Chapter  XI.) 
Therefore  the  statistics  ^  which  follow,  for  fir-spruce  forests  in  the  Jura 
mountains  of  France,  somewhat  comparable  to  spruce-fir  stands  of 
northern  New  England,  are  of  particular  interest  and  value.  They  show 
what  forestry  can  attain  (as  a  maximum)  under  favorable  conditions  on 
non-agricultural  mountain  land  over  whole  compartments  of  15  to  30 
acres. 

(a)  Compartment  18,  fifth  working  group,  State  Forest  of  La  Joux 
(second  Jura  Plateau),  60  per  cent  fir  and  40  per  cent  spruce,  fully  stocked, 
thrifty  stand  planted  after  a  windfall  in  1812;  100  years  old  in  1912. 

*  Pp.  408-409,  Vol.  I,  ficonomie  Forestiere. 

^  Based  on  unpublished  data  supplied  by  Devarennes,  Inspector,  French  Forest 
Service,  in  charge  of  Jura  workmg  plans  in  1912. 


STATISTICS  OF  FIR  STANDS   IN   THE   JURA 


61 


Diameter, 

Number  of 

trees 

per  acre 

Volume,  cubic 
meters 
per  acre 

Approximate  a 

breast-high, 
inches 

Board  feet 
per  acre 

Cords 
per  acre 

10 
16 
22 
28 
Totals 

45.6 
63.6 
24.8 
3.2 
137.2 

32.4 

112.0 

88.0 

24.0 

256.4 

5,700 
32,300 
23,400 

7,200 
68,600 

4.8 
15.0 
11.8 

1.6 
33.2 

(6)  Same  forest  and  working  group  but  compartment  19  and  fro7n 
entirely  natural  regeneration;  100  years  old,  but  90  per  cent  fir  and  10  per 
cent  spruce. 


Diameter, 

Number  of 

trees 

per  acre 

Volume,  cubic 
meters 
per  acre 

Approximate  a 

breast-high, 
inches 

Board  feet 
per  acre 

Cords 
per  acre 

10 
16 
22 

28 
Totals 

67.2 

98.0 

35.2 

4.0 

204.4 

47.2 
170.8 
123.6 

24.0 
365.6 

8,400 

45,300 

33,800 

7,200 

94,800 

7.2 
22.6 
16.4 

1.6 

47.8 

Such  yields  seem  incredibly  high,  and  the  larger  number  of  trees  and 
the  higher  yield  on  the  area  naturally  regenerated  is  especially  note- 
worthy. The  fact  remains  that  these  yields  were  attained,  within  at 
least  10  per  cent,  allowing  for  a  possible  10  per  cent  error  in  estimate. 

(c)  Pure  spruce,  100  years  old  from  natural  regeneration  on  a  compart- 
ment in  the  forest  of  Ouhans  (first  Jura  Plateau) ;  altitude  2,300  feet. 


Diameter, 

Number  of 

trees 

per  acre 

Volume,  cubic 
meters 
per  acre 

Approximate  a 

breast-high, 
inches 

Board  feet 
per  acre 

Cords 
per  acre 

10 

16 

22 

Totals 

97.2 

84.8 

13.2 

195.2 

60.8 

151.2 

54.4 
266.4 

10,600 
39,600 
14,500 
64,700 

9.2 

21.6 

7.2 
38.0 

<*  These  conversions  (a,  6,  c,  d)  were  made  as  follows :  For  lO'-inch  trees  4  cubic  meters 
were  counted  to  the  1,000  feet  after  30  per  cent  subtracted  for  cordwood.  In  the  other 
diameter  classes  3  cubic  meters  were  counted  to  the  1,000  feet,  after  subtracting  20  per 
cent  for  the  cordwood  in  the  16  and  22  inch  classes  and  only  10  per  cent  of  the  28-inch 
class.     Two  cords  were  considered  equal  to  1,000  board  feet. 


62 


FOREST  STATISTICAL   DATA 


(d)  Ninety  per  cent  fir,  10  per  cent  spruce,  100  years  old  from  natural 
regeneration  on  a  compartment  in  the  forest  of  St.  Point  (third  Jura 
Plateau);  altitude  3,280  feet. 


Diameter, 

Number  of 

trees 

per  acre 

Volume,  cubic 
meters 
per  acre 

Approximate  a 

breast-high, 
inches 

Board  feet 
per  acre 

Cords 
per  acre 

10 
16 
22 

Totals 

76.8 

64.0 

13.6 

154.4 

44.8 
119.2 

57.6 
221.6 

7,800 
31,800 

15,400 
55,000 

6.8 
15.8 

7.6 
30.2 

These  four  compartments  average  almost  71,000  board  feet  per  acre 
and  indicate  what  can  be  attained  in  100  years  as  a  maximum  with 
thrifty,  vigorous  stands  of  silver  fir  under  proper  forest  management. 

Statistics  for  Levier.  —  The  Federal  forest  of  Levier "  perhaps  contains, 
next  to  La  Joux,  the  best  large  body  of  silver  fir  in  the  Jura  and  is  one  of 
the  richest  and  most  productive  in  France.  It  is  situated  near  PontarHer 
and  rests  on  three  plateaus  cut  by  more  or  less  deep  valleys.  With  inter- 
spersed private  and  communal  forests  it  makes  a  stand  of  about  24,000 
acres  of  almost  pure  fir.  It  runs  up  to  800  cubic  meters  to  the  hec- 
tare (80,000  to  85,000  board  feet  to  the  acre).  There  is  an  excellent 
road  system.  The  forest  was  formerly  the  property  of  the  Prince  de 
Chalon,  afterwards  Phihp  II,  of  Spain.  It  was  added  to  the  Federal 
domain  in  1674,  with  the  exception  of  the  forest  of  Vignory  which  was 
sold  to  the  king  in  1782,  and  the  forest  of  Gonailles  which  was  not  joined 
to  the  royal  domain  until  1725.  The  forests  of  Aro  and  Maubhn  were 
despoiled  by  the  neighboring  communes.  One  canton  has  the  right  "for 
timbers  in  case  of  fire  or  in  other  cases  resulting  in  the  destruction  of  in- 
habited places."  The  same  communes  have  the  right  to  remove  stumps 
and  debris,  and  some  grazing.  The  grazing  right,  however,  is  not  ex- 
ercised. The  total  area  of  this  Federal  forest  is  6,713  acres,  of  which 
6,702  acres  are  productive.  There  are  eight  working  circles  with  an 
average  area  of  838  acres,  and  193  compartments  with  an  average  area  of 

^La  Foret  Domaniale  de  Levier,  par  G.  Mongenot,  1912,  pp.  1-23,  Lucienn  Laveur, 
Editeur. 

Since  this  forest  was  a  notable  American  center  during  the  war,  considerable  detail 
is  given. 

The  forest  of  La  Joux  is  the  richest  in  the  Jura,  the  yield  amounting  to  15.8  cubic 
meters  per  hectare  (about  1,900  feet  board  measure  per  acre)  per  year.  The  gross 
revenue  has  averaged  for  a  period  as  high  as  $15.12  per  acre  per  year.  The  net  revenue 
is  approximately  $14.81  per  acre  per  year. 


STATISTICS  FOR  LEVIER  63 

35  acres.  The  soil  is  generally  deep,  fresh,  and  rich  in  humus,  and  the 
rainfall  is  4.5  to  6.5  feet  per  year.  The  fir  comprises  90  per  cent  of  the 
stand  and  the  spruce  10  per  cent.  The  beech  is,  unfortunately,  rare. 
Fir  160  years  old  yields  timber  115  to  131  feet  in  length  and  when  210  to 
260  years  old  it  is  3  to  4  feet  in  diameter.  Seed  years  occur  every  two 
years  and  reproduction  is  easy  if  there  are  no  briars.  In  the  past  there 
has  been  but  httle  insect  damage,  but  recent  windfalls  which  were  not 
immediately  barked  occasioned  some  insect  damage.  The  fungus, 
Aecidium  elatium,  when  it  affects  trees,  is  removed  in  thinning.  Under 
present  conditions  game  is  quite  rare  and  the  hunting  is  annually  let 
for  $79.13.  Before  regular  logging  the  timber  is  generally  lopped  and 
lightly  squared  with  the  axe  and  the  smaller  pieces  barked.  It  is  hauled 
in  full  lengths.  There  are  42  miles  of  local  forest  roads,  6.5  to  16.4  feet  in 
width,  which  are  maintained  at  an  annual  expense  of  about  $3,474.  There 
are  also  29  miles  of  rather  poorly  laid  out  old  roads,  and  the  entire  forest 
is  bounded  by  a  rough  stone  wall,  39  inches  in  height,  to  prevent  grazing 
and  trespass.  There  are  two  small  nurseries  (one  near  the  Ronde  Ranger 
Station).  Formerly  the  yield  was  fixed  at  one  and  a  half  trees  of  1.33 
meters  (4.26  feet)  diameter  per  hectare  (3f  trees  per  acre)  per  annum. 
These  moderate  cuttings,  below  the  real  capacity  of  the  forest,  accumu- 
lated a  considerable  reserve.  In  1818-1820  Lorentz  inspected  this  forest 
and  advised  the  cutting  of  all  the  old  trees  over  the  young  growth.  In 
1844  the  yield  was  7  cubic  meters  per  hectare  (2.8  cubic  meters  per 
acre).  In  1861  the  yield  was  by  volume  coupled  with  improvement 
selection  cuttings  every  four  or  five  years  without  hmitation  of  volume. 
This  proved  a  happy  innovation  because  it  diminished  the  excess  growing 
stock  and  saved  a  great  many  trees  that  were  declining  in  vigor.  From 
1881  to  1894  the  average  yield  was  10.27  cubic  meters  per  hectare  (4.1 
per  acre)  per  year,  worth  $32.47  or  33.17  per  cubic  meter  (about  $10  per 
acre).  Of  this  yield,  it  should  be  mentioned,  however,  that  10  per  cent 
was  branch  and  stump  wood.  The  compartments  were  made  approxi- 
mately equal.  This  was  an  error,  since  it  would  have  been  better  to  have 
them  differ  somewhat  in  size  and  follow  natural  features  for  boundaries. 
In  1894  the  working  plan  was  revised  and  all  trees  9.5  to  60  inches  in 
diameter  were  cahpered,  giving  231  trees  per  hectare  (94  trees  or  49,000 
feet  board  measure  per  acre).  The  yield  per  cent  was  established  at 
2.35  per  cent,  plus  a  fraction  of  the  excess  volume,  bringing  the  total  cut 
up  to  2.74  per  cent.  During  the  years  1905  to  1911  the  yield  was  11.93 
cubic  meters  per  hectare  (4.8  per  acre)  per  year,  or  a  revenue  of  $16.12 
per  acre.  This  amounted  to  2.66  per  cent  of  the  total  volume.  In  1911 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  windfalls  amounted  to  11,134  cubic 
meters  and  were  sold  at  $42,196.  During  1916-1919  about  eighteen  an- 
nual yields  were  cut  to  supply  the  armies. 


64  FOREST  STATISTICAL  DATA 

This  is  the  history  of  a  forest  where  the  results  of  sound  management 
have  proved  increasingly  beneficial.  It  is  cited  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  forest  statistics  to  illustrate  the  liistory  of  a  well  managed  forest 
and  to  drive  home  the  increasing  benefits  derived. 


CHAPTER   V^ 
NATURAL  REGENERATION 

French  Policy  (p.  65).  General,  Nancy  School  Policy,  Assist  Nature,  Study  Soil 
Conditions,  Soil  Preparation. 

French  Silvicultural  Methods  (p.  70).     Systems  of  Cutting,  The  Market. 

High  Forest  Systems  (p.  71).  Clear  Cutting  Oak,  Clear  Cutting  Maritime  Pine, 
Clear  Cutting  Aleppo  Pine,  Spruce  Strip  Fellings,  Shelterwood  Cuttings  in  Oak,  Seed 
Felling,  Secondary  Felling,  Final  Felhng,  Shelterwood  for  Beech,  Shelterwood  for  Oak- 
Beech,  Shelterwood  for  Maritime  Pine,  Shelterwood  for  Scotch  Pine,  Shelterwood  for 
Fir,  Shelterwood  for  Spruce,  Shelterwood  for  Fir  and  Spruce  in  Mixture,  The  Selection 
System  in  Broadleaf  Stands  (Beech),  Fir  Selection  Fellings,  Spruce  Selection  Fellings, 
Selection  Fellings  for  Scotch  and  Aleppo  Pine,  Group  Selection  for  Fir  or  Spruce,  Group 
Selection  for  Larch  (and  other  methods).  Treatment  for  Scenic  Forests. 

Coppice  Systems  (p.  92).  General,  Simple  Coppice,  Coppice  with  Field  Crops, 
Selection  Coppice  (Beech),  Coppice-Under-Standards,  A  Substitute  for  Coppice-Under- 
Standards  (Futaie  Claire),  Conversions. 

Care  of  the  Stand  After  Regeneration  (p.  105).  Intermediate  Cuttings,  Clean- 
ing (and  Freeing)  Young  Stands,  Thinnings,  Improvement  Fellings. 

FRENCH  POLICY 

General.  —  The  French  forester  has  always  been  a  close  student  of 
soil  conditions,  seed  crops,  and  methods  of  seed  germination,  because  his 
ideal  has  always  been  to  obtain  the  natural  regeneration  of  forests. 
And  to-day  high  labor  costs  will  make  artificial  forestation  almost  pro- 
hibitive. It  has  been  argued  that  natural  regeneration  is  the  more 
costly  in  the  end,  because  to  regenerate  forests  naturally  took  15  to  20 
years  or  more  and  that  even  then  the  results  were  unsatisfactory.  But 
in  France,  with  a  mild  climate,  plenty  of  rainfall,  rich  soil,  and  species 
that  produce  seed  crops  in  abundance,  natural  regeneration  has  succeeded 
and  will  be  continued,  except  when  normal  forest  conditions  must  be 
restored  in  the  devastated  war  zones  and  where  the  damages  of  past  over- 
cutting  have  not  yet  been  completely  repaired. 

The  French  forester  is  a  student  of  nature.  For  generations  he  has 
been  taught  "Imiter  la  nature,  hater  son  cBuvre,  telle  est  la  maxime 
fondamentale  de  la  sylviculture."  His  simplest  problem  is  where  he  can 
clear-cut  the  entire  stand  and  yet  secure  his  second  crop  without  plant- 
ing; his  difficulties  increase  as  the  cuttings  must  be  varied  in  degree  and 
in  number  so  as  to  tempt  the  next  generation  of  trees  to  gain  a  footing 

1-  Professor  Hawley  kindly  reviewed  this  chapter. 
65 


66  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

in  competition  with  grass,  weeds,  and  undesirable  species.  But  he  recog- 
nizes that  success  cannot  always  be  obtained  under  these  difficult  condi- 
tions without  assisting  nature.  Consequently  he  is  ready  to  wound  the 
ground  covered  with  grass  so  that  the  seed  can  germinate  in  the  mineral 
soil,  or  he  may  have  to  cut  back  briars  or  heather  which  is  crowding  out 
the  commercial  stand. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  three  schools  of  forest  sentiment:  (1) 
The  lover  of  primeval  forests  wants  to  spare  all  trees  for  the  sake  of  their 
beauty.  He  does  not  care  whether  trees  mature  and  die  and  go  to  waste. 
(2)  The  lumberman,  who  buys  forests  for  profit.  After  stripping  off  the 
merchantable  timber  he  lets  the  soil  take  care  of  itself  if  he  cannot  sell 
to  a  land  speculator.  (3)  The  State  preaches  a  middle  course  —  grow 
timber  as  a  crop  and  cut  the  stand  when  it  ripens.  This  should  be  the 
forester's  Golden  Rule.  Let  us  profit  by  the  example  of  a  country  like 
France  and  use  nature  to  help  us  in  our  task.  Natural  regeneration  is 
the  aim  in  France  and,  in  the  United  States,  with  our  high  labor  costs, 
forestry  will  be  a  business  failure  for  some  time  to  come  unless  95  per  cent 
of  our  forest  soil  can  be  stocked  without  sowing  or  planting. 

Nancy  School  Policy.  —  Jolyet  argues  that : 

"In  France  silviculture  has  always  aimed  at  securing  regeneration  by  the  play  of 
natural  forces  alone,  man  intervening  only  for  exploitation,  so  as  to  give  more  or  less 
space  to  the  crowns  of  trees  selected  as  seed  trees,  and  more  or  less  light  to  the  soil 
destined  to  receive  the  seed.  Our  silviculture  teaches  us,  moreover,  that  artificial  re- 
generation is  not  only  onerous,  but  in  addition  gives  poorer  results.  And  this  viewpoint 
is  fully  justified.  In  reality,  if  you  plant  or  sow  by  day  labor,  you  are  forced  for  economy's 
sake  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  quantity  of  seed,  or  the  number  of  plants  per  unit  of 
area  .  .  .  and  the  owner  is  forced  to  retain  for  as  long  a  period  as  possible  all  these 
trees  which  have  cost  so  much ;  he  will  do  his  utmost  to  preserve  even  the  most  decrepit 
specimens  .  .  .  they  will  have,  therefore,  on  the  whole,  a  reduced  vitality.  On  the 
contrary,  if  you  employ  natural  regeneration,  the  seed  trees  sow  on  the  soil  of  the 
cutting  area  without  counting  the  seeds ;  the  seedlings  come  in  excess  numbers  and  in  this 
mass  of  individuals,  amongst  which  commences  an  active  fight  for  existence,  the  weaker 
and  less  sturdy  are  eliminated  by  the  most  vigorous  which  remain  masters  of  the  soil. 
The  stand  will  then  be  composed  of  trees  selected  by  nature  herself,  on  whose  vitaUty 
and  longevity  you  have  the  right  to  count." 

This  latter  argument  is  perhaps  contrary  to  the  reasoning  of  some  who 
claim  that  young  trees  are  only  weakened  by  undue  competition  and 
that  thinnings  (made  so  as  to  favor  the  most  vigorous  trees)  should 
eliminate  this  struggle  to  decide  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  But  it  re- 
mains a  fact  that  with  proper  thinnings  natural  regeneration  produces  a 
finer  forest  than  any  feasible  plantation  and  better  than  the  average 
sown  stand. 

Assist  Nature.  —  But  the  forester  knows  from  bitter  experience  that 
satisfactory  regeneration  cannot  always  be  secured  from  nature  alone; 
adverse  soil  conditions  may  have  to  be  bettered,  suitable  seed  trees  may 


STUDY  SOIL  CONDITIONS  67 

be  lacking,  frost  may  destroy  seedlings  when  it  is  too  late  to  await  natural 
regeneration  longer.  "It  is  rare,"  says  Jolyet,  "without  question,  when 
the  conditions  are  such  that  any  production  of  acorns  or  nuts  is  absolutely 
impossible;  it  is,  on  the  other  hand,  quite  common  to  find  this  production 
insufficient." 

To  await  natural  regeneration  under  these  conditions  is,  therefore, 
often  poor  forestry;  particularly  with  virgin  stands  which  have  not  been 
under  intensive  forest  management,  it  is  often  best  to  aid  nature.  In 
many  German  forests,  it  is  argued  that  natural  regeneration  at  best  is 
difficult  and  uncertain  and  requires  more  time  and  consequently  a  longer 
rotation;  so  why  not  plant  or  sow  at  once  and  be  done  with  it?  In 
France,  as  already  explained,  the  conditions  are  more  favorable.  In  the 
Landes  natural  regeneration  is  almost  certain ;  in  the  silver  fir  reasonably 
certain;  in  the  spruce  or  Scotch  pine  quite  possible  of  attainment;  in 
aleppo  pine  attainable;  with  beech  usually  certain,  as  with  the  oak,  under 
favorable  conditions.  In  mixture  with  beech  the  regeneration  of  the  oak 
is  often  more  difficult  because  it  cannot  compete  with  the  more  shade- 
enduring  species. 

Study  Soil  Conditions.  —  It  is,  therefore,  vital  to  thoroughly  under- 
stand the  properties,  constitution,  and  influences  of  the  forest  soil  upon 
the  final  results  attained.  Like  agricultural  soil  the  forest  soil  ^  is  mineral 
and  organic.  But  the  forest  soil  is  more  complex  and  more  difficult  to 
keep  in  proper  condition;  moreover,  conditions  are  constantly  changing 
so  that  what  are  normal  soil  conditions  at  the  beginning  of  the  regenera- 
tion period  should  gradually  change  as  the  canopy  is  opened  up.  Forest 
soil  has  (1)  a  dead  Htter  of  leaves,  twigs,  bark;  (2)  a  humus  or  decayed 
litter;  (3)  a  vegetable  soil  or  mixture  of  hunuis  with  the  mineral  soil;  (4) 
a  mineral  soil  coming  from  the  decomposed  rock,  and  (5)  the  base  rock 
itself.  It  takes  years  to  get  a  normal  forest  soil  (that  may  be  ruined  by 
over-exposure  or  fire),  while  the  agricultural  soil  can  be  acquired  arti- 
ficially by  introducing  the  necessary  elements  that  may  be  lacking.  Of 
these  ingredients,  in  forest  soils,  humus  is  the  most  important.  True 
forest  humus  is  beneficial;  on  the  contrary,  acid  humus  is  harmful  and 
prevents  or  hinders  regeneration.  Acid  humus,  infrequent  in  French 
forests,  may  be  due  to  a  number  of  causes  —  insufficient  heat,  too  much 
moisture,  drought,  or  sterility.  In  everyday  practice  the  forester  is 
troubled  more  by  the  physical  texture  of  the  soil  and  with  the  htter  and 
vegetable  cover  than  by  the  chemical  composition  or  the  presence  or 
absence  of  chemical  ingredients.  A  soil  baked  by  the  sun  or  packed  by 
grazing  usually  prevents  regeneration,  as  does  a  cover  of  dry  leaves, 
grass,  sod,  or  weed  growth.     For  example,  a  growth  of  heather  under 

2  Traite  Pratique  de  Sylviculture,  Antoine  Jolyet,  Bailliere  et  Fils,  Paris,  pp.  298-358. 


68  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

Scotch  pine  absolutely  prevents  reproduction.  Jolyet  holds  that  "the 
depth  of  a  soil  from  the  rock  base  will  be  always  greater  in  the  forest 
than  on  bare  groimd.  This  is  due  to  the  greater  rapidity  of  decomposi- 
tion, owing  to  the  effect  of  water  infiltration  which  is  charged  with  car- 
bonic acid  by  percolating  the  litter."  Forest  soil  is  deepened  not  only  by 
decomposition  from  the  underlying  rock,  but  also  by  the  accumulation  of 
humus  from  above. 

Every  forester  should  study  the  depth  ^  and  character  of  soils.  A  deep- 
rooting  tree  on  a  shallow  soil  cannot  develop  its  root  system  properly  and 
normally,  but  on  a  shallow  soil  with  an  outcropping  rock  such  trees  as 
aleppo,  mountain,  or  Austrian  pine  possess  root  systems  that  penetrate 
the  rock  fissures  and  make  the  most  of  a  sterile  soil.  A  soil  covered  with 
tree  growth  is  always  more  porous  than  the  same  soil  denuded.  It  is 
not  enough  for  a  soil  to  receive  the  water  necessary  for  tree  growth;  water 
must  be  stored  or  retained  in  such  form  Liat  it  is  available  for  use  when 
required  by  the  tree  during  the  vegetative  period.  On  a  bare  though 
porous  soil  the  run-off  is  excessive. 

Soil  Preparation.  —  Soil  preparation  is  often  necessary  in  any  kind  of 
cutting,  yet  in  France  the  sentiment  is  everywhere  in  favor  of  natural 
regeneration,  preferably  without  the  additional  expense  of  artificial  soil 
preparation.  But  the  more  the  system  departs  from  nature's  method, 
the  more  the  soil  must  be  worked.  With  the  shelterwood  system  there 
must  be  more  soil  preparation  than  with  the  selection  method.  The  suc- 
cess of  natural  regeneration  depends  on  the  proper  number  and  location 
of  trees  bearing  seed,  the  right  amount  of  light  or  shade  for  the  develop- 
ment and  existence  of  the  young  seedling,  as  well  as  upon  proper  texture 
of  the  ground  free  from  weed  cover.  But  it  is  only  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  that  some  kind  of  soil  preparation  is  not  necessary  for  the 
successful  regeneration  of  a  species  like  spruce.  In  theory,  the  forest 
could  wait  until  natural  regeneration  came  in  without  assistance.  In 
practice,  the  regeneration  would  often  be  incomplete;  it  would  come  in 
slowly  and  seed  trees  valuable  for  timber  of  the  highest  quality  would 
decrease  in  value  and  become  firewood.  Even  with  very  full  seed  crops 
some  kind  of  assistance  may  have  to  be  given  natural  regeneration  usually 
for  three  reasons:  (1)  Because  of  a  dense  vegetable  cover  which  prevents 
the  seed  coming  in  contact  with  the  mineral  soil ;  (2)  because  of  an  exces- 
sive cover  of  undecomposed  dead  needles,  or  (3)  because  the  surface  of  the 
soil  itself  is  too  compact. 

The  vegetable  cover  is  often  too  thick  because,  unfortunately,  as  trees 
mature  their  cover  is  less  dense  —  especially  with  species  hke  oak  or 

3  Very  shallow  soil,  less  than  6  inches  deep;  shallow  soil,  less  than  12  inches  deep; 
slightly  deep  soil,  less  than  24  inches  deep;  deep  soil,  less  than  3.28  feet  deep;  very  deep 
soil,  over  3.28  feet  deep,  — according  to  French  classification. 


SOIL  PREPARATION  b9 

Scotch  pine  —  consequently  weeds  and  shrubs  take  possession  of  the 
soil.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  an  obhgatory  rather  than  an  optional 
expense  to  remove  this  cover.  It  js  not  always  necessary  to  regularly  cul- 
tivate the  soil.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  usually  better  to  keep  the  surface 
of  the  soil  where  the  seed  can  reach  it.  It  suffices,  then,  to  tear  up  the 
vegetable  cover.  This  work  should  be  locahzed  on  those  areas  where  there 
are  seed  trees  and  where  there  is  suitable  light  for  seedhngs.  The  opera- 
tion should  be  carried  out  only  during  the  seed  year,  otherwise  the  vege- 
table cover  will  reinstate  itself  before  any  benefits  have  been  received. 

In  oak  forests,  where  the  regeneration  is  prevented  by  grass  or  herba- 
ceous growth  (Jolyet,  p.  362),  the  soil  preparation  must  usually  be  carried 
out  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground.  The  rake  is  the  best  imple- 
ment for  this  purpose.  The  seed  crop  cannot  usually  be  determined 
accurately  before  the  month  of  August,  so  that  the  work  should  not  be- 
gin before  this  date,  although  it  may  be  continued  during  and  after  the 
crop  has  fallen.  In  certain  forests,  it  was  the  practice  to  drive  hogs 
over  the  area  to  be  seeded;  this  gave  very  fair  results.  The  hogs  ate  up 
a  large  amount  of  seed  no  doubt,  but  in  wounding  the  soil  they  gave  a 
thorough  soil  preparation  which  cost  nothing.  In  mature  Scotch  pine 
forests  it  is  usual  to  find  a  cover  of  heather  or  shrubs  which  practicahy 
prevents  regeneration.  With  a  mattock  or  hoe  it  is  usually  possible  to 
weed  the  area  and  encourage  regeneration.  The  work  is  costly,  no 
doubt,  but  it  can  be  diminished  by  locahzing  the  soil  preparation  on 
parallel  strips  or  in  spots.  The  cultivated  strips  should  have  a  width 
of  5  feet  and  should  be  separated  by  uncultivated  areas  of  about  10  feet. 
This  would  cover  about  one-third  of  the  entire  ground.  Spots  are  even 
more  economical;  they  may  be  5  feet  square  and  10  feet  apart.  This 
covers  about  one-ninth  of  the  total  area.  In  spruce  stands  similar  meth- 
ods may  be  of  value.  The  choice  of  implements  to  use  is  usually  gov- 
erned by  local  conditions,  although  in  Germany  the  so-called  forest 
plow  is  favored.  It  has  but  one  wheel  and  is  hght  enough  so  that  one 
horse  can  pull  it.  It  wounds  the  soil  without  actually  turning  it  over, 
and  is  not  sharp  enough  to  cut  the  roots  which  it  may  cross. 

Where  the  leaf  htter  is  too  thick,  as  in  certain  pure  stands  where  the 
dead  leaves  decompose  very  slowly,  the  roots  of  the  seedhng  cannot  be- 
come established  in  mineral  soil  before  the  summer  drought.  The  top 
layer  and  humus  dry  out  and  this  results  in  the  death  of  the  seedling. 
With  a  good,  strong  iron  rake,  dead  needles  can  be  mixed  with  the  humus 
on  spots  about  29  inches  square  and  5  feet  apart.  In  some  forests  in 
France  a  regular  harrow  is  used  for  this  work.  Where  the  soil  surface  is 
too  compact  it  must  be  wounded  if  the  regeneration  is  to  be  a  success. 
This  is  especially  true  on  compact  soils,  such  as  clays,  where  there  has 
been  grazing  before  the  seed  felling. 


70  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

FRENCH   SILVICULTURAL  METHODS 

Systems  of  Cutting.  —  French  silviculture  is  especially  simple.  Where 
the  German  silviculturist  may  describe  twenty  or  thirty  different  methods 
of  cutting,  French  authors  generally  confine  themselves  to  a  comparatively 
few.  Special  methods  of  cutting,  or  variations  from  regulated  systems, 
they  leave  to  the  individual  silviculturist  who  uses  his  judgment  in  vary- 
ing standard  methods  so  as  to  meet  local  conditions.  These  variations, 
as  well  as  special  emphasis  on  the  object  of  cutting  and  method  of  attain- 
ing the  end,  are  usually  cited  in  the  local  working  plan.  The  systems 
used  in  France  are:  (1)  Clear  cutting,  (2)  shelterwood  (progressive  cut- 
ting), (3)  selection  felhngs,  (4)  group  fellings,  (5)  coppice,  (6)  coppice- 
under-standards,  (7)  conversions.  A  routine  description  of  these  stand- 
ard methods  does  not  seem  necessary,  but  instead  the  French  method  of 
application  of  silviculture  to  the  more  important  species  has  been  studied 
and  cited.     The  illustrations  are  from  original  French  working  plans. 

The  Market.  —  According  to  Huffel,  forests  have  always  played  an 
important  role  in  the  national  hfe.  First,  for  hunting  and  food;  then, 
until  the  Nineteenth  Century,  the  forest  furnished  fuel,  timber  for  houses 
and  ships,  tools  and  utensils,  honey  and  wax,  dead  leaves  for  manure, 
nuts,  various  fruits,  and  resin.  Grazing  was  important,  and  as  late  as 
1560  the  forest  of  Haguenau  in  Alsace  was  described  by  the  number  of 
hogs  it  would  support.  Additional  products  were  strawberries,  rasp- 
berries, mushrooms,  moss,  plants,  twigs,  cones,  heather,  and  ferns,  much 
of  which  were  collected  by  the  poor,  since  the  French  have  always  con- 
sidered that  "the  forest  is  the  cloak  of  the  poor."  In  the  present  century, 
although  the  tendency  is  decidedly  toward  the  production  of  saw  timber, 
three-fourths  of  the  output  is  still  firewood.  In  1815  Paris  consumed 
0.50  cords  per  inhabitant;  in  1865,  0.13,  and  in  1900,  but  0.05  cords  per 
inhabitant.  Not  only  has  the  use  of  charcoal  for  cooking  fallen  off,  but 
factories  use  coal  to  the  almost  total  exclusion  of  wood  or  charcoal.  The 
early  writers,  prior  to  the  discovery  of  coal,  often  predicted  a  wood 
famine,  and  had  not  coal  been  discovered  their  predictions  would  have 
come  true,  because  to  supply  the  equivalent  of  the  present  coal  consump- 
tion of  France  more  than  ten  times  the  total  forest  area  would  be  necessary. 
Fortunately  for  the  timber  resources  the  use  of  wood  is  becoming  less  and 
less.  Iron  was  first  used  for  shipbuilding  in  1843;  iron  and  cement  have 
largely  replaced  wood  for  houses.  The  great  demand  to-day  is  for  a  good 
quality  of  boards,  mine  props,  ties,  paving  blocks,  wood  pulp,  tan  bark,  and 
cork,  as  well  as  for  such  products  as  turpentine,  rosin,  alcohol,  etc.  This 
rough  summary  of  the  decreasing  use  of  wood  products  and  the  change  in 
kind  of  material  required  is  merely  given  as  an  illustration  to  show  how 
necessary  it  is  for  the  forester  to  study  the  future  needs  of  the  country. 


CLEAR   CUTTING  OAK  71 

He  must  be  far-sighted,  since  he  cannot  count  on  present  demands.  Gener- 
ally speaking  the  world's  industry  demands  more  and  more  high  forests 
for  timber  and  fewer  coppice  forests  for  fuel  and  minor  products. 


HIGH   FOREST   SYSTEMS  ^ 

Clear  Cutting  Oak.  —  In  the  valley  of  the  Adour  [70]  above  Dax  the 
pedunculate  oak  grows  in  areas  subject  to  inundations  and  where  agri- 
culture is  not  feasible.  It  is  practically  pure,  with  rapid  growth  and  a 
remarkable  longevity.  These  forests  are  celebrated  for  the  enormous 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  oak  wood  which  they  produce  and  especially, 
in  former  years,  for  the  ship  timber  which  was  used  when  wooden  battle- 
ships were  built.  With  such  a  warm  climate  the  trees  are  prolific  seed 
producers.  Abundant  crops  of  seed  are  borne  every  year.  On  the  other 
hand,  late  frosts  must  be  guarded  against.  These  high  forests  are  not 
treated  by  any  regular  system  since  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  coupled  with 
its  depth  and  freshness,  enables  the  trees  to  seed  and  the  seedhng  to  live, 
notwithstanding  the  overstory  of  old  trees  and  notwithstanding  the 
underbrush;  apparently  the  only  danger  is  hog  grazing,  which  does  con- 
siderable damage,  but  in  this  wet  region  the  growth  of  shrubs  and  vines 
is  almost  tropical  in  character  and  forms  such  a  dense  thicket  that  the 
young  seedlings  are  in  pai't  protected  against  such  injury.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  the  seedlings,  which  in  other  parts  of  the  country  would 
be  suppressed  by  the  underbrush,  shoot  up  through  the  entanglements, 
twisting  their  terminal  shoots  in  the  direction  where  there  is  most  light. 
This  results  in  the  production  of  rather  crooked  trees.  [74]  These  ped- 
unculate oak  forests  of  the  Adour  are  regenerated  to-day  very  successfully 
by  a  simple  system.  Taking  for  granted  that  there  are  always  acorns  ready 
to  germinate  and  that  these  will  survive  the  cover  of  the  old  trees,  the 
old  trees  are  clear  cut  in  one  felling.  At  the  same  time  all  the  briars,  un- 
dergrowth, oak  seedlings  (damaged  by  exploitation  or  suppressed  by 
the  cover)  are  cut  level  with  the  ground.  The  shoots  from  these  very 
young  stumps  have  practically  the  same  qualities  as  seedlings.  Al- 
most invariably  this  clear  cutting  will  be  followed  by  the  development 
of  an  incalculable  number  of  young  oaks  which  rapidly  cover  the  soil 
with  a  complete  stand  which  in  time  develops  into  an  oak  high  forest. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Adour  the  growth  of  the  young  oak  is  sufficiently 
rapid  so  that  cleanings  are  rarely  necessary.      Thinnings,  on  the  con- 

^  Since  the  high  forest  systems  are  of  paramount  importance  in  the  United  States 
their  apphcation  to  typical  species  has  been  given  in  detail. 

Note.  —  The  bracketed  numbers  refer  to  page  references  in  La  Foret,  by  Boppe,  the 
source  of  much  of  this  material. 


72  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

trary,  are  very  important  in  all  the  young  stands.  With  clear  cutting  it 
is  naturally  necessary  to  regulate  grazing.  On  account  of  the  richness  of 
the  soil  the  grazing  is  quite  valuable,  and  the  communes  even  insist  on  the 
clearing  out  of  the  briars  and  underbrush  which  formerly  protected  the 
young  oak.  Under  these  conditions  the  grazing  is  prohibited  two  years 
before  the  clear  cutting  in  order  to  enable  the  seedlings  to  establish  them- 
selves to  the  very  best  advantage,  and  in  addition  the  area  cut  over  is 
closed  for  12  years  after  felhng  operations  [75],  making  14  years  of  closure. 
Clear  Cutting  Maritime  Pine.  —  The  maritime  pine  is  essentially  a 
hght-demanding  tree,  and  while  it  can  stand  the  average  winter  in  the 
northeast  of  France  it  cannot  withstand  unusual  cold.  It  furnishes  an 
abundance  of  seed  every  year  with  remarkable  regularity.  It  was  for- 
merly treated  by  a  sort  of  crude  selection  system.  The  great  importance 
of  the  tree  is  on  account  of  its  resin  production.  Formerly  it  was  tapped 
for  resin  and  when  a  tree  was  dying  it  was  cut.  In  these  openings  the 
young  seedhngs  came  up  but  developed  poorly  because  there  was  in- 
sufficient light.  On  account  of  the  prolific  seed  production  after  clear 
cutting  and  because  cones  open  under  the  effect  of  the  sun's  heat,  after 
the  trees  are  felled,  it  is  essential  that  the  species  be  clear  cut.  Scattered 
seed  trees  after  felling  are  unnecessary.  The  young  seedlings  develop 
excellently  in  full  sunhght  and  are  neither  damaged  by  the  heat  nor  by 
the  spring  frosts.  According  to  the  working  plan  for  the  State  forest  of 
Carcans  the  following  silvicultural  operations  are  in  force: 

"1.    Successive  regeneration  by  clear  cutting  preceded  by  tapping  to  death. 

"2.  Thinning  by  tapping  to  death  the  superfluous  stems  of  those  which  are  of  poor 
quahty  after  the  trees  reach  26  years  of  age.  Tapping  alive  trees  which  have  reached  a 
diameter  of  13  inches. 

"3.  Thinnings  in  young  stands  in  order  to  obviate  the  extremely  slow  growth  of 
very  dense  stands." 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  maritime  pine  immediately  bordering  the 
ocean  is  never  clear  cut  but  is  maintained  as  a  protection  belt  against  the 
sand  dunes.  Only  dead  and  dying  trees  are  cut  from  this  shelter  belt. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  trees,  owing  to  the  wind,  are  inferior  in  quality 
and  stunted  in  growth. 

Clear  Cutting  Aleppo  Pine.  —  On  account  of  the  dry  soil  conditions 
which  are  prevalent  in  aleppo  pine  or  stone  pine  forests,  clear  cutting 
is  rarely  advisable  (see  pp.  88-89).  The  forester  in  charge  of  the  impor- 
tant aleppo  pine  forests  around  Marseilles  uses  a  conservative  group- 
selection  system,  making  it  a  point  never  to  expose  the  soil. 

Spruce  Strip  Fellings.  —  Notwithstanding  the  development  of  various 
forms  of  strip  felhngs  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  they  have  not  been 
practiced  to  any  extent  in  France.     This  is  only  another  illustration  of 


SEED  FELLING  73 

the  simplicity  of  French  silviculture  and  the  absence  of  variations  from 
the  few  standard  systems  of  cutting  which  have  been  in  use  for  centuries. 
The  keynote  to  French  practice  is  that  the  method  of  natural  regenera- 
tion should  closely  approximate  nature's  method.  "Strip  cuttings," 
according  to  Jolyet,  "are  nothing  more  than  a  variation  of  clear  cutting." 
In  theory,  at  least,  it  should  succeed  with  spruce,  provided  the  strips  are 
not  too  wide.  They  should  be  in  the  shape  of  long  rectangles  and  should 
extend  up  and  down  the  slope  with  their  axis  preferably  at  right  angles  to 
the  prevailing  wind.  Since  this  method  of  cutting  has  not  been  de- 
veloped by  French  silviculture,  the  details  will  not  be  discussed  here. 

Shelterwood  Cuttings  in  Oak.  —  Some  of  the  best  high  forests  [81]  of 
France  are  composed  of  sessile  oak  (with  some  beech  in  mixture)  on  sandy 
loam  soil.  These  soils  are  often  quite  sandy  in  character  and  yet  splendid 
forests,  such  as  Perseigne,  Berce,  Blois,  Senonches,  Belleme,  result. 
Thanks  to  the  mild  climate,  the  acorn  crop  is  frequent  but  by  no  means 
annual,  as  in  the  valley  of  the  Adour.  In  this  region  an  acorn  crop  can  be 
counted  on  every  6  to  8  years;  besides  the  sandy  soil  is  particularly  favor- 
able to  natural  seeding.  In  former  days  hunting  to  hounds  was  ex- 
tremely popular,  so  that  it  was  fortunately  necessary  to  have  high  forests 
rather  than  coppice.  The  first  regular  method  of  cutting  applied  to  these 
high  forests  was  the  so-called  "tire  et  aire" — successive  clear  cutting 
with  a  reservation  of  eight  seed  trees  per  hectare  (2.5  acres).  Unfor- 
tunately the  acorn  crop  did  not  always  correspond  with  the  year  of  re- 
generation felling  and  the  soil  was  soon  covered  with  weeds  and  heather. 
It  is  ordinarily  sufficient,  however,  to  have  an  acorn  crop  the  year  before 
felling,  or  at  least  within  two  or  three  years  after. 

To-day  these  oak  (beech)  forests  are  treated  by  what  the  French  call 
the  method  of  progressive  ^  fellings  (shelterwood  system),  or  "system  of 
natural  regeneration  and  thinnings."  This  method  means  felling  not  at 
one  time  by  a  clear  cutting,  but  instead  by  a  number  of  cuttings  succeed- 
ing one  another  and  removing  progressively  all  the  old  trees.  These  cut- 
tings are  called  seed  fellings,  secondary  felhngs,  and  final  fellings  which 
together  constitute  the  regeneration  fellings. 

Seed  Felling.  —  Seed  felling,  as  the  term  impHes,  aims  at  starting 
regeneration.  In  order  that  the  seedhngs  may  start  two  things  are 
necessary :  plenty  of  seed  and  a  chance  for  development  for  the  seedlings 
after  they  have  germinated.  Three  steps  comprise  these  seed  fellings: 
(1)  The  crowns  of  a  certain  number  of  trees  designated  as  seed  trees  are 
isolated.  This  gives  light  for  the  development  of  the  seed  trees  as  well 
as  for  the  development  of  the  existing  seedlings.     The  isolation  of  these 

^Also  termed  "regular  method"  for  high  forests.  The  French  have  never  copied 
the  German  term  "shelterwood."  They  prefer  "progressive  cutting"  (coupes  pro- 
gressives). 


74  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

crowns  may  vary.  A  so-called  "dark"  felling,  according  to  Bagneris,  is 
when  the  lateral  branches  of  the  crowns  of  the  reserved  trees  touch  when 
the  wind  is  blowing.  In  an  "open"  or  "hght"  felhng  the  space  between 
the  crowns  may  be  7  to  16  or  20  feet.  A  "dark"  felhng  has  this  advan- 
tage, in  that  the  seed  trees  are  more  numerous,  the  acorns  are  better 
scattered  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  felling  area,  and  the  seedlings  are 
better  protected  against  the  late  frosts.  The  trees  chosen  for  seed  trees 
must  be  sound  and  must  have  well  developed  crowns.  (2)  All  trees, 
other  than  seed  trees,  whose  foliage  extends  to  the  ground  and  is  therefore 
suppressing  seedlings,  are  removed.  Beech,  or  hornbeam,  which  often 
forms  a  valuable  understory  in  order  to  preserve  soil  conditions  up  to  the 
time  of  the  seed  felling,  is  cut.  (3)  If  the  soil  is  covered  with  weeds  they 
are  cut  level  with  the  ground,  as  are  also  oak  advance  growth  unsuit- 
able for  future  regeneration.  The  soil,  after  a  seed  felling,  must  be 
cleared  of  all  low  growth.  If  necessary,  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  loos- 
ened by  wounding  it.  A  successful  seed  felling  is  where  there  are  one 
or  two  seedlings  per  square  yard.  Often  there  is  practically  a  carpet  of 
young  oak. 

Secondary  Fellings.  —  The  next  step  is  to  gradually  remove  the  seed 
trees  and  to  gradually  free  the  existing  seedlings  without  causing  too 
much  damage.  These  secondary  fellings  in  oak  stands  are  usually  two 
or  three  in  number.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  expose  the  existing 
seedlings  to  late  frosts,  not  to  damage  too  many  seedlings  in  the  lumber- 
ing operations,  and  to  retain  enough  seed  trees  in  localities  where  seed- 
lings have  failed.  It  is  also  essential  not  to  remove  the  seed  trees  so 
rapidly  that  the  gi'ound  may  run  wild  to  weeds.  The  best  time  to  mark 
secondary  fellings  is  during  the  summer,  since  the  state  of  the  vegetation 
can  be  more  accurately  determined.  The  removal  depends  primarily  on 
the  condition  of  the  ground.  If  the  seed  crop  is  poor  it  may  be  necessary 
to  again  cut  back  the  weeds  and  to  wound  the  soil.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  seedling  growth  is  very  luxuriant,  cutting  can  be  much  heavier.  The 
result  of  the  secondary  felhng  is  to  increase  the  growth  and  development 
of  the  seedling  crop  and  to  enable  it  to  maintain  possession  of  the  ground. 

Final  Felling.  —  As  soon  as  the  young  crop  is  complete  and  the  first 
seedlings  have  developed  into  saplings,  it  is  time  for  the  final  felling,  which 
is  really  a  final  secondary  felling  and  which  is  generally  termed  final  fell- 
ing. This  felling  merely  removes  the  remainder  of  the  seed  trees  at  one 
stroke,  since  it  is  rarely  advisable  to  hold  over  a  few  seed  trees  even  where 
regeneration  may  be  lacking  in  a  few  spots.  When  seed  trees  are  held 
over  it  means  that  very  valuable  timber  decreases  in  value,  since  as  soon 
as  these  mature  oaks  are  isolated,  epicormic  [92]  branches  develop,  the 
crown  deteriorates,  large  branches  die,  and  there  is  great  danger  of  rot 
or  damage  from  insects.     The  regular  high  forest  (shelter wood)  aims  at 


FINAL  FELLING  75 

the  complete  natural  regeneration  of  the  proper  species  of  uniform  age. 
It  has  the  advantage  of  preserving  the  soil  and  of  producing  regularly- 
formed  trees,  but  the  disadvantage  of  possible  damage  from  insects,  snow, 
wind,  and  weeds  unless  the  species  are  mixed. 

According  to  De  Gail  ^  the  regular  shelterwood  system  was  adopted  all 
over  France  during  the  last  half  of  the  last  century. 

"The  rotation  was  divided  into  a  certain  number  of  periods,  generally  of  equal 
length,  frequently  four  or  five.  For  each  one  of  these  periods  there  was  a  corresponding 
periodic  block  on  the  ground.  During  each  of  the  periods  the  corresponding  block  had 
to  be  regenerated  while  the  others  were  run  over  by  improvement  cuttings.  The 
volume  to  be  removed  each  year  in  the  regeneration  fellings  formed  the  chief  yield  and 
was  the  quotient  of  the  existing  volume  in  the  periodic  block  in  question,  growth  in- 
cluded, divided  by  the  number  of  years  forming  the  period.  Improvement  fellings  were 
assigned  by  area  at  regular  intervals,  the  volume  to  be  reahzed  remaining  unfixed." 

The  objection  to  this  system  was  that  it  was  good  in  theory  but  did  not 
work  out  on  the  ground.  Too  many  sacrifices  had  to  be  made  for  regu- 
larity, and  damage  resulted  from  fire,  wind,  and  insects.  Very  fre- 
quently the  whole  scheme  was  disarranged  by  unforeseen  damage,  and 
yet  the  working-plan  scheme  depended  for  its  success  on  orderly  ar- 
rangement. Exactly  the  same  yield  was  unnecessary  each  year,  but 
great  differences  had  a  bad  effect  on  the  regulation,  as,  for  example,  after 
an  enormous  cut  following  an  unforeseen  windfall.  In  1878  an  endeavor 
was  made  to  correct  the  weakness  by  first  subtracting  accidental  yields 
from  the  major  yield  before  the  regular  annual  cut  was  prescribed.  But 
even  this  was  not  entirely  satisfactory,  chiefly  on  account  of  windfall  in 
such  regions  as  the  Jura  and  Vosges. 

The  forest  of  Paridas  working  plan  stated  that  during  the  regeneration 
of  this  oak  forest  it  is  usually  necessary  to  fence  to  prevent  damage  from 
game.  The  old  oak  is  growing  close  together  and  very  heavy  openings  are 
made  in  this  stand,  since  the  luxuriant  grass  crop  seems  to  assist  the  oak 
regeneration  inasmuch  as  it  freshens  the  soil.  After  regeneration  cutting 
there  are  about  80  trees  per  acre  with  the  openings  often  100  feet  across. 
Occasionally  the  cuttings  are  made  lighter  because  of  the  danger  of  briars 
and  weeds.  There  is  very  rapid  growth  and  the  rotation  is  120  years. 
Where  thickets  of  blackberries  have  come  in  they  are  removed  at  the  first 
cleaning  when  the  reproduction  is  12  to  15  years  old.  If  cut  earher  they 
spring  up  again.  There  has  been  some  damage  to  the  oak  from  the 
"sidium"  disease,  which  must  be  sprayed  with  salt  as  a  curative  and  pre- 
ventive, but  there  is  danger  of  the  salt  hurting  the  roots.  Where  the  oak 
stands  are  very  dense  there  is  much  less  seed,  as  is  illustrated  by  condi- 
tions in  the  Paridas  forest.  The  oak  sometimes  comes  in  even  in  dense 
heather  but  frequently  it  is  necessary  to  cut  strips  in  the  heather  to  en- 

'^  Nouvelles  Tendances  et  Methodes  d'Amenagement,  No.  2,  1907,  S.  F.  deF.  C.  et  B. 


76  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

courage  regeneration.  The  regeneration  period  is  30  years.  Light  thin- 
nings are  made  every  10  years,  and  usually  after  35  years  the  canopy  of 
the  crowns  is  complete. 

Shelterwood  for  Beech.  —  Beech  forests  are  still  important  in  France 
[130]  on  the  Parisian  Plateau,  on  the  Plateaus  of  Lorraine,  Bourgogne, 
Franche-Comte,  on  the  lower  mountain  slopes  of  these  regions,  and  on 
all  the  mountains  in  the  fir  zone.  The  regeneration  of  beech  is  always  by 
the  shelterwood  method  (progressive  fellings),  but  regeneration  by  clear 
felling  is  absolutely  impossible,  since  the  beech  seedlings  are  very  susceptible 
to  damage  from  late  frosts  and  from  drying  out.  While  it  is  true  that  the 
mast  is  not  more  frequent  than  the  acorn  crop,  yet  it  is  easier  to  secure 
beech  seedhngs,  since  on  account  of  its  tolerant  quahty  the  advance 
growth  is  often  existing  at  the  time  of  the  seed  felling,  even  if  the  cover  is 
considerable,  whereas  the  oak  seedhng  must  be  freed  from  overhead 
cover.  This  step  is  not  so  necessary  with  the  beech  since  it  is  so  tolerant. 
There  is  less  danger  of  the  beech  seedlings  being  damaged  by  weeds  or 
briars  than  of  the  oak.  The  seed  felling  with  the  beech  is  always  light, 
since  the  seedlings  cannot  stand  a  rapid  opening  up.  When  there  is  a 
thick  carpet  of  undecomposed  dead  leaves  on  the  ground  wounding  the 
soil  is  quite  necessary  in  order  to  expose  the  humus.  This  is  sometimes 
secured  by  driving  hogs  through  the  area  just  before  the  seed  felling,  in 
order  to  let  them,  without  expense,  dig  up  the  weeds  and  wound  the  soil. 
Frequently  it  is  sufficient  to  let  in  enough  light  to  eat  up  the  leaf  cover. 
The  secondary  fellings  are  also  "dark,"  and  often  it  is  necessary  to  hold 
over  trees  which  should  be  felled,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  making  too 
large  openings.  This  means  that  instead  of  two  or  three  secondary  fell- 
ings, as  with  the  oak,  it  may  be  necessary  with  the  beech  to  make  three 
or  four  secondary  felhngs.  This  has  no  drawbacks  since  the  young  beech 
seedlings  can  stand  the  shade  of  the  seed  trees.  The  final  felling  is  made 
as  soon  as  the  seedlings  have  grown  to  the  sapling  stage  and  it  should 
not  be  held  over  too  long  because  of  the  damage  which  results  to  the 
saplings.     The  final  felling  always  removes  all  the  remaining  trees. 

Shelterwood  for  Oak=Beech.  —  A  feature  of  oak  and  beech  naturally 
regenerated  is  the  maintenance  of  the  soil  in  good  condition  and  a  suit- 
able mixture  of  beech  in  the  understory.  The  tolerant  beech  always  has  a 
tendency  to  take  possession  of  the  soil  and  therefore  it  is  often  necessary 
to  favor  the  oak.  This  can  be  done  by  reserving  more  oak  seed  trees  in 
the  seed  felling  and  by  cutting  the  beech  in  the  understory,  by  hastening 
the  secondary  felling  and  making  it  rather  open  wherever  oak  seedhngs 
have  established  themselves.  Otherwise,  they  may  be  crowded  by  the 
tolerant  beech.  The  seedling  of  the  oak  may  be  favored  by  wounding 
the  soil.  When  the  seedlings  are  freed,  and  in  the  thinning,  the  oak  also 
may  be  favored.     According  to  Inspecteur  Badre  it  is  very  difficult  to 


SHELTERWOOD   FOR  OAK-BEECH  77 

maintain  beech  and  oak  in  mixture,  side  by  side,  for  the  beech  always 
dominates  the  oak  unless  it  is  progressively  freed  from  the  surrounding 
beech.  The  most  practical  solution  is  to  grow  the  oak  in  small  groups, 
which  can  often  survive  the  struggle  with  similar  groups  of  beech  without 
assistance.  The  forest  of  Pare  et  St.  Quentin  has  had  working  plans 
made  in  1869,  1884,  and  1905.  As  a  result  of  experience  a  rotation  for 
120  years  was  found  too  short  because  of  the  large  proportion  of  oak. 
It  was,  therefore,  increased  to  150  years.  Where  there  is  difficulty  in 
regeneration,  according  to  the  following  most  recent  working  plan,  the 
cuttings  would  be  regulated  according  to  seed  crops  rather  than  to  the 
sequence  of  f elhngs  as  developed : 

"The  density  of  the  seed  fellings  will  be  regulated  so  as  to  allow  for  the  requirements 
of  the  species  —  oak  and  beech  —  which  should  be  forced  into  the  proper  mixture 
(about  half  and  half).  The  existing  understory  must  be  completely  removed  above 
this  size,  and  under  no  pretext  whatever  should  it  be  allowed  to  form  part  of  the  future 
stand.  The  seed  fellings  will  be  followed  by  secondary  and  final  fellings  laid  out  ex- 
clusively according  to  the  cultural  needs.  The  improvement  cuttings  should  aim  at 
the  establishment  of  a  high  forest  with  a  suitable  mixture  of  species  and  as  fully  stocked 
as  possible;  they  will  be  carried  out  by  the  use  of  regular  normal  thinnings,  the  removals 
limited  to  trees  already  dead  or  almost  wholly  so.  ...  In  the  young  stands  the 
valuable  species  will  be  carefully  freed  and,  in  accordance  with  their  needs,  the  softwoods 
and  species  of  secondary  value  will  be  sacrificed." 

The  working  plan  of  the  forest  of  Malmifait  is  as  follows : 

"The  regeneration  fellings  which  remain  to  be  carried  out  during  the  second  period, 
consist  solely  of  secondary  and  final  fellings.  The  secondary  fellings  will  be  made  care- 
fully according  to  the  amount  and  vigor  of  the  existing  reproduction.  Where  considered 
advantageous,  the  natural  seeding  will  be  assisted  by  soil  preparation  during  seed  years, 
coupled  with  the  dibbling  of  acorns  and  beech  nuts  if  necessary;  this  will  be  supple- 
mented, if  need  be,  by  plantations  which  will  be  set  out  in  systematic  lines  in  order  to 
make  future  clearings  easier  and  cheaper.  Seedlings  and  plants  must  always  be  pro- 
tected at  the  start  against  the  briars  and  the  grass,  as  well  as  sprouts  of  species  of  secon- 
dary value.  The  final  felling  will  take  place  as  soon  as  regeneration  is  secured,  and  with- 
out too  much  delay,  in  order  to  lessen  the  damage,  always  considerable,  caused  by  the 
exploitation  and  removal  of  the  trees.  When  the  cutting  area  is  completely  cleared,  all 
the  damaged  stems  must  be  cut  back.  It  will  be  carefully  seen  to  that  the  game,  espe- 
cially the  wild  boar  and  hares,  do  not  increase  to  an  excessive  degree.  Thanks  to  this 
precaution  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  build  wire  fences,  which  are  very  expensive  and 
which  usually  give  only  mediocre  results,  around  the  compartments  recently  seeded; 
especially  since  the  patrol  force  of  the  Malmifait  forest  is  composed  of  a  single  employee 
who,  without  question,  would  find  it  difficult  to  maintain  the  fences  in  good  order  and 
to  watch  continually  the  rabbit  holes.  But  in  the  areas  where  the  mammals  are  most 
dangerous,  it  may  be  unsafe  to  start  reforestation  by  means  of  plants,  whose  stems 
should  be  protected  by  wire  netting  fastened  to  stakes." 

An  interesting  example  of  field  practice  in  marking  ^  shelterwood  fell- 
ings was  studied  in  the  oak-beech  forest  of  Pare  et  St.  Quentin.     Before 

^  In  France  the  marking  hammers  are  kept  locked  up  by  the  forest  assistant  or  in- 
spector, and  when  trees  are  marked  they  are  stamped  both  on  the  roots  and  at  breast- 


^8  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

beginning  the  inspector  explained  to  the  rangers  the  fine  points  of  the 
marking.  In  the  area  marked  he  illustrated  the  need  of  favoring  beech, 
especially  trees  with  well-developed  crowns,  on  account  of  the  necessity 
for  plenty  of  seed.  The  trees  cut  were  calipered  and  every  record  checked 
by  being  repeated  by  the  tallyman.  All  poor  trees  were  cut,  notwith- 
standing the  need  of  beech  in  mixture  on  account  of  its  being  insufficient. 
The  marking  passed  the  long  way  with  the  cutting  area,  and  in  some 
places  it  was  noticed  that  regeneration  was  protected  against  rabbits  by 
wire  netting.  The  marking  was  very  carefully  executed,  and  the  first 
time  the  rangers  went  over  the  felling  area  they  merely  blazed  the  trees 
to  be  cut.  As  a  protection  they  went  over  this  same  area  a  second  time 
to  see  whether  mistakes  had  been  made.  At  this  second  trip  they 
stamped  and  blazed  the  roots  of  the  trees  left,  and  in  addition,  because  of 
their  great  value,  talHed  the  number  of  large  trees  left  standing.  It  was 
explained  that  seed  felhngs  were  held  up  in  1911  and  1912  because  of  poor 
seed  years.  The  local  inspector  favored  seed  fellings  by  area  as  well  as 
improvement  cuttings  by  area,  since  it  would  obviate  extensive  calcula- 
tions of  yield. 

Shelterwood  for  Maritime  Pine.  —  The  shelterwoocl  system  should 
never  be  applied  to  maritime  pine.  Clear  cutting  is,  and  must  be,  the 
invariable  rule  except  in  protection  belts  along  the  dunes. 

Shelterwood  for  Scotch  Pine.  —  The  shelterwood  system  is  sometimes 
apphed  to  Scotch  pine.  Here  the  seed  felling  is  made  very  open,  the 
secondary  felhngs  are  delayed  and  are  rarely  more  than  one  or  two  in 
number  and  the  final  felling  comes  early.  It  really  takes  on  the  aspect 
of  clear  cutting  with  the  reservation  of  seed  trees  [160].  The  forest  of 
Ermenonville  presents  an  interesting  study  in  the  treatment  of  Scotch 
pine  in  the  Paris  region.^  The  soil  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  working 
circles  of  this  forest  is  quite  sterile  over  some  3,672  acres  and  therefore 
unsuitable  for  broadleaves.  The  rotation  is  80  years  of  eight  periods  and 
the  regeneration  is  nominally  by  the  shelterwood  system,  although  the 
results  thus  far,  without  sufficient  artificial  assistance,  are  very  imperfect. 
The  forty  to  sixty  seed  trees  per  acre  are  chosen  with  care  and  distributed 

height.  The  trees  marked  for  any  cutting  are  usually  tallied  by  five-centimeter  classes 
(2  inches) .  If  any  marked  tree  is  blazed  twice  on  the  bole  it  means  that  it  must  be  limbed 
and  the  top  cut  off  before  it  is  felled  to  prevent  damage  to  existing  reproduction.  The 
forest  guards  check  the  cutting  after  it  is  finished  and  go  to  every  stump  to  see  if  the 
tree  was  marked.  If  all  right  the  stump  is  stamped  on  the  top.  The  guards  and  rangers 
are  always  on  the  lookout  for  windfall  and  dead  wood.  When  found  the  tree  is  numbered 
consecutively  and  the  following  data  secured :  serial  number,  circumference,  and  general 
location.  It  is  a  guard's  special  duty  to  look  out  for  windfalls  in  spring  so  that  they  may 
be  disposed  of  while  they  are  still  salable. 

8  Traitement  du  pin  sylvestre  dans  la  region  de  Paris,  par  L.  Parde,  Nos.  19  and  20, 
March  1  and  15,  1905.     Revue  des  Eaux  et  Forets. 


SHELTERWOOD   FOR  SCOTCH  PINE  79 

as  uniformly  as  possible  over  the  area.  The  soil  is  cleared  of  brush,  cones, 
and  needles,  either  in  strips  or  in  spots,  and  there  is  artificial  sowing  where 
young  seed  trees  are  available.     According  to  Parde : 

"If  necessary  the  regeneration  will  be  completed  by  plantations  at  the  time  of  the 
first  improvement  felling  when  the  seed  trees  will  be  cut.  For  my  part,  I  confess  that 
I  am  now  rather  disposed  to  admit  that,  so  far  as  the  Scotch  pine  high  forests  aromid 
Paris  are  concerned,  the  regeneration  by  artificial  means  would  be  preferable  to  the 
shelterwood  method  actually  followed." 

Various  steps  have  been  taken  to  assist  regeneration,  such  as  raking 
strips  and  spots  during  the  seed  years ;  in  addition  the  young  seedhngs 
are  sheltered  by  means  of  branches,  which  is  apparently  very  favorable 
to  their  development.  If  the  natural  seeding  fails  the  plantations  must 
be  made  promptly  before  waiting  for  the  first  improvement  cutting. 
Assisting  regeneration  in  this  locality  has  cost  as  much  as  $8.70  per  acre, 
while  restocking  blanks  costs  about  $12.19  (1905  labor  prices).  Not- 
withstanding the  expense  of  $8.70  for  soil  preparation,  the  regeneration 
is  in  poor  shape,  due  to  local  droughts.  Even  with  a  large  number  of 
seed  trees  retained,  the  cost  in  windfalls  has  been  heavy. 

In  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau  there  are  some  822  acres  of  Scotch  pine. 
The  regular  rotation  is  72  years  and  the  same  methods  have  been  applied 
as  in  the  forest  of  Ermenonville.  Probably  one-tenth  of  the  surface  has 
been  naturally  seeded,  chiefly  from  advance  growth  rather  than  from  the 
results  of  seed  fellings.  In  the  forest  of  Rambouillet,  on  4,942  acres  of 
Scotch  pine,  but  680  acres  have  been  regenerated  successfully.  According 
to  Parde: 

"In  practice  the  preparation  of  the  soil  has  consisted  in  a  light  harrowing  which 
removes  the  very  thick  mat  which  covers  the  soil;  this  mat  is  piled  up  at  the  foot  of  the 
reserved  trees.  The  harrowing  is  followed  with  broadcast  seeding,  6.2  pounds  per  acre, 
when,  in  order  to  work  the  seed  into  the  soil,  it  is  again  harrowed  lightly  and  covered 
with  branches." 

Even  after  soil  preparation  regeneration  has  not  been  successful,  and 
it  will  be  necessary  to  sow  or  plant  artificially.  Probably  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  abandon  the  seed  trees  and  to  cut  clean  and  sow  broadcast  by 
the  method  described  above.  The  conclusion  reached,  as  a  result  of  the 
attempt  of  natural  regeneration  of  Scotch  pine  around  Paris,  is  that 
the  present  shelterwood  system  will  probably  be  abandoned,  at  least 
until  further  experiments  determine  upon  a  successful  method.  Appar- 
ently it  is  unnecessary  to  leave  seed  trees  scattered  over  the  area  under 
regeneration,  since  these  trees  are  damaged  by  windfall  and  their  extrac- 
tion damages  seedhngs,  increases  the  area  under  fellings,  and  makes  the 
protection  against  game  more  difficult.  Experiments  are  recommended  with 
the  two  following  systems : 


80  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

1.  Cut  clear  strips  at  right  angles  to  the  wind  and  remove  the  stumps. 
Clear  the  ground  cover  and  harrow.  Sow  artificially  with  protection  of 
branches.  If  seeding  does  not  take  place  within  a  few  years  plant  at 
once  before  the  ground  cover  comes  back.  Never  wait  more  than  five 
years. 

2.  Proceed  as  in  the  case  of  the  system  described  above,  but  with  the 
reservation  of  seed  trees. 

Of  the  two  methods,  the  one  without  seed  trees  is  probably  preferable. 
The  product  would  sell  better;  there  would  be  no  windfall;  insect  damage 
would  be  lessened;  with  the  surface  completely  cleared,  temporary  nur- 
series would  be  more  conveniently  estabhshed  where  planting  was  neces- 
sary; fencing  would  be  less  costly;  there  would  be  no  damage  to  young 
stock  in  the  final  fellings. 

Shelterwood  for  Fir. —  In  order  to  secure  fir  regeneration  it  is  necessary 
to  have  a  deep  fresh  soil  and  a  humid  climate;  the  chemical  composition  is 
less  important.  In  order  that  fir  seedlings  may  develop  properly  it  is  neces- 
sary to  preserve  the  shelter  of  the  cover  stand  as  a  protection  against  dry- 
ing out  and  against  spring  frosts.  It  is  also  necessary  to  have  a  thick  humus 
cover  and  a  protection  against  summer  drought  and  weeds.  The  seedlings 
establish  themselves  under  the  immediate  shelter  of  the  seed  trees.  In 
every  case  the  young  seedlings  develop  naturally  during  the  first  five  to 
ten  years  under  the  cover  of  the  mother  stand.  Therefore,  any  system 
of  clear  felhng  is  out  of  the  question,  but  the  shelterwood  method  may  be 
successfully  used.  In  fir  stands  advance  gi'owth  almost  always  exists, 
therefore  the  seed  felling  is  really  a  light  secondary  felling,  since  its  object 
is  to  allow  this  advance  growth  to  develop.  This  first  secondary  felhng 
or  seed  felling  is  made  very  conservative  so  as  to  remove  the  cover  gradu- 
ally and  not  to  expose  the  seedlings  to  drjdng  out  or  to  permit  weeds  to 
take  possession  of  the  soil.  Even  if  suppressed  for  a  number  of  years,  fir 
seedlings  have  the  ability  to  develop  into  good  trees  after  the  cover  has 
been  removed.  The  other  secondary  felhngs  which  follow  should  also  be 
"dark,"  since  a  gradual  removal  of  the  cover  is  essential.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  final  felling  should  always  be  complete  on  account  of  the  danger 
from  windfall  and  because  of  the  damage  which  results  to  the  old  isolated 
trees  from  drying  out.  De  Gail  has  shown  (see  p.  75)  that  because  of 
windfall  and  the  consequent  irregularity  of  the  stand  (and  derangement 
of  working  plans)  the  shelterwood  system  for  fir  is  fast  proving  unsuccess- 
ful. An  excellent  illustration  of  the  derangement  of  working  plan  yields 
by  windfall  is  in  the  forest  of  Gerardmer  (Vosges).  On  September  1, 
1908,  the  inspector  reported  that,  in  the  first,  third,  fourth,  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth  working  circles,  which  had  a  prescribed  annual  yield  of  11,971 
cubic  meters,  on  account  of  tremendous  windfalls  46,378  cubic  meters,  or 
the  yield  for  almost  four  years,  had  already  been  cut.     As  a  result  of  the 


SHELTERWOOD   FOR  SPRUCE  81 

windfalls  of  1902  the  conservator  favored  a  return  to  an  irregular  selec- 
tion instead  of  the  shelter  wood  system.  The  selection  preferred  is  one 
regulated  by  volume  and  by  area.  In  the  fir  forest  of  Noiremont  (Jura) 
the  seed  felhng  removes  practically  two-fifths  of  the  volume,  the  two 
secondary  felhngs  one-fifth  each,  and  the  final  felKngs  one-fifth.  After 
the  final  felhng  in  this  forest  there  were  openings  33  feet  across  where  the 
parent  trees  had  been  cut.  Here  the  openings  were  being  planted  up. 
The  improvement  fellings  in  this  forest,  regulated  by  area,  remove  the 
badly  suppressed  trees,  badly  formed  trees,  those  dry  topped,  and  the  so- 
called  "wolf"  trees.  But  even  under  the  favorable  conditions  existing 
the  shelterwood  system  may  be  abandoned.  In  the  forest  of  Risol  they 
have  a  rule  of  cutting  not  more  than  100  cubic  meters  per  hectare  at  one 
time.     According  to  the  ranger's  records: 

"Cultural  operations  should  always  be  directed  with  the  aim  of  developing  as  much 
as  possible  the  growth  of  existing  stands  without  sacrificing  anything  for  regularization. 
The  ripe  trees  should  always  be  removed  when  encountered  in  the  fellings,  but  on  condi- 
tion that  their  retention  is  not  considered  necessary  for  reproduction." 

In  the  saphng  stands  the  dominant  beech  is  almost  invariably  cut.  In 
the  pole  stands  the  suppressed  and  damaged  trees  are  removed,  and  in  the 
high  pole  stands  quite  heavy  thinnings  in  the  top  story  are  begun.  All 
beech  not  needed  for  reproduction  is  removed. 

Shelterwood  for  Spruce.  —  While  the  spruce  is  not  essentially  a 
tolerant  species  like  the  fir,  yet  it  is  not  exactly  a  hght-demanding  species 
Hke  the  oak;  it  does  not  grow  while  under  direct  cover,  and  while  it  will 
come  in  naturally  on  pastures,  some  side  cover  is  desirable  on  account  of 
its  demanding  fresh  soil.  It  is  deeper  rooted  than  the  fir  and  more 
difficult  to  secure.  The  seed  of  the  fir  is  quite  heavy,  is  of  average  size, 
and  cannot  be  carried  great  distances.  On  the  other  hand,  most  of  the 
cones  are  at  the  top  of  the  tree;  they  open,  not  because  of  the  heat,  but 
because  of  the  moisture  at  the  end  of  the  September  rains.  The  spruce 
cones,  to  the  contrary,  are  lower  down  on  the  tree  and  most  of  them  are 
found  at  the  ends  of  the  branches;  they  open  under  the  influence  of  heat, 
especially  when  the  dry  east  wind  is  blowing,  so  that  the  seed  may  be 
carried  some  distance  from  the  tree.  Moreover,  the  spruce  seed  does  not 
germinate  well  under  the  immediate  cover  of  the  mother  tree  nor  do  the 
seedlings  germinate  successfully  on  dry  needles,  therefore  the  best  condi- 
tions for  the  germination  of  spruce  seedhngs  are  openings  in  the  mature 
stands,  exposed  to  the  full  sunhght,  and  where  the  mineral  soil  is  at  least 
partially  bared.  In  theory,  at  least,  the  shelterwood  method  of  pro- 
gressive fellings  is  appHcable  to  this  species,  but  unfortunately  there  are 
difficulties.  The  tree  is  subject  to  windfall  on  account  of  its  superficial 
root  system  and  the  heavy  foliage.     It  is  therefore  necessary  to  make  the 


82  NATUR.\L   REGExNERATION 

seed  fellings  conservatively  but,  after  the  seedlings  arc  once  established, 
to  cut  the  mature  stand  very  rapidly  [193].  As  with  the  fir,  the  shelter- 
wood  system  has  not  been  wholly  successful. 

Shelterwood  for  Fir  and  Spruce  in  Mixture.  —  Fir  and  spruce  are  very 
often  found  in  mixture.  From  the  economic  viewpoint  they  have  about 
the  same  value.  It  is  silviculturally  advisable  to  have  them  in  mixture 
since,  when  mixed,  insect  and  fungous  damage  is  not  so  dangerous  and  the 
soil  is  better  conserved.  When  in  mixture  advance  growth  of  fir  is  quite 
common  under  the  old  stand.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  fell  old  trees 
here  and  there  in  order  to  enable  the  spruce  to  profit  by  the  light  and 
establish  itself  in  the  center  of  the  openings.  While  the  advance  growth 
of  the  fir  has  the  advantage  of  age  the  spruce  seedlings  develop  more 
rapidly  and  make  an  excellent  mixture.  The  more  you  want  to  favor  the 
spruce  the  larger  the  openings  should  be  made.  It  is  also  advisable  to 
favor  it  by  wounding  the  soil.  The  mixture  can  be  regulated  in  the  clean- 
ings and  thinnings  that  follow  [202]. 

The  Selection  System  in  Broadleaf  Stands  (Beech). — In  practice 
the  [137]  treatment  by  selection  fellings  is  not  systematically  applied 
in  France  to  broadleaves.  The  beech  is  an  exception.  Because  of  the 
irregularity  of  beech  regeneration,  even  if  treated  by  the  method  of  pro- 
gi-essive  felHngs,  it  may  often  assume  the  character  of  a  selection  forest. 
The  beech  may  be  treated  under  the  selection  system  except  in  those 
forests  where  it  is  mixed  with  fir.  In  theory,  at  least,  the  selection  system 
is  very  simple.  In  the  working  plan  the  exploitable  or  maximum  size  of 
trees  is  given  and  the  amount,  either  in  number  of  trees  or  in  cubic 
meters,  that  should  be  cut  each  year.  The  entire  forest  is  cut  over,  and 
trees  above  the  stated  diameter  limit  are  removed  to  the  amount  of  the 
estimated  yield.  In  practice  the  forest  is  often  divided  into  a  number  of 
compartments  and,  for  the  sake  of  economy  in  lumbering,  the  selection 
fellings  are  concentrated  on  a  portion  of  the  forest.  Selection  felhngs 
avoid  the  crisis  of  regeneration  which  other  more  regular  methods  pre- 
cipitate at  the  time  of  the  seed  fellings.  Moreover,  the  classic  selection 
felling  is  only  suitable  to  shade-enduring  species.  Selection  fellings 
mean  irregularity  as  opposed  to  the  regularity  of  clear  cutting,  shelter- 
wood  (progressive  fellings),  etc.,  [213].  Practically  speaking  the  classic 
selection  felhngs  of  a  few  trees  from  the  entire  area  under  treatment  is 
never  applied  in  France  except  possibly  in  the  sub-alpine  forests  where, 
in  order  to  assist  the  forest  in  its  struggle  for  existence  against  unfavor- 
able climate  and  soil  conditions,  a  light  selection  (or  improvement)  fell- 
ing is  usually  employed.  Clear  cutting,  even  by  strips  or  by  the  shelter- 
wood  method,  is  extremely  dangerous  in  the  mountains,  but  in  the  sub- 
alpine  forests,  where  the  larch  is  one  of  the  most  important  species,  the 
simple  selection  felling  becomes  a  group  selection,  since  the  larch  (see 


FIR  SELECTION   FELLINGS  83 

p.  89)  is  a  light-demanding  species  and  considerable  openings  in  the 
stand  must  be  made.  With  cembric  pine,  or  mountain  pine,  the  openings 
can  be  much  smaller  and  the  removal  of  a  single  tree  is  sufiEicient.  With- 
out question  the  tendency  in  France,  as  in  other  European  countries,  is 
away  from  the  original  tree  selection.  Instead,  especially  with  somewhat 
intolerant  trees,  the  practice  is  now  to  cut  in  groups  so  that,  preferably, 
there  are  clumps  of  even-aged  trees  ah  over  the  forest  which  can  be 
thinned. 

Fir  Selection  Fellings.  —  In  theory,  at  least,  the  fir  should  be  treated 
under  selection  fellings  except  for  the  difficulty  of  lumbering  all  over  a 
forest  and  the  danger  on  the  other  hand  of  compressing  fellings  into  too 
small  an  area  and  thereby  maldng  too  gi*eat  openings.  Consequently, 
in  fir  forests,  selection  fellings  run  over  the  same  area  on  an  average  of 
every  eight  years,  removing  about  12\  per  cent  of  the  stand.  For  this 
reason,  even  in  fir  stands,  the  selection  assumes  the  character  of  a  group 
or  hole  selection  system.  At  high  altitudes,  in  theory,  the  per  cent  re- 
moved at  one  time  should  be  small,  but  in  practice  as  high  as  18  or  20  per 
cent  may  be  cut  in  order  to  make  logging  feasible.  For  example,  in  the 
communal  forest  of  Cette-Eygun  (p.  17  of  the  working  plan)  the  method 
of  exploitation  is  as  follows: 

"These  two  working  groups  will  be  treated  by  the  selection  method;  the  high  altitude, 
the  severe  climate,  the  danger  of  avalanches,  the  slowness  of  reproduction  at  the  higher 
elevations,  the  control  of  water  flow,  the  obligation  in  a  country  habitually  and  essen- 
tially pastoral  to  keep  stands  open  for  grazing  so  far  as  possible,  necessitates  maintaining 
a  dense  forest  on  all  areas  and  slopes,  and  ratifies  the  choice  of  this  selection  method  for 
all  regulated  mountainous  forests." 

About  18  per  cent  of  the  stand  is  cut  at  one  time. 
Mathey  argues  (Societe  de  Franche-Comte  et  Belfort)  that  to  obtain  the 
regeneration  of  spruce  in  the  Alpine  forests,  the  following  are  necessary: 

1.  Maintain  shelter  belts  and  groups  of  trees  as  a  precaution. 

2.  Encourage  the  mixture  of  broadleaf  trees  and  conifers  so  that  the 
former  comprise  at  least  12  per  cent  of  the  upper  story  and  13  per  cent  of 
the  lower  story,  or  25  per  cent  in  all. 

3.  Remove  the  sod  in  spots  where  it  is  desired  to  favor  the  develop- 
ment of  seedhngs. 

4.  Cut  conservatively.  In  the  lower  working  gi'oup  cut  every  6  or  8 
years  over  the  same  area.  In  the  average  working  group  (4,000  to  5,000 
feet  altitude)  cut  every  10  to  12  years,  and  in  the  upper  working  gi'Oup 
(5,000  to  6,000  feet  altitude)  cut  only  every  14  to  16  years.  Areas  above 
6,000  feet  should  be  considered  zones  of  protection  solely.  It  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  be  conservative  in  the  treatment  of  these  forests. 

For  the  best  management  of  a  selection  forest  it  is  necessary  for  the 


84 


NATURAL  REGENERATION 


forester  to  have  in  mind  the  normal  or  average  local  number  of  trees  per 
acre  for  the  different  diameter  classes;  then  by  a  comparison  of  the  normal 
with  the  actual  stand  it  can  be  determined  whether  the  forest  has  too 
many  or  too  few  trees  of  the  different  size  classes.  Such  data  would  be  a 
guide  to  determine  from  what  diameter  classes  in  a  selection  forest  trees 
should  preferably  be  cut.  The  following  table,  compiled  by  Huffel, 
shows  average  figures  per  acre  for  fir  in  different  regions. 


TABLE  7.— AVERAGE  FIGURES  PER  ACRE  FOR  FIR 


Number  of  fir  trees  per  acre 

Diameter, 

breast-high, 

Alpes 

Vosges 

Lorraine 

slope 

French  Jura  Mountains 

Pre-Alpes 
of  Dauphine 

inches 

(average 
for 

toward 

Savoie) 

Low 

Average 

High 

3,200  to  3,460  feet 

6  « 

12  0 

8.4 

12.0 

8 

3.2 

9.4 

10 

2.1 

6.0 

32.0 

6.4 

2.3 

7.0 

12 

1.6 

4.3 

26.8 

5.6 

1.9 

5.1 

14 

1.2 

3.1 

21.2 

4.2 

1.5 

3.6 

16 

10 

2.2 

17.8 

3.5 

1.2 

2.6 

18 

0.8 

1.6 

12.9 

2.6 

0.9 

1.7 

20 

0.6 

1.1 

9.2 

1.8 

0.6 

1.0 

22 

0.5 

0.8 

6.1 

1.2 

0.5 

0.6 

24 

0.4 

0.6 

3.4 

0.7 

0.4 

0.4 

26 

0.4 

2.4 
1.4 
0.9 
0.5 
0.4 

0.5 
0.4 

28 

30 

32 

34 

Total 

11.4 

40.5 

135.0 

26^9 

9T3 

43.4 

°  Smaller  trees  are  not  calipered. 


Schaeffer  ^  gives  the  follow^ing  formula  for  the  management  of  a 
selection  forest: 

"1.  Establish  a  curve  of  a  normal  high  forest,  as  has  been  indicated  (see  p.  214) 
according  to  the  existing  stand. 

"2.  Calculate  the  jdeld  by  any  method  (if  you  wish,  even  by  the  number  of  trees), 
provided  it  is  simple,  taking  care  to  adopt  a  figure  less  than  the  maximum  yield  which 
has  been  determined.     .     .     . 

"3.   First  cut  the  over-stocked  age  classes. 

"4.  Arrange  for  periodic  stocktaking  in  order  to  revise  the  yield  and  to  make  sure 
that  it  approaches  the  type  of  forest  desired." 

Spruce  Selection  Fellings.  —  Contrary  to  fir  forests  it  is  rare  that  ad- 
vance growth  is  found  under  the  parent  spruce  stand.  Therefore,  selec- 
tion by  groups  or  holes  is  always  necessary,  since  it  assures  the  regenera- 

8  Un  Type  de  Futaie  Jardinee,  S.  F.  de  F.  C.  et  B.,  A.  S. 


Fig.  7  (a).  —  Natural  regeneration  of  spruce  in  the  openings  where  it  has  sufficient 
light.     Under  partial  cover  the  seedlings  have  not  as  yet  come  in. 

(6).  —  Spruce  stand  in  the  Melezet  Canton,  communal  forest  of  Villarodin-Bourget, 
running  146  trees  per  acre  and  109  cubic  meters  (36,000  feet  board  measure).  Here 
.selection  fellings  removed  trees  declining  in  vigor  until  openings  have  gradually  been 
made.  Since  the  soil  became  partially  sodded  and  covered  with  spruce  needles  no 
regeneration  has  succeeded.  Had  the  openings  been  made  at  once,  instead  of  gradu- 
ally, the  reproduction  would  have  been  secured. 

(c)-(d).  —  Natural  regeneration  of  spruce  in  the  Melezet  Canton,  communal  forest 
of  Villarodin-Bourget,  at  an  altitude  of  6,060  feet.  No  regeneration  of  spruce  came  in 
after  ordinary  selection  cuttings,  which  removed  only  a  tree  here  and  there.  After  a 
windfall  gave  sufficient  light  (and  wounded  the  soil)  reproduction  has  succeeded  in  the 
following  proportions :  Spruce,  six-tenths;  larch,  three-tenths;  cembric  pine,  one-tenth. 

(85) 


86  NATURAL   REGENERATION 

tion  a  sufficient  amount  of  light  and  at  the  same  time  it  does  not  open  up 
the  forest  enough  to  allow  weeds  to  come  in  (see  Fig.  7,  A  to  D).  The 
openings  made  are  not  quite  so  large  as  in  the  Scotch  pine,  because  the 
spruce  does  not  demand  the  same  amount  of  hght.  Frequently  in  spruce 
stands  the  felHng  of  one  large  tree  makes  an  opening  large  enough  to 
favor  the  introduction  of  spruce  seedlings,  although  usually  two,  three, 
four,  and  even  five  trees  may  be  cut  [199]. 

A  study  of  the  spruce  stand  in  the  Savoie,  by  Thiolher  (see  Fig.  7), 
showed  that,  on  the  whole,  regeneration  is  difficult.  In  a  wet,  mild 
climate,  at  lower  altitudes,  the  spruce  behaves  much  like  the  silver  fir, 
but  at  higher  altitudes  the  spruce  must  be  differently  handled.  To 
secure  spruce  regeneration: 

(a)  The  seed  must  come  in  contact  with  fresh  mineral  soil,  or  soil 
covered  with  humus  of  another  species.  If,  for  example,  the  ground  is 
covered  with  grass,  or  spruce  litter,  this  must  be  worked  and  the  soil 
bared. 

(6)  Isolated  spruce  saplings  suffer  from  the  snow,  so  every  effort  should 
be  made  to  secure  clumps  or  gi'oups  for  regeneration. 

(c)  To  secure  thrifty,  well-developed  crowns,  early  and  frequent  thin- 
nings are  indispensable;  but  if  too  heavy  the  height  growth  is  decreased, 
the  cover  is  broken,  and  the  trees  become  branchy;  if  too  hght,  or  if  begun 
too  late,  the  growth  is  slow  and  the  trees  are  never  really  merchantable 
for  timber. 

(d)  Since  the  spruce  requires  full  sunlight  for  best  development  it  is 
best  grown  in  even-aged  clumps  or  stands.  But  since  it  is  so  liable  to 
windfall  some  form  of  selection  fellings  is  desirable  and  necessary  at  these 
altitudes.  This  shows  the  vital  necessity  of  not  practicing  a  selection 
system  by  cutting  single  trees  but  rather  groups  of  trees.  These  groups 
are  then  developed  by  successive  cutting  into  fairly  even-aged  stands. 
Thiollier  stated  to  the  author  personally  that  these  three  cultural  rules 
should  therefore  be  followed: 

"1.  The  young  stands  must  always  be  kept  dense;  the  thinnings  should  only  remove 
trees  without  a  future  and  free  the  crowns  of  the  best  stems  without  ever  opening  up 
the  stand. 

"2.  When  a  stand  or  a  clump  becomes  of  exploitable  age,  to  regenerate  it;  make 
openings  (or  holes)  whose  size  varies  with  the  altitude,  the  kind  of  soil,  exposure,  to  be 
made  after  an  examination  of  existing  blanks. 

"3.  The  soil  cover  (grass,  brush,  spruce  litter)  should  be  broken  up  by  irregular  seed 
spots  so  as  to  form  flat  areas  in  the  holes  or  blanks  where  the  seeding  should  take  place. 
If  regeneration  fails,  plant  in  the  center  (of  openings)  with  at  least  five  trees  spaced  12 
inches." 

In  other  words,  Thiollier  recognized  the  necessity  of  assisting  natural 
regeneration,  and  that  the  ground  must  not  be  allowed  to  run  wild. 
Since  fir  or  beech  is  almost  invariably  mixed  with  spruce  care  must  al- 


SELECTION   FELLINGS   FOR  SCOTCH   AND   ALEPPO   PINE  87 

ways  be  taken  to  favor  the  spruce  if  this  species  is  especially  desired.  But 
judging  from  results  studied  in  France  the  practice  of  sacrificing  a  fair 
species  hke  fir  for  spruce  (which  brings  a  little  better  price)  is  poor 
technique,  and  there  is  danger  of  windfall. 

The  spruce  and  fir  regeneration  in  the  forest  of  St.  Martin  d'Arc  is 
favored  by  cleaning  out  the  birch,  aspen,  and  other  less  desirable  species. 
In  the  case  of  pine  a  complete  cleaning  is  made  wherever  groups  require 
more  light;  with  fir  the  cleaning  is  gradual  and  partial.  In  this  particular 
forest  the  cutting  period  is  15  years  with  a  separate  rotation  for  each 
species,  whereas  in  other  parts  of  the  Savoie  the  working  plans  officer 
usually  establishes  one  rotation  to  cover  all  species.  In  the  improvement 
cuttings  undesirable  trees  are  often  left  because  if  all  undesirable  ones 
were  cut  it  would  mean  a  too  heavy  felling.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Thonon  (Savoie),  above  the  Drance  River,  the  selection  fellings  take 
place  every  12  to  14  years,  according  to  the  working  plan,  but,  in  practice, 
they  cannot  take  place  quite  so  often  because  the  amount  to  be  removed 
is  limited  and  accidental  fellings  consume  too  much  of  the  yield.  On  this 
rich  soil  the  spruce  comes  in  best  in  the  openings.  The  protection  zone 
covers  a  30  per  cent  rocky  slope  where  only  windfall  is  removed.  In  the 
forest  of  Bonnevaux  a  selection  cutting  removed  one  tree  from  the  center 
of  a  group  of  three  —  a  diseased  tree,  one  that  was  suppressed,  and  a 
stag-headed  tree  —  as  well  as  two  trees  which  were  suppressing  fir  repro- 
duction. An  opening  66  by  98  feet  was  made  at  one  place  because  of  the 
removal  of  a  large  tree  with  a  bad  crown.  The  cut  probably  removed  25 
per  cent  of  the  stand,  the  amount  removed  being  necessitated  by  the 
poor  condition  of  the  trees.  In  the  forest  of  Grande  Chartreuse,  cut  over 
by  selection  fellings,  weeds  have  come  in  in  the  openings  which  were  made 
to  favor  the  reproduction  of  spruce,  since  fir  here  reproduces  under  cover 
before  the  spruce  can  gain  a  foothold.  In  the  forest  of  Chapelle  d'Huin 
beech  and  a  little  oak  are  mixed  with  the  fir.  Beech  is  cut  rather  heavily, 
especially  in  cleanings,  because  firewood  values  have  decreased  to  such  an 
extent.  There  is  too  much  beech  coming  in  under  the  old  stand  of  fir  but, 
curiously  enough,  under  the  beech  there  is  a  good  deal  of  fir.  In  this 
locality,  for  the  value  of  cord  wood  removed,  the  peasants  will  cut  the 
beech;  thus  the  cleaning  is  made  free  of  charge. 

Selection  Fellings  for  Scotch  and  Aleppo  Pine.  —  Ordinary  selection 
felhng  is  not  suitable  for  Scotch  pine;  gi'oup  selection,  when  apphed  to 
a  hght-demanchng  species,  must  produce  two  results  —  it  must  diminish 
the  number  of  stems  in  the  stand  so  as  to  open  it  up  sufficiently  and  it 
must  make  openings  large  enough  so  that  the  seedlings  will  receive  the 
necessary  light,  at  least  during  the  middle  of  the  day.  The  size  of  these 
openings  or  holes  depends  on  the  height  of  the  tree  and  distance  from 
the  seed  trees.     It  is  usually  necessary  to  concentrate  these  fellings  on, 


88  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

say,  one-fifteenth  of  the  forest.  Under  the  same  conditions  it  is  pos- 
sible to  make  the  openings  2  to  4  acres  in  area.  The  diameter  of  the 
opening  is  usually  at  least  one-half  the  height  of  the  neighboring  trees.  As 
soon  as  the  regeneration  starts  it  is  necessary  to  open  up  around  it  in 
order  to  give  it  sufficient  hght  for  development,  always  bearing  in  mind, 
however,  that  too  wide  openings,  which  become  choked  with  brush, 
are  consequently  expensive  to  clear.  This  hole-selection  method  has 
been  applied  to  aleppo  pine,  but  until  experiments  in  Algeria  in  the 
Oran  Conservation  are  completed  by  Conservateur  Laporte,  no  final 
decision  can  be  reached  as  to  the  best  method  of  treatment.  It  is  very 
significant,  however,  that  near  Marseilles  the  working  plan  calls  for 
the  shelterwood  system,  that  is,  progressive  feelings,  but  the  local  in- 
spector preferred  the  method  as  described  in  the  following  statement 
furnished  the  author  personally : 

"The  aleppo  pine  is  the  only  coniferous  species  of  the  calcareous  regions  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Provence.  Besides  this  species  there  is  only  the  holm  oak  and  the  pedunculate 
oak  treated  under  coppice  and  furnishing  nothing  but  firewood.  In  the  Department  of 
Bouches-du-Rhone  the  aleppo  pine  ordinarily  forms  almost  pure  stands  or  mixed  with  a 
small  per  cent  of  oak  (.0  to  15  per  cent). 

"The  forests  of  aleppo  pine  occupy  the  lower  mountains  where  the  altitude  ranges 
from  sea  level  to  2,600  feet.  The  calcareous  soil  is  generally  on  steep  slopes,  which  are 
usually  rugged.  There  are  numerous  rock  benches  and  stone  slides  with  but  little 
vegetation.  The  climate  is  characterized  by  hot  and  dry  summers.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  is  20  inches  at  Marseilles  to  28  inches  at  Areasque  (in  the  center  of  the 
small  mountainous  forest  situated  to  the  northeast  of  Marseilles).  The  average  number 
of  rainy  days  is  85,  chiefly  in  autumn  and  spring.  During  1912  there  was  an  almost 
complete  drought  for  two  months  —  July  and  August. 

"The  aleppo  pine  is  admirably  adapted  to  these  conditions,  which  any  other  indige- 
nous species  would  not  be  able  to  stand.  It  is  essentially  light-demanding,  endures 
drought,  and  is  vigorous.  It  has  a  very  light  foliage  and  is  easily  regenerated  by  natural 
means.  But  while  it  stands  heat  and  prolonged  droughts,  its  growth  suffers  neverthe- 
less, and  its  remarkable  thrift  when  near  water  .  .  .  shows  it  can  thrive  on  fresh 
soil.  The  young  seedlings  suffer  from  drought  if  the  roots  are  not  well  into  the  soil; 
they  are  often  burned  by  the  sun  in  the  summer  if  it  is  especially  hot  and  dry.  On  cer- 
tain rocky  slopes  where  the  stand  is  open  it  is  difficult  to  get  regeneration  under  the  old 
trees;  on  the  other  hand,  the  soil  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  wild,  since  it  must  be  pro- 
tected against  the  heat  of  the  sun;  cuttings  must  be  light. 

"The  treatment  by  regular  high  forest  (shelterwood)  with  a  rotation  of  60  years  and 
with  the  division  of  the  forest  in  three  periodic  blocks  (each  to  be  regenerated  in  turn 
within  20  years)  has  been  followed  in  a  number  of  forests  for  50  years.  But  the  looked- 
for  regularity  has  not  been  obtained  on  the  arid  and  rocky  soil  which  one  finds  on  most 
of  the  area  under  management. 

"Uniform  stands  have  been  obtained  only  on  several  areas  where  the  soil  was  deeper 
and  richer;  these  are  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  In  reality  most  areas  treated 
by  the  shelterwood  system  have  always  remained  in  a  transition  stage.  On  the  contrary 
the  selection  system  is  adapted  to  the  regional  conditions.  Forests  of  more  than  741 
acres  are  divided  into  working  groups  whose  area  ordinarily  does  not  exceed  this.  Each 
working  group  is  divided  into  a  certain  number  of  felling  areas,  usually  10  to  16,  which 


GROUP  SELECTION   FOR  LARCH   (AND  OTHER   METHODS)        89 

are  cut  over  each  year  successively  (the  area  of  each  felHng  area  usually  varies  from  12 
to  49  acres) .  The  number  of  the  felling  areas  also  fixes  the  periodicity  of  cutting  over 
the  same  point,  10  to  16  years  .  .  .  and  at  each  cut  the  trees  which  have  attained 
exploitable  size  (12  to  14  inches  in  diameter)  along  with  the  badly  shaped  and  over- 
mature trees  are  removed;  at  the  same  time  the  trees,  where  they  are  too  thick,  are 
thinned,  thereby  freeing  the  promising  seedhngs.  The  yield  is  not  fixed;  the  cut  re- 
moves each  time  15  to  20  per  cent  of  the  standing  material.  Seedlings  ordinarily  come 
in  quickly  where  the  stand  has  been  opened;  and  if  the  neighboring  trees  shut  off  a 
portion  of  the  sun's  rays  when  it  is  low  on  the  horizon  the  effect  is  not  bad  for  the  seed- 
lings, but  on  the  contrary  preserves  them  against  the  dangers  of  excessive  heat  and 
drought,  due  to  the  intensity  of  the  light  and  the  lightness  of  the  cover. 

"The  selection  method  gives  in  the  end  excellent  results  from  the  cultural  viewpoint 
and  is  perfectly  suited  to  the  silvics  of  the  aleppo  pine,  both  as  to  the  soil  and  climatic 
conditions.  It  assures  the  conservation  of  the  stand,  something  that  is  essential  in  a 
region  where  the  percentage  of  wooded  areas  is  much  too  small  (14.2).  It  yields  short- 
stemmed  trees,  to  be  sure,  but  36  feet  of  height  growth  is  sufficient  for  very  mediocre 
soil.  Moreover,  the  length  of  the  stem  is  of  secondary  importance,  because  at  the  saw- 
mill the  aleppo  pine  is  cut  into  small  boards  for  shipping  crates.  From  the  economic 
viewpoint  there  is  the  objection  of  giving  a  very  great  latitude  to  the  officer  who  does  the 
marking,  since  there  is  no  fixed  yield,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  because  of  frequent 
fires  ...  it  does  not  seem  feasible  to  establish  a  precise  working  scheme  which 
would  have  to  be  incessantly  revised  and  whose  provisions  would  be  constantly  re- 
versed." 

Group  Selection  for  Fir  or  Spruce.  —  In  high  altitudes,  or  perhaps  on 
rocky  soil,  the  advance  growth  is  rare  and  it  may  be  impossible  to  wait 
for  it  to  install  itself.  There  are  usually  groups  of  advance  gi-owth, 
however,  and  these  may  be  gradually  uncovered  by  removing  the  stand 
surrounding  them.  As  these  groups  develop  other  trees  are  removed 
so  that  they  become  larger  and  larger  until  the  ground  is  completely 
stocked.  This  method  has  given  very  good  results  and  often  is  the  only 
one  that  can  be  employed.  If  there  are  no  groups  of  advance  growth 
an  old  tree  may  be  cut  here  and  there  in  order  to  start  seedling  growth. 
If  the  openings  are  too  large  there  is  danger  of  weeds  taking  possession 
of  the  soil  [174].  Spruce  reproduces  better  with  group  selection  than 
with  selection  by  single  trees. 

Group  Selection  for  Larch  (and  Other  Methods).  —  Near  Briangon 
there  are  numerous  interesting  examples  of  the  treatment  of  larch  forests. 
(See  Fig.  8.)  In  the  communal  forest  of  Villard  St.  Panerace  the  larch 
comprises  an  open  park-like  forest  where  cattle  grazing  is  allowed. 
The  cutting  made  is  really  an  improvement  felling,  but  the  young 
growth  is  always  freed  even  if  a  good  tree  has  to  be  cut.  On  the  other 
hand  a  good  many  poor  trees  are  left  rather  than  make  large  openings. 
According  to  the  working  plan  it  is  a  seed  felling,  but  on  the  ground 
it  was  a  selection  felhng  by  groups.  According  to  the  working  plan 
no  sacrifices  are  to  be  made  to  regularize  the  stand  and  yet  the  inspector 
is  not  advised  systematically  to  make  a  regular  stand  irregular.     In 


90 


NATURAL  REGENERATION 


another  portion  of  the  forest  the  marking  illustrates  the  freedom  and 
flexibility  of  French  silviculture.  Here  the  cutting  was  the  removal 
of  small  groups  of  trees  and  the  groups  left  were  occasionally  thinned. 
Trees  were  left  along  roads  and  around  a  small  mountain  swamp.  The 
openings  were  rarely  more  than  33  to  49  feet  in  diameter  and  the  groups 


Fig.  8.  —  Pure  larcli  at  an  altitude  of  .5,970  feet,  in  tlie  communal  forest  of  Tignes. 
The  stand  totals  49  trees  per  acre  and  4,5  cubic  meters  (11,000  feet  board  measure). 
A  selection  felling  has  resulted  in  an  open  stand,  because  the  ground  (grass  covered) 
was  not  worked  to  assist  regeneration. 

left  were  preferably  on  rocky  ground  and  very  steep  slopes.  The  cutting 
in  one  locality  where  conservatism  was  indicated  by  the  steep  slopes 
removed,  in  a  hght  selection  system,  about  20  per  cent  of  the  stand. 
An  experiment  was  being  tried  out  by  cutting  in  strips  running  hori- 
zontally around  the  slopes.     The  strips  cut  were  about  100  feet  in  width 


TREATMENT  OF   SCENIC   FORESTS  91 

and  the  uncut  strip,  which  was  thinned,  was  about  65  feet  wide.  In 
the  same  locality  in  the  forest  of  Ban  de  Puy-Saint  Pierre  the  selection 
system  was  used  because  it  did  not  interrupt  the  local  grazing.  The 
local  inspector  stated  that  if  there  had  been  no  provisions  in  the  working 
plan  (by  Broilhard,  December  31,  1855),  he  would  have  used  the  shelter- 
wood  method  on  the  lower  gentle  slopes  and  a  conservative  selection 
system  higher  up  where  the  slopes  were  steep.  According  to  page  13 
of  the  original  working  plan  the  secondary  fellings  are  not  necessary. 
"The  regeneration  fellings  fall  into  a  seed  felling  and  a  final  felling." 

The  trees  reserved  after  the  seed  felling  should  be  at  least  twenty 
per  acre.  Grazing  should  be  forbidden  in  each  division  when  it  comes 
to  be  regenerated,  and  the  extraction  of  underbrush  should  be  made 
at  the  time  of  seed  felling.  When  the  natural  reseeding  is  less  than 
half  completed,  say  7  years  after  the  seed  felling,  the  ground  still  un- 
stocked  should  be  cultivated  in  horizontal  strips  20  inches  wide,  spaced 
3.3  feet.  Moreover,  any  openings  still  remaining  at  the  final  felling 
should  be  planted.  The  final  cutting  will  take  place  when  the  reseeding 
is  completed,  and  the  seed  fellings  shall  not  be  started  again  until  after 
the  ground  is  fully  stocked.     The  rotation  is  200  years. 

Treatment  of  Scenic  Forests.  —  Forests  retained  as  semi-parks  for 
recreation  are  always  high  forests  and  are  usually  free  from  working- 
plan  regulation  so  far  as  the  specific  amount  to  be  cut  is  concerned.  A 
selection  system  is  usually  applied  but  in  reality  it  is  a  light  improvement 
cutting,  removing  only  the  dead  and  dying  trees.  The  young  stands 
are  often  thinned.  For  example,  in  the  working  plan  for  the  forest 
of  St.  Antoine  in  the  Vosges  (for  the  years  1908-1939),  special  provi- 
sion is  made  for  the  scenic  working  group  designed  to  protect  a  gorge 
with  waterfalls  and  precipitous  slopes.  In  the  selection  system  used 
the  fine,  big  trees  are  favored  and  are  retained  as  long  as  possible  for 
their  natural  beauty.     According  to  the  working  plan: 

"The  aim  of  this  scenic  working  group  is  to  form  and  to  keep  a  stand  of  beautiful 
trees  without  striving  for  regularity  and  without  a  necessity  for  economic  exploitation. 
Each  year  after  having  marked  the  windfall  and  dead  trees  and  having  subtracted  their 
volume,  the  remainder  of  the  yield  should  be  cut  from  the  entire  compartment  .  .  . 
by  selection  ...  see  to  it  not  only  that  the  stand  is  not  opened  up,  but  also  that 
it  is  maintained  sufficiently  dense.  In  the  young  stands  remove  only  the  trees  wholly 
dominated  and  the  stems  too  dense  which  will  certainly  become  valueless.  In  the  high 
forest  .  .  .  remove  only  the  overmature  or  wholly  defective  trees  .  .  .  the 
greatest  prudence  will  always  be  the  maxim.  The  selection  fellings  will  be  extended 
over  a  large  area  in  order  to  cover  the  working  group  one  and  one-half  times  during  the 
cutting  period." 

In  all  forests  under  working  plans  famous  trees  are  always  reserved 
from  cutting. 


92  NATURAL  REGENERATION 


COPPICE   SYSTEMS 


General.  —  Economically  and  silviculturally  the  application  of  any 
coppice  system  over  large  areas  is  a  grave  error.  Tassey  estimated  the 
loss  in  France,  due  to  the  large  areas  in  coppice,  at  more  than  60  million 
dollars  per  year.  In  fact  all  the  best  French  authorities  condemn  cop- 
pice and  especially  short  rotations,  yet  to-day  we  find  four-fifths  of  the 
private  forests  in  some  form  of  coppice.  Even  in  the  State  forests  more 
than  one-third  of  the  producing  forest  area  is  in  coppice  (largely  cop- 
pice-under-standards).  Furthermore,  nine-tenths  of  all  coppice  in 
France  is  managed  on  too  short  a  rotation. 

In  the  past  this  type  of  stand  was  very  profitable  because  of  the 
high  prices  of  tannin  bark  and  firewood.  But  to-day,  on  account  of  the 
large  decrease  in  these  values,  coppice  is  becoming  less  and  less  profit- 
able, and  so  far  as  economic  and  silvicultural  conditions  permit,  these 
stands  are  being  transformed  to  high  forest.  One  of  the  main  objections 
to  conversions  is  that  it  is  necessary  to  increase  the  growing  stock,  and 
communes  dependent  on  local  wood  supphes  cannot  afford  this  economy. 
In  some  localities  where  tannin  bark  is  the  chief  product,  coppice  rota- 
tions have  been  as  short  as  12  or  15  years.  In  other  locaHties  the  coppice 
of  sessile  oak  has  been  continued,  but  with  a  longer  rotation  so  as  to 
produce  mine  props  and  stulls.  With  this  longer  rotation  (which  often 
amounts  to  30  or  40  years)  it  is  necessary  to  thin  coppice  in  order  to 
give  the  best  chance  for  development  to  those  trees  which  will  produce 
mine  props  16  to  33  feet  in  length.  The  management  of  simple  coppice 
is  popular  with  private  owners  because  it  has  frequently  given  a  certain 
fixed  income,  it  requires  little  or  no  skill,  less  money  is  tied  up  in  grow- 
ing stock,  and  because  there  is  Httle  danger  from  insects  or  fungus. 
Except  in  very  wet  locaHties,  however,  it  results  in  positive  damage  to 
the  soil.  According  to  Boppe:  "There  is  grave  danger  from  frost, 
especially  to  species  like  beech,  and  to  have  successful  coppice  stands 
for  generations  a  mild  chmate  is  essential." 

Furthermore  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  sprouting  longevity  of  the 
species  in  the  coppice.^"  For  example,  the  sessile  and  pedunculate  oaks 
in  France  sprout  well  up  to  40  or  50  years  of  age,  while  other  oak  species, 
such  as  holm,  do  not  sprout  vigorously  after  25  or  30  years.  But  as  a 
matter  of  fact  most  private  coppice  in  France  should  be  cut  on  double 
its  present  rotation.  Some  species  (oak,  hornbeam,  ash,  maple,  alder) 
reproduce  vigorously  from  the  stump,  others  (beech  and  birch)  sprout 
poorly  but  make  up  for  this  deficiency  by  prohfic  seeding;   the  aspen 

i°See  "Le  Traitement  des  Bois  en  France,  "Broilliard,  Nouvelle  Edition,  especially 
pp.  62-236.  Since  the  coppice  systems  will  not  be  widely  used  in  the  United  States  the 
French  application  to  the  various  species  has  not  been  given  in  detail. 


SIMPLE  COPPICE  93 

does  not  sprout  from  the  stump  at  all  but  produces  root  suckers  in 
abundance.  These  qualities  must  always  be  considered.  The  chief 
species  found  in  French  coppice  stands  are  locust,  poplar,  maple,  oak, 
beech,  ash,  elm,  alder,  birch,  and  hornbeam.  In  a  great  many  localities  it 
is  becoming  very  popular  to  introduce  conifers  into  the  coppice  stand 
with  the  idea  of  converting  them  gradually  into  high  forest  and  in  order 
to  have  the  conifers  increase  the  production  of  timber.  Maritime  pine 
and  aleppo  pine  are  also  being  introduced  in  coppice  stands  in  the  south 
of  France. 

The  following  official  figures  give  an  idea  of  the  relative  yield  of 
timber  and  fuel  from  simple  coppice,  coppice-under-standards,  and  high 
forest : 


state  and  communal 


Simple  coppice 

Coppice-under-standards . 
High  forest 


Simple  Coppice.  —  The  important  technique  is  to  cut  at  the  right 
season  and  to  cut  smooth,  sloping  stumps  close  to  the  ground.  In 
France  the  season  to  cut  oak  is  from  March  to  May;  for  hornbeam, 
March  to  April;  for  birch,  November  to  December.  August  is  the 
most  unfavorable  month  in  which  to  cut  coppice,  and  on  fire  hues  it  is 
often  of  value  to  cut  in  August  so  as  to  weaken  and  decrease  the  sprout- 
ing. It  is  of  interest  that  there  are  two  variations  to  the  rule  of  cutting 
low  stumps:  (a)  In  holm-oak  stands  where  the  ground  is  dry  and  the 
climate  hot,  the  stump  may  be  cut  2  inches  beloiv  the  ground  to  increase 
sprouting;  (6)  on  wet  ground,  where  there  is  often  standing  water  (as 
in  the  Sologne)  the  stump  may  be  cut  5  to  8  inches  above  the  ground. 
This  method  would  be  followed  with  willow  along  the  river  beds.  To 
maintain  coppice  in  good  condition  the  better  species,  such  as  oak,  must 
be  occasionally  planted  or  sown  in  the  blanks;  these  seedlings  must  be 
usually  protected  from  suppression  by  the  more  rapidly  growing  sprouts. 
When  the  coppice  rotation  is  25  years  or  more  one  thinning,  about  8 
years  before  the  end  of  the  rotation,  is  necessary  for  the  following  reasons: 
The  growth  of  the  coppice  will  be  increased;  the  first-year  standards  will 
endure  isolation  better;  valuable  species,  and  especially  seedlings,  can  be 
assisted  by  cutting  weed  species  which  are  competing  with  them;  coppice 
suppressing  the  lower  branches  of  valuable  reserves,  which  would  start 
rot,  can  be  cut  out;  and  short  lived  species  can  be  removed  before  they  die. 


94  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

Coppice  with  Field  Crops.  —  "  Sartage,"  the  combination  of  coppice 
with  field  crops,  has  been  largely  condemned  in  France  as  poor  silvi- 
culture, but  Jolyet  beheves  in  it  "since  the  potash  resulting  from  burn- 
ing the  branches  enriches  the  soil  sufficiently  to  permit  with  some 
success  the  cultivation  of  grain."  On  the  other  hand  Boppe  [222]  calls 
attention  to  the  damage  from  fire,  the  decrease  in  the  amount  of  oak, 
the  washing  away  of  soil  foods  on  the  slopes,  and  the  difficulty  of  in- 
creasing the  rotations. 

Selection  Coppice  (Beech).  —  While  considerable  difficulty  has  been 
experienced  in  treating  beech  under  the  simple  coppice  system,  it  can 
be  worked  in  selection  coppice  (taillis  furete),  since  the  selection  cuttings 
enable  the  retention  of  part  of  the  stand  which  protects  the  shoots 
against  the  first  autumn  frosts.  It  is  usually  worked  on  a  diameter- 
hmit  basis  and  furnishes  a  great  deal  of  charcoal  for  manufacturing 
purposes.  Huffel,  who  likes  this  method,  says  [147]  that  "the  treat- 
ment in  selection  coppice  is  really  a  methodical  treatment  and  perfectly 
rational,  justified  by  the  silvics  of  the  beech  and  the  exceptional  condi- 
tions of  the  coppice.  .  .  .  When  employed  correctly  it  gives  good 
results." 

Correctly  apphed,  the  selection  coppice  does  protect  the  young  beech 
from  frost,  but  since  the  best  sprouts  are  being  cut  continually  the 
stand  must  in  time  deteriorate.  In  practice,  with  a  30-year  rotation, 
one-third  of  the  stand  in  each  compartment  would  be  cut  every  10  years. 
Naturally  it  is  difficult  to  cut  the  larger  sprouts  from  a  clump  without 
damaging  some  of  those  that  remain. 

Coppice-Under-Standards.  —  Coppice-under-standards  is  composed  of 
two  distinct  elements:  the  lower  story,  the  coppice,  which  is  cut  clean 
on  a  short  rotation,  and  the  upper  story,  or  reserve,^^  which  is  usually 
managed  on  a  rotation  four  to  five  times  the  length  of  the  coppice. 
The  object  of  this  kind  of  management  is  to  increase  the  proportion  of 
timber.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  as  being  inferior  to  high  forest 
without  the  advantages  of  coppice.  The  species  composing  the  coppice  in 
coppice-under-standards  evidently  should  have  splendid  sprouting  ability 
and  should  also  be  species  that  will  endure  some  side  shade.  The  hornbeam, 
the  maple,  and  the  linden  are  the  chief  species;  heech  and  oak  are  less  valu- 
able. The  pyrenean  oak  is  used  as  coppice  a  good  deal  in  the  west  of 
France,  birch  is  useful  on  sandy  soils,  and  poplar  on  wet  soils.  The  chief 
skill  in  managing  a  coppice-under-standards  forest  is  the  choice  of  the 
upper  story,  which  should  be  chosen  from  species  of  a  light  foliage  so  as 
not  to  suppress  the  under  story,  and  should  be  selected  so  far  as  possible 
from  seedlings  or  root  suckers  as  a  second  choice.  The  pedunculate  and 
sessile  oak  are  of  the  first  importance  as  standards,  although  ash,  elm, 
"  See  Jolyet,  pp.  225,  250,  382,  431-439  for  data  on  coppice-under-standards. 


COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS 


95 


and  maple  are  good  associates.  Even  with  light  fohaged  oak  three  to 
six  per  cent  of  the  coppice  is  lost  through  shading.  The  alder  and  linden 
are  not  so  good  on  account  of  their  thicker  fohage,  and  beech  can  be 
used  only  in  exceptional  circumstances.  The  foliage  of  the  hornbeam 
is  too  thin.  Most  stands  of  coppice-under-standards  have  been 
ruined  through  careless  selection  of  the  trees  to  be  reserved.  These 
reserved  trees  should  be  carefully  distributed  over  the  area  so  that  the 
crowns  can  be  isolated.  According  to  Inspecteur  Galmiche  [233]  the 
following  space  should  be  allowed  for  oak  standards  of  the  following 
ages:  50  years,  22  square  yards;  100  years,  89  square  yards;  150  years, 
145  square  yards.  According  to  Jolyet  two-thirds  to  one-third  the  grow- 
ing space  should  be  reserved  for  the  coppice  and  a  normal  number  of 
reservesi2  are  per  acre:  IR  =  20,  2R  =  12,  3R  =  8,  4R  =  4.  Broil- 
hard  prefers  not  to  specify  any  exact  number  of  reserves  as  an  ideal, 
but  advises  the  forester  to  mark  as  many  as  possible  if  good  trees  can 
be  found.  He  cautions  against  stopping  the  reservation  of  standards 
simply  because  20  to  25  or  more  have  been  secured.  If  good  trees  can 
be  secured  it  is  better  to  go  ahead  and  mark  them.  In  a  coppice-under- 
standards  forest  near  Oloron  in  the  Pyi'enees  the  foresters  are  guard- 
ing against  keeping  too  many  standards.  They  argue  that,  with  too 
much  of  a  reserve,  the  coppice  does  not  grow  well  in  youth  and  the 
reserves  do  not  develop  so  thriftily.  As  explained  by  the  local  inspector 
the  Nancy  Forest  School  teaches  the  value  of  retaining  many  standards 
for  the  simple  reason  that  they  yield  a  larger  percentage  of  timber,  but 
rather  than  adopt  this  practice  the  local  inspector  favored  conversion 
to  a  high  forest.  The  normal  number  per  acre  in  this  section  is  four  3R, 
twelve  2R,  and  twenty-four  IR  standards.  It  is  claimed  that  with 
many  reserves  they  cannot  grow  such  good  trees  and  the  oak  is  pre- 
vented from  coming  in  as  thriftily  as  it  otherwise  might.  Major  Hirsch, 
the  owner  of  the  famous  forest  of  Amboise,  reserves  all  the  standards  he 
can  secure  and  in  view  of  eventual  conversions  this  seems  the  best  pohcy 
for  those  who  can  afford  it.  Badre  believes  in  greatly  increasing  the  number 
of  standards  to  secure  quick  conversions,  especially  in  Normandy  where  up 

12  The  French  name  their  reserves  as  follows : 


French  name 

Age, 

30-year  coppice 

rotation 

Key  letter  used 
by  author 

Baliveau 

Moderne 

30-60 
60-90 
90-120 
120-150 
150-180 
180-210 

IR  standard 
2R  standard 

Ancienne,  2d  class 

3R  standard 

Ancienne,  1st  class 

Vieille  Ecorce,  2d  class 

FiTi  ftnnrlnrrl 

6R  standard 

96  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

to  600  per  acre  are  sometimes  reserved.  Thiollier  ^^  gives  four  rules  for  the 
improvement  of  coppice-under-standards :  (1)  Lengthen  coppice  ro- 
tations; (2)  increase  the  density  of  the  reserves  and  thin  when  coppice 
is  20  years  of  age;  (3)  concentrate  the  oak  on  the  soil  best  suited  to  it; 
(4)  choose  standards  best  suited  to  the  soil.  Gazin/*  one  of  the  best 
foresters  in  France,  in  private  employ,  has  called  attention  to  the  bad 
effect  of  higher  labor  costs  on  coppice  exploitations  and  the  necessity  for 
reserving  more  standards  and  planting.  He  advocates  using  100-foot 
strips  through  the  cutting  area,  cutting  clean  the  coppice  on  half  the 
strips  and  the  ripe  standards  on  all  strips  so  as  to  (1)  get  mine  props  from 
the  coppice  held  over;  (2)  crowd  out  the  weed  trees;  (3)  enrich  the  stand; 
(4)  improve  the  soil  by  having  uncut  strips.  Such  procedure  is  mani- 
festly a  compromise  so  as  not  to  reduce  the  revenue  too  much  during  the 
process  of  increasing  the  growing  stock. 

The  following  rules  for  the  choice  of  standards  have  been  developed 
in  France:  ^^  (1)  All  reserved  trees  (standards)  must  be  of  sufficient 
distance  apart  so  that  the  branches  of  their  crowns  cannot  join  before 
the  end  of  the  rotation  which  is  beginning.  If  they  do  join  sufficient 
Hght  will  not  be  admitted  to  allow  the  coppice  understory  to  develop. 
(2)  It  is  not  absolutely  essential  to  have  the  reserves  evenly  distributed 
over  the  cutting  area  because  to  do  this  means  to  sacrifice  the  choice  of 
species.  For  instance,  it  is  better  to  have  some  grouping  of  the  reserves 
if  by  so  doing  some  good  oak  standards  can  be  secured.  (3)  It  is  ad- 
vantageous to  reserve  a  great  number  of  standards  near  the  forest 
boundaries  to  serve  as  a  wind  protection  and  to  prevent  the  soil  in  the 
interior  of  the  cutting  areas  from  drying  out  too  much.  (4)  It  is  also 
advantageous  to  have  the  reserves,  so  far  as  possible,  situated  near  the 
logging  roads  and  compartment  hues,  since  it  makes  cutting  cheaper 
and  the  product  more  valuable,  at  the  same  time  giving  the  forest  the 
appearance  of  richness.  (5)  A  good,  sound  oak  should  always  be  favored 
as  against  other  species  for  the  reserve.  (6)  If  two  trees  are  oak  of 
equal  vigor  the  largest  should  be  reserved  if  it  will  last  until  the  next 
rotation.  (7)  If  neither  of  the  two  trees  is  oak,  reserve  the  next  best 
species  and  the  straightest,  thriftiest  tree.  (8)  The  selection  of  first- 
year  standards  should  be  made  personally  by  an  experienced  forester. 
Broilhard  adheres  to  the  rule:  "It  is  always  the  vigor  of  a  tree  that 
should  determine  its  retention,  and  those  are  the  big  trees  which  enrich 
the  coppice."  A  good  coppice-under-standards  is  impossible  with  a 
short  rotation  for  the  coppice,  because  the  length  of  clear  bole  of  the 
standards  is  determined  by  the  height  of  the  coppice.    With  a  rotation 

13  Taillis  et  Futaie  Melanges,  par  E.  Liouville  (Thiollier  cited).     Besangon,  1911. 
"  Coupes  de  Taillis  sous  Futaie  par  Bandes  Alternes.     Brochure,  pp.  73-85. 
15  Jolyet,  pp.  235-239. 


COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS 


97 


of  15  to  20  years  the  coppice  is  necessarily  short-boled.  Broilliard  there- 
fore concludes  that  the  rotation  for  a  coppice-under-standards  should 
be  30  to  40  years  or  more  unless  the  soil  is  very  rich,  but  unless  repeat- 
edly freed  the  oak  shows  a  tendency  to  disappear. 

It  is  becoming  more  and  more  popular,  with  the  decrease  in  fuel 
values,  to  plant  conifers  in  coppice-under-standards,  especially  on 
rather  thin  soils  and  where  there  are  considerable  blanks.  According 
to  Jolyet,  such  species,  to  make  their  introduction  a  success,  should 
have  the  following  qualities:  (1)  Rapid  gi'owth,  especially  during  the 
initial  years  when  there  is  competition  with  the  rapidly  growing  coppice; 
(2)  intolerance  (or  at  least  not  tolerant);  (3)  light-foliaged  crown;  (4) 
hardiness  (especially  against  late  frosts);  (5)  must  be  windfirm.  Not- 
withstanding these  rules  the  species  most  frequently  introduced  are: 
(Locusts)  Austrian  pine,  (birch)  Scotch  pine,  white  pine,  alder,  larch, 
and  spruce.  The  spruce  is  clearly  neither  hght-foliaged  nor  wind- 
firm. 

In  the  third  conservation  the  financial  yield  of  the  coppice-under- 
standards  has  been  classified,!^  according  to  the  soil,  into  six  groups : 


TABLE 


COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS 


I.  —  "Calmatages' 

II.  —  Sandy  clay . . . 


III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 


"Maris  " 

Clay 

Calcareous  marl. 
Rocky 


Rotation, 
years 


20-25 
40 

32-38 
32-36 


32 


Annual 

average 

net 

yield, 

per 

acre 


$4.63 
3.01 
2.54 
3.09 


0.85 


Communal  forests 


Rotation, 
years 


20-26 
20-27 
20-29 
20-30 
24-36 


Annual 

average 

net 

yield, 

per 

acre 


$2.54  up 
3.01 
1.62 
0.93 
0.46 


Annual 
average 
net  yield 
on  25-year 
rotation, 
per  acre 


Coppice 


$2.54 
2.16 

1.38 

0.93 
0.70 
0.39 


The  coppice-under-standards  system  is  typical  of  France  but  is 
merely  a  weak  compromise  between  the  high  forest  (the  forest  of  the 
future)  and  the  coppice  (the  forest  of  the  charcoal  and  cordwood  age 
which  is  past).  French  writers,  like  Broilliard,  show  clearly  that  it 
pays  to  hold  good  trees  over  as  reserves,  by  citing  the  value  of  a  IR 
standard  as  20  cents,  a  2R  standard  as  $2,  a  3R  standard  as  $8,  and 
a  4R  to  5R  standard  as  $20,  without  taking  into  consideration  the 
damage  the  standards  do  the  coppice,  for,  as  a  rule,  the  better  the  stand- 

1^  Traitement  et  Amenagement  d'un  Taillis  sousFutaie,  M.  A.  Mathey,  1909.  S.  F. 
111. 


98  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

ards  the  poorer  the  coppice,  except  on  the  richest  of  soils.  But  from 
the  American  viewpoint  the  question  must  always  arise:  "If  standards 
pay  well,  why  not  have  high  forest  and  be  done  with  it?"  In  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  the  owner  of  the  coppice-under-standards  probably  pre- 
fers this  system,  since  he  has  not  so  much  capital  tied  up  as  he  would 
have  in  the  high  forest,  and  because  he  not  only  gets  his  returns  oftener 
but  gets  besides  some  saw  timber. 

A  Substitute  for  Coppice-Under-Standards  (Futaie  Claire).  —  Accord- 
ing to  Huffel  (pp.  327-333,  Vol.  II),  a  new  method  of  treatment  must 
be  adopted  for  the  oak-beech  stands  in  the  northeast  of  France: 

"In  a  large  part  of  France,  and  precisely  that  part  where  there  are  most  public  for- 
ests, the  natural  regeneration  of  broadleaf  trees,  where  oak  is  the  chief  species,  is  at- 
tended by  great  difficulties.  The  seed  crops  are  often  very  rare,  separated  by  intervals 
of  almost  2.5  years.  (There  were  no  complete  crops  in  Lorraine  from  1861  to  1888.) 
Furthermore,  in  this  region,  the  oak  grows  on  fresh  (compact)  clay  .  .  .  where 
weeds  grow  rapidly  and  prevent  natural  regeneration.  These  difficulties,  and  others 
.  .  .  decided  our  predecessors  to  abandon  the  treatment  of  forests  under  regular  high 
forest  (futaie  pleine)  in  the  northeast  of  France.     .     .     .     They  had  pictured  instead 

.  .  a  coppice-under-standards.  .  .  .  But  when  fuel  wood  commenced  to  be 
menaced  by  coal  .  .  .  they  looked  for  a  substitute  for  the  coppice-under-standards 
which  would  produce  a  minimum  of  fuel  and  a  maximum  of  saw  timber.  Two  solutions 
were  adopted.  In  the  State  forests  they  generally  undertook  the  conversion  of  the 
coppice-under-standards  to  regular  high  forest.  ...  It  ended,  in  many  forests,  by 
their  abandoning  the  conversions.  .  .  .  The  attempts  at  conversion  put  a  great 
many  of  our  best  stands  in  a  state  of  disorder.  .  .  .  Then  they  thought  best 
to  substitute  for  the  coppice-under-standards  what  they  called  'high  forest  over 
coppice,'  that  is  to  say,  by  multiplying  as  many  times  as  possible  the  number  of 
standards  in  the  compound  coppice.  .  .  .  The  coppice-under-standards  became 
gradually,  under  the  influence  of  exaggerated  reserves,  a  sort  of  irregular  high  forest 
over  a  decrepit  coppice,  formed  mostly  of  weed  trees  in  which  the  oak  had  entirely  dis- 
appeared. .  .  .  Where  the  young  standards  were  oak  .  .  .  the  harm  was  not 
irreparable.  A  systematic  felling  of  three-fourths  the  2R  standards  .  .  .  would 
reform  the  coppice.  .  .  .  But  where  these  IR  standards  or  superabundant  2R 
standards  were  beech  the  situation  was  very  grave.  .  .  .  They  will  be  forced  after 
one  or  two  rotations  to  complete  the  conversion  to  high  forest.  .  .  .  The  high  forest 
over  coppice,  where  you  mark  200-300  standards  from  the  coppice  (aged  25  to  30  years) 
is  nonsense  and  ends  sooner  or  later  in  an  'impasse'  from  which  it  is  difficult  to  get  out. 

"It  seems  possible  to  form  a  type  of  forest,  more  easily  secured  in  the  northeast  of 
France  than  the  regular  high  forest,  and  more  productive  in  saw  timber  than  the  cop- 
pice-under-standards. It  is  with  this  aim  in  view  that  we  now  sketch  a  kind  of  ex- 
ploitation which  we  call  by  the  old  term  'open  high  forest'  (futaie  claire)  that  our  pre- 
decessors frequently  used  for  discribing  the  isolated  oaks  which  they  grew  above  their 
coppice." 

Huffel  accordingly  proposes  in  effect  a  selection  high  forest  with 
oak  as  the  principal  species  with  fellings  on  a  15-year  cutting  cycle 
regulated  by  area.  With  a  120-year  rotation  there  would  be  trees  in 
the  first  compartment  15,  30,  45,  60,  75,  90,  105,  and  120  years  old; 


SUBSTITUTE  FOR  COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS  (FUTAIE  CLAIRE)      99 

and  in  the  fifteenth  compartment  1,  16,  to  106  years,  or  in  correspond- 
ing size  classes, 

"These  trees  are  so  mixed  up,  that  at  every  point  there  would  be  seed  trees.  .  .  . 
We  would  thus  succeed  in  profiting  by  all  partial  seed  crops.  .  .  .  Moreover  these 
(seed)  trees  are  isolated,  that  is  to  say,  they  would  not  form  a  continuous  complete 
stand  with  one  story.  Between  the  largest  (oldest)  trees  there  would  be  openings, 
whose  size  would  be  determined  by  the  tolerance  of  the  species,  and  by  the  need  of  light 
for  the  seedlings.  .  .  .  Each  age  class  must  occupy  equal  areas  in  the  forest.  .  .  . 
If  we  had  ten,  then  each  would  cover  one-tenth  of  an  hectare  (2.5  acres).  In  the  oak 
forests,  for  which  we  suggest  this  kind  of  a  felling,  it  would  be  advisable,  as  a  precaution, 
to  leave  a  portion  of  the  area  unoccupied  .  .  .  so  as  to  favor  the  germination  and 
maintenance  of  seedlings  which  might  come  in,  mixed  with  .  .  .  weeds  and  sprouts. 
When  the  time  for  cutting  arrives  the  less  vigorous  and  less  desirable  trees  in  all  size 
classes  will  be  felled  in  excess  of  the  normal  number  assigned  to  the  size  class.  At  the 
same  time  the  young  seedlings,  poorly  formed  or  lacking  in  vigor,  would  be  cut  back  and 
the  others  freed."     .     .     . 

This  type  of  forest,  Huffel  claims,  would  have  the  following  advantages 
over  the  coppice-under-standards : 

(1)  Almost  all  seed  would  be  used  no  matter  where  or  when  it  is 
produced, 

(2)  The  systematic  and  frequent  cutting  over  the  same  area  would 
insure  the  maintenance  of  the  seedlings  by  disengagement  cuttings, 

(3)  This  frequent  cutting  would  also  make  it  possible  to  leave  only 
small  intervals  between  the  large  trees  and  the  saw  timber  would 
therefore  be  increased  over  that  obtained  in  coppice-under-standards. 

(4)  The  large  trees  would  have  longer  boles, 

(5)  The  frequency  of  felling  would  allow  the  removal  of  defective 
trees  and  weed  species, 

(6)  The  felling  would  be  hghter  and  hence  better  for  the  stand, 

(7)  The  improvement  felling  so  necessary  in  coppice-under-standards, 
though  often  omitted,  would  not  be  so  vital  because  of  the  frequent 
regular  fellings, 

(8)  "The  operation  of  marking  the  fellings  (without  being  more 
difficult  to  make  them  correctly  in  the  coppice-under-standards)  will  be 
in  every  case  clearly  and  precisely  regulated.  They  could  not  depend 
on  the  arbitrariness  of  some  man  who  changes  the  method  of  treatment 
of  the  forest  by  unreasonable  multiplication  of  IR  standards  of  second- 
ary species,  or  of  being  ruined  by  the  excessive  felHng  of  large  trees," 

As  empirical  figures,  subject  to  variation,  Huffel  gives  the  "normal" 
number  of  trees  for  each  diameter  class.  These  data  would  be  used  as  a 
guide  and  for  the  purpose  of  comparison  with  the  actual  stand  when 
the  fellings  are  made: 


100 


NATURAL   REGENERATION 


D.  B.  H., 

Average  number 

D.  B.  H., 

Average  number 

inches 

of  trees 

inches 

of  trees 

8 

28 

20 

6.1 

10 

17.6 

22 

5.1 

12 

12.8 

24 

4.8 

14 

10 

26 

4.4 

16 

8 

28 

4 

18 

7 

It  is  too  early  to  give  the  results  of  this  suggested  departure  from 
standard  methods.  The  greatest  danger  appears  to  be  from  tolerant 
species  which  may  usurp  more  than  their  share  of  the  soil.  Oak  demands 
full  sunlight  for  its  regeneration.  Will  this  be  secured?  Then,  too,  how 
would  Huffel's  "futaie  claire"  cUffer  from  a  group  selection  system  with  a 
cutting  cycle  of  15  years? 

Conversions.  —  If  we  accept  the  arguments  against  the  coppice  and  the 
coppice-under-standards  systems  these  forests  must  be  converted  into  high 
forest,  and  to-day  there  are  241,189  acres,  one-fifth  of  the  State  forest  area, 
in  France  being  transformed  into  high  forest.^^  This  is  easy  in  theory 
but  difficult  to  execute  satisfactorily  except  on  rich  soils  with  good 
conditions  for  natural  seeding.  The  procedure  ^^  for  conversions  varies 
with  the  quahty  of  the  stand: 

(A)  With  rich  coppice-under-standards:  (1)  Increase  the  rotation  of 
the  coppice  to  reduce  sprouting;  (2)  increase  the  number  of  standards; 

(3)  every  10  to  12  years  thin  out  the  coppice  and  favor  the  standards; 

(4)  at  the  end  of  the  new  rotation  make  seed  felUngs,  secondary  fellings, 
and  a  final  felling  as  required  by  the  silvicultural  conditions;  (5)  fill 
in  blanks  with  rapidly  growing  hght  crowned  species. 

(B)  With  a  rundown  coppice  on  poor  soil  rather  than  wait  for  the 
lengthening  of  the  rotation  or  the  gradual  reservation  of  standards,  it 
may  be  best  to:  (1)  Make  a  heavy  improvement  cutting;  (2)  plant  the 
blanks,  and  (3)  protect  the  plantations  by  frequent  cleanings  and  thin- 
nings. 

Between  the  extremes  of  (A)  and  (B)  there  may  be  many  combina- 
tions and  variations.  In  case  (A)  the  coppice  rotation  may  be  increased 
70  to  80  years,  since  aging  the  coppice  increases  the  soil  fertility  and 
assists  the  future  regeneration.  The  thinnings  can  realize  the  d3dng 
trees  in  the  coppice,  reduce  the  number  of  sprouts  to  each  stump,  while 
the  cover  will  hinder  sprouting.    If  the  seed  felhngs  are  Hght,  beech  and 

17  According  to  Huffel  (p.  328,  Vol.  II,  footnote  2) :  "From  1876-1892,  348,000  acres 
of  State  forest  formerly  under  conversion  were  made  into  coppice-under-standards. 
The  acres  of  coppice  under  conversion  were  699,000  in  1868,  717,000  in  1876,  and 
368,000  in  1892."    In  1912  the  area  was  further  reduced  to  241,189  acres. 

18  Jolyet,  pp.  149,  252,  260. 


CONVERSIONS  101 

other  tolerant  species  will  be  favored  against  the  more  desirable  oak. 
After  the  final  felling  great  care  should  be  taken  to  free  the  oak.  Con- 
versions should  begin  only  where  the  conditions  are  favorable  and  not 
all  over  the  forest. 

Cuif/^  in  charge  of  research  at  Nancy,  favors  conversions  by  group 
selection  rather  than  by  the  shelterwood  for  the  following  reasons:  (1) 
It  is  apphcable  to  large  and  small  forests  ahke;  (2)  forest  capital  is  more 
evenly  distributed;  (3)  the  method  approaches  nature;  (4)  it  profits  by 
seed  trees  here  and  there;  (5)  mixtures  are  encouraged;  (6)  each  species 
can  be  cut  when  ripe  with  coppice-under-standards.  He  favors  the 
best  stems  and  seedhngs,  cutting  sprouts  level  with  the  ground  to  pro- 
vide them  with  good  root  systems;  he  plants  in  the  openings  and  cuts  the 
coppice  back  to  favor  the  best  trees. 

Probably  the  best-known  conversion  ^o  in  France  is  that  for  the  State 
forest  of  Amance  undertaken  by  the  Nancy  Forest  School.  It  was 
started  by  Lorenz  in  1826  and  the  working  plan  was  revised  in  1856,  1877, 
1888,  1901,  and  1908.  It  offers  the  best  chance  in  France  for  a  detailed 
study  of  conversion  methods  as  apphed  to  hardwoods.  In  the  original 
working  plan  Cuif  says: 

"The  conversion  of  a  coppice-under-standards  to  open  high  forest  (futaie  claire) 
does  not  seem  to  present  very  serious  difficulties.  It  is  even  hkely  that  it  would  auto- 
matically follow  the  application  to  a  coppice-under-standards  of  a  rotation  equal  to  the 
period  of  an  open  high  forest.  It  would  suffice  then,  in  order  to  accomplish  this,  to  add 
to  the  reserve  every  15  years  the  oak  and  ash  seedlings  which  would  be  found  mixed  with 
the  young  coppice  shoots  and  to  ehminate  systematically  from  the  high  forest  the  beech, 
elm,  and  light  woods  which  it  actually  includes.  This  method  of  procedure  would 
surely  lead  to  the  final  aim.  But  the  conversion  would  be  long,  and  it  would  require 
sacrifice  even  greater  than  the  coppice,  destined  to  disappear  only  gradually  and  only 
because  of  natural  forces  would  furnish  products  without  commercial  value.  In  order 
to  alleviate  this  inconvenience  we  propose  to  adopt  the  following  rules  in  marking  the 
conversion  fellings  which  follow  one  another  at  15-year  intervals: 

"1.  Preserve  all  the  reserves  of  the  oak  and  ash  species  except  those  which  are 
defective  or  too  weak  to  warrant  the  hope  of  seed. 

"2.  Complete  lopping  of  coppice  around  these  reserves,  this  lopping  being  extended 
far  enough  so  that  the  circumference  of  the  crowns  may  l^e  freed  completely  and  bathed 
in  sunlight. 

"3.  Levying  of  a  moderate  yield  among  the  trees  10  inches  and  above  in  diameter 
among  the  other  species,  the  large  beech  with  many  by  preference  being  eliminated. 

"4.  In  those  localities  where  the  cover  of  oak  and  ash  reserves  is  lacking,  form  wath 
these  trees  (also  small  beech,  elm,  and  hnden,  or  with  coppice  poles)  an  open  stand  ca- 
pable of  serving  as  a  nurse  stand  for  the  oak  and  ash.  These  plantations  should  be  made 
in  the  same  year  as  the  felling;  they  should  aim  to  introduce  these  two  species  in  the 
parts  where  they  are  totally  lacking. 

1'  Personal  notes  supplied  the  author  in  1913. 

20  Amcnagement  de  la  Foret  domaniale  d' Amance  (Meurthe  et  Moselle),  1908.  Par 
Cuif. 


102  NATURAL   REGENERATION 

"5.  Reserve  all  oak  or  ash  wherever  found,  but  take  pains  to  free  all  seedlings  and 
sapUngs. 

"These  general  principles  being  stated,  the  management  of  a  conversion  in  open 
high  forest  requires:  (1)  Forest  descriptions  by  divisions  on  the  ground  destined  to  form 
separate  units;  (2)  the  results  of  the  stock-taking  made  in  each  of  these  divisions;  (3) 
the  regulation  of  felhng  during  the  first  period  of  15  years  with  an  indication  of  the  yield 
and  the  approximate  amount  of  annual  planting;  (4)  a  critical  analysis  of  the  products  to 
be  realized  before  and  after  the  conversion." 

In  the  forest  of  Montargis  conversion,  according  to  the  working  plan, 
the  following  cultural  rules  are  given : 

"Except  on  several  areas  which  are  quite  open,  natural  regeneration  of  the  old  poles 
can  readily  be  obtained,  but  we  do  not  pretend  that  the  regeneration  mixed  in  the  old 
pole  stands  will  thrive.  The  sprouts  are  usually  not  to  be  feared  as  a  general  rule  be- 
cause of  their  overmaturity  and  because  of  decaying  stumps,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  will  be  an  insufficiency  of  seed  coupled  with  a  rapid  deterioration  of  the  soil  and 
encroachment  by  the  heather.  Moreover,  it  is  felt  that  it  will  often  be  advisable  not  to 
wait  too  long  for  a  complete  natural  reproduction  but,  that  it  will  be  better  to  secure  a 
second  crop  by  artificial  restocking.  We  are  convinced  that  for  these  stands  only  resin- 
ous species  are  suitable." 

In  this  forest  the  coppice  is  held  over  to  a  rotation  of  70  to  80  years 
in  order  to  secure  complete  cover,  good  seed  bearers,  soil  protection, 
and  to  protect  the  young  seedhngs  from  the  frost  as  well  as  to  weaken 
the  sprouts.  It  will  also  be  necessary  to  free  the  seedlings  during  the 
first  20  years.  In  order  to  encourage  seedhngs  to  come  in  the  ground 
is  worked,  but  only  where  there  is  a  probability  of  an  acorn  crop.  Soil 
wounding  here  costs  from  $1.15  to  $1.50  per  acre.  The  hornbeam  and 
beech  will  be  cut  first  because  they  form  too  vigorous  stands,  but  in 
one  place  where  the  beech  had  come  in  after  the  seed  felhng  (because 
httle  light  was  admitted)  it  will  not  be  sacrificed;  instead  it  will  be 
retained.  In  another  working  group,  where  the  coppice  had  been  ruined, 
the  ground  was  planted  to  Scotch  pine  which  was  first  thinned  after  15 
years  and  afterwards  every  10  years.  An  interesting  plantation  of 
Scotch  pine  had  been  made  on  the  south  side  of  a  compartment  along  a 
road  in  order  to  protect  the  interior  stand  against  the  sun.  In  some 
worn-out  blanks  single  Scotch  pine  had  been  planted  in  November  and 
December,  separated  by  at  least  two  meters  from  the  neighboring 
sprouts.  In  this  conversion  the  chief  factors  were:  lengthening  the  cop- 
pice rotation,  securing  all  possible  seedlings  and  root  suckers  for  the  reserve, 
filling  up  blanks  with  conifers,  repeated  cleanings  to  favor  the  reserve  so 
that  the  coppice  would  be  gradually  shaded  out  and  the  forest  trans- 
formed to  a  high  forest. 

In  the  forest  of  Huit  a  coppice-under-standards  forest  is  being  con- 
verted into  a  conifer  high  forest.  Spruce  has  been  planted  in  rather  a 
poor,  open  coppice-under-standards.    At  the  age  of  from  10  to  15  years 


CONVERSIONS  103 

quite  a  proportion  of  the  spruce  was  suppressed  by  the  sprouts,  and  in 
the  1912  felhng  a  great  deal  of  damage  was  done.  It  is  clear  that  the 
spruce  should  have  been  hberated  some  time  ago.  The  1912  cut  removed 
all  the  poor  material  and  kept  all  the  best  poles,  although  some  of  the 
older  standards  were  cut  in  the  openings;  the  coppice  is  still  coming  up 
strong,  but  where  lots  of  standards  have  been  reserved,  it  is  fast  dis- 
appearing and  becoming  suppressed. 

The  Scotch  pine  introduced  at  Baccarat  (Basses- Vosges)  at  an  alti- 
tude of  from  900  to  1,900  feet,  is  now  70  to  80  years  of  age.  Most  of 
the  area  was  in  coppice-under-standards.  Nine  pounds  of  Scotch  pine 
per  acre  was  sown  in  cultivated  strips  24  inches  wide  and  5  feet  apart 
on  the  areas  ruined.  The  broadleaves  on  such  poor  soil  yield  each 
year  about  four  cords  and  62  cents  per  acre.  The  total  cost  spent  on 
conversion  amounted  to  about  $12  per  acre;  this  did  not  include  the 
cost  of  cleanings  at  two  years  of  age  at  $2.40  per  acre;  at  4  to  5,  6  to  8, 
and  8  to  10  years  at  costs  of  $1.54,  $1.54  and  38  cents,  a  total  cost  of 
$5.86  per  acre.  Thinnings  began  at  10  to  15  years  and  paid  for  them- 
selves up  to  15  years;  at  26  years  they  netted  39  cents  per  cubic  meter; 
at  35  years  about  $1.05  per  cubic  meter,  and  at  44  years  a  net  yield  of 
$1.44  per  cubic  meter  (about  11  cents,  29  cents,  and  40  cents  cord  net); 
owing  to  deterioration  of  the  soil  it  was  found  necessary  to  underplant 
with  fir  and  beech  at  25  to  30  years  at  an  additional  cost  of  $9.60  per 
acre.  This  makes  a  total  cost  of  $27.46  per  acre  on  soil  preparation, 
seed,  sowing,  cleanings,  and  underplanting.  Counting  the  former  broad- 
leaf  forest  yielding  at  62  cents  per  acre  per  year,  the  Scotch  pine  at  the 
end  of  59  years  has  shown  an  annual  yield  of  $2.01  per  acre,  or  $1.39 
more.  Apparently  this  conversion  will  prove  a  sound  business  venture. 
Even  with  good  technique  it  takes  time  to  make  conversions.  In  the 
communal  forest  of  Vuillecin  (near  Pontailler,  Doubs),  the  oak  and 
beech  comprise  0.6  of  the  stand  and  fir  and  spruce. 

According  to  the  special  fellings  scheme: 

"In  order  to  obtain  a  systematic  conversion  to  conifer  high  forest  and  in  order  to 
accelerate  the  transformations  with  the  aid  of  artificial  restocking  and  local  thinnings 
...  the  compartments  have  been  divided  into  two  groups.  In  the  first  group  we 
have  assigned  compartments  .  .  .  where  the  conversion  to  conifers  is  the  least 
advanced  and  where,  because  of  the  poor  condition  of  the  coppice,  the  large  number  of 
old  beech  which  still  remain,  and  because  of  the  plantations  which  have  been  lost,  im- 
provement is  needed  at  once.  It  will  require  about  30  years  ...  to  complete  the 
restocking  which  is  required.  .  .  .  These  compartments  are  to  undergo  transforma- 
tion cuttings  at  the  start,  being  something  like  shelterwood  fellings  followed  by  planta- 
tions, then  by  thinnings  whose  renewal  will  depend  on  cultural  requirements. 

"The  second  group  will  include  the  remaining  compartments  under  improvement 
cuttings. 

"A.  —  Transformation  cuttings.  The  compartments  of  the  second  group  shall  num- 
ber four;  two  with  5-year  and  two  with  10-year  intervals.     Thus  it  will  be  possible  to 


104  NATURAL   REGENERATION 

give,  without  undue  delay,  all  necessary  care  to  the  existing  plantations,  to  complete 
them  where  necessary,  and  make  sure  of  the  transformation  of  the  compartments  of  the 
first  group  during  the  period  (30  years). 

"B.  —  Improvement  cuttings.  The  compartments  of  the  second  group  shall  be 
thinned  twice  during  the  period  of  30  years,  or  once  every  15  years. 

"1.  —  Transformation  cuttings.  The  first  two  cuttings  (transformation)  shall  aim 
to  give  to  the  existing  plantation  what  is  considered  a  sufficient  number  of  trees  to  pro- 
tect the  restocked  areas,  which  shall  be  made  after  the  cutting,  provided  that  is  neces- 
sary. 

"The  second  two  cuttings  shall  remove  the  overmature  material  that  remains  stand- 
ing so  that  each  compartment  of  the  first  group  shall  be  completely  converted  into 
conifer  high  forest  by  1939. 

"From  1910  to  1939  all  the  restocking  shall  be  done  exclusively  in  the  compartments 
of  the  first  group.  Spruce  should  be  used,  as  heretofore,  for  i)lanting  since  it  has  given 
excellent  results;  on  the  poorer  soils,  however,  it  might  be  well  to  try  out  Austrian  pine 
and  Scotch  pine. 

"2.  —  hnprovement  cuttings.  These  shall  be  carefully  executed  and  shall  consist  of: 
(1)  Extraction  of  fir  most  liable  to  rot  and  old  oak  or  beech  of  poor  quality  that  has 
become  useless  .  .  .  general  development  of  existing  conifer  poles;  (2)  thinnings  in 
the  poles  where  they  are  too  thick,  and  cleanings  in  the  thickets  and  saplings  to  assist 
the  more  valuable  species,  and  to  free  them  .  .  .  removal  of  crooked  stems  and  dead 
trees;  (3)  in  the  pole  stands  where  the  broadleaves  dominate,  the  best  beech  should  be 
resowed  and,  so  far  as  possible,  the  conifers  of  all  ages." 

The  best-known  example  of  a  conversion  attempted  in  the  United 
States  is  found  under  the  direction  of  the  Yale  Forest  School.  Accord- 
ing to  a  statement  issued  by  the  school: 

"The  general  plan  of  management  for  Maltby  Park  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
It  is  handled  in  conjunction  with  other  forest  lands  owned  by  the  New  Haven  Water 
Company,  the  total  area  being  in  the  neighborhood  of  9,000  acres.  The  hardwood 
stands  will  be  managed  on  some  modification  of  the  shelterwood  method,  such  as  the 
polewood  coppice  system,  on  a  rotation  between  60  and  SO  years.  Several  problems  in 
connection  with  this  method  remain  to  be  solved,  such,  for  example,  as  the  influence  of 
sprouts  which  start  after  thinnings,  on  seedling  reproduction  which  later  on  it  is  desired  to 
secure. 

"Where  conifers  have  been  underplanted  the  hardwoods  will  eventually  be  removed, 
and  a  coniferous  or  mixed  stand  obtained.  It  is  believed  that,  on  account  of  the  rela- 
tively slow  growth  and  low  yield  per  acre  of  the  hardwood  species,  better  financial  re- 
sults could  be  obtained  by  converting  all  the  hardwood  stand  to  coniferous  forest  but, 
until  approximately  2,000  acres  of  open  land  on  other  parts  of  the  holdings  are  planted, 
this  policy  will  not  be  adopted." 

Under  the  condition  existing  at  Maltby  Park  probably  even  better 
silvicultural  results  would  have  been  secured  if  the  hardwoods  had  been 
cut  more  heavily  and  if  more  money  had  been  spent  in  freeing  the 
plantations  suppressed  by  the  coppice  sprouts.  The  value  of  the  land  as 
watershed  would  not  have  suffered  because  the  area  under  conversion 
comprised  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the  drainage  area. 


INTERMEDIATE   CUTTINGS  105 


CARE   OF  THE   STAND   AFTER  REGENERATION 

Intermediate  Cuttings,  —  Especially  with  natural  regeneration,  clean- 
ings, thinnings,  and  improvement  cuttings  are  particularly  important.-^ 
With  natural  regeneration  there  are  always  weed  trees  to  be  cleaned 
out  of  the  stand,  and  valuable  seedlings  and  saplings  to  be  protected 
and  favored;  the  over-dense  stands  must  be  thinned  to  prevent  undue 
competition;  and  later  on  the  stand  must  be  continually  improved  by 
the  elimination  of  the  poorer  specimens.  According  to  Bardrillart  a 
cleaning  "is  a  cutting  designed  to  clean  or  'purge,'  as  one  might  say, 
a  forest  of  a  part  of  the  wood,  briars,  brush,  weed  trees  that  damage  the 
growth,  or  trees  that  are  dead  or  dying,  or  too  numerous."  It  is  very 
much  like  weeding  a  garden.  As  a  rule,  private  owners  in  France  over- 
look the  necessity  of  weeding  or  cleaning  their  forests  because  there  is 
a  definite  expense  involved.  The  French  employ  the  term  "to  free  a 
stand"  as  synonymous  with  the  term  "to  clean,"  with  the  shght  differ- 
ence that  they  free  a  valuable  species  from  crowding  while  they  clean 
out  a  seed  tree  to  avoid  injurious  competition.  According  to  Jolyet 
"the  chief  aim  of  a  thinning  is  always  to  favor  the  growth  of  the  best 
trees  .  .  .  .  to  maintain  a  stand  in  the  best  vegetative  condition, 
or  a  mixture  in  the  desired  proportions  .  .  .  and  to  increase  the 
yield."  It  thus  appears  that  thinnings  also  free  and  clean  the  stand, 
but  at  a  later  period  in  its  development,  and  their  main  objective  is  to 
increase  the  growth  by  reducing  unnecessary  competition  for  light  and 
growing  species,  and  at  the  same  time  reahze  merchantable  timber. 

In  France  the  term  "improvement  cutting"  means,  as  the  words 
imply,  the  improvement  of  the  stand  by  thinnings,  or  fellings  which  yield 
money  returns.  There  appears  to  be  no  clearcut  distinction  as  to  the 
age  of  the  stand  when  improvement  fellings  are  applied,  as  may  be  seen 
by  the  quotation  from  the  Malmifait  working  plan  (p.  112). 

From  the  standpoint  of  silviculture  it  is  essential  that  intermediate 
cuttings  be  ordered,  in  current  working  plans,  by  area  and  not  by  volume. 
Forest  valuation  should  never  interfere,  as  it  has  in  the  past,  with  silvi- 
culture. If  the  forester  aims  at  checking  excessive  cuts  he  should  pre- 
scribe the  area  to  be  cut  over  each  year  with  a  maximum  volume  merely 
as  a  check.  Too  often  in  the  past  the  French  forester  has  marked  an  im- 
provement cutting  in  a  compartment  only  to  find  that  it  could  not  be 
properly  executed  because  the  working  plan  prescribed  a  maximum  cut 
of  80  cords,  whereas  the  marking  properly  executed  should  remove 
180  cords.     Happily  errors  due  to  restraining  the  silviculturahst  from 

21  In  France  the  marking,  which  requires  real  technique,  is  always  done  under  the 
personal  supervision  of  a  forest  assistant,  assistant  supervisor,  or  supervisor.  Even 
district  foresters  take  part  in  important  marking  conferences. 


106  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

really  "purging"  the  stand  are  now  well  recognized  in  France  and  are 
avoided.  Intermediate  fellings  should  begin  early,  should  be  repeated 
as  often  as  necessary,  and  should  be  governed  only  by  good  silvics. 

Cleaning  (and  Freeing)  Young  Stands.-  —  Jolyet  describes  cleanings 
as  "the  operation,  which  consists  in  retarding  the  development  of 
secondary  or  too  ambitious  species,  tending  to  improve  the  normal 
development  of  the  future  stand,  consists  in  freeing  these  seedlings 
or  'degagements.'  "  Boppe  says  that  "cleanings  should  aid  the  normal 
development  of  the  best  species,  favor  seedlings  against  sprouts,  and 
should  be  started  early,  since  they  are  only  justified  if  in  good  time." 
They  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  necessary  to  protect  the  more  valu- 
able species.  Schaeffer,-^  one  of  the  foremost  French  conservators, 
recognized  that  cleanings  referred  especially  to  young  stands.  He 
wrote : 

"It  is  admitted  today  that  a  cleaning  should  only  include  small  timber,  and  con- 
temporaneous authors  reserve  this  term  for  the  whole  cultural  assistance  to  be  given 
young  stands.  However  broad  this  definition  may  be,  it  appears  to  me  to  be  still  in- 
complete, for  it  lacks  the  idea  of  clearing  brush  from  a  soil  under  a  mature  stand.  '  Clean' 
should  signify:  To  make  clean,  clear;  to  relieve  the  soil  of  a  forest  of  the  weed  growth 
(shrubs)  means  to  many  the  very  essence  of  cleaning;  this  aspect  of  the  question  should 
not  be  overlooked." 

But  without  doubt  the  most  important  aspect  of  cleaning  is  the 
cutting  of  small  immature  timber  to  improve  the  stand. 

Most  important  timber  species,  such  as  sessile  oak,  even  when  10 
to  15  years  old,  have  a  slow  rate  of  growth  as  compared  with  the  weeds 
or  poorer  species  which  surround  them.  Therefore  it  is  necessary  to 
free  them  and  assist  them  in  their  competition  with  weeds  and  poorer 
species.  It  is  not  necessarily  desired  to  entirely  cut  out  interfering 
shrubs  or  species,  but  rather  to  favor  only  the  valuable  species  in  their 
fight  for  existence,  provided  the  surrounding  brush  does  not  interfere 
with  the  growth  of  the  terminal  shoot.  It  is  even  an  advantage  to 
have  it  in  mixture,  since  it  promotes  height  growth  and  prevents  snow 
breakage  or  other  damage.  All  weeds  cut  in  a  clearance  are  valueless. 
To  remove  them  would  be  expensive,  to  burn  them  often  dangerous. 
Where  they  must  be  cut  level  with  the  ground  it  would  be  unwise  to 
leave  them,  and  the  usual  practice  is  to  pile  them  around  the  base  of 
the  reserved  trees  which  still  occupy  the  felling  area  before  the  final 
cutting.  The  forest  guards  are  the  ones  who  should  make  the  cleanings 
and  it  is  essential  that  the  same  individual  trees  should  always  be  favored 
in  subsequent  operations,  since  it  is  obviously  poor  policy  to  favor  one 

22  See  Boppe,  pp.  94,  134,  162,  200,  248,  254;  and  Jolyet,  pp.  9.3,  114,  134,  154,  174, 
186,  200,  239,  243,  248,  254,  385. 

23  Du  Nettoiement  dans  les  Bois.     Par  A.  Schaeffer,  Besangon. 


CLEANING   (AND  FREEING)   YOUNG  STANDS  107 

sapling  at  one  clearance  and  a  different  one  at  another  [94].  A  shade- 
enduring  species  such  as  beech,  of  course,  does  not  require  freeing  to 
the  same  extent  as  does  a  hght-demanding  species  such  as  oak  [134]. 
Even  the  maritime  pine,  which  is  a  rapidly  growing  species  and  a  prolific 
seeder,  requires  assistance  against  the  genista,  with  which  it  is  often 
in  mixture  [154].  Scotch  pine,  until  it  has  developed  above  the  heather, 
must  always  be  assisted  [162].  The  young  spruce  does  not  resist  shrubs 
even  as  well  as  the  fir,  and  notwithstanding  its  rapid  growth  at  the 
start  it  may  often  remain  dominated  by  weeds  unless  cleanings  are 
practiced  [200].  In  coppice-under-standards,  it  is  particularly  essential  to 
protect  the  best  species  and  the  best  seedlings  or  sprouts  against  competition 
with  inferior  species  and  weeds  [SJ^S].  In  conversion  [254]  cleanings  are  also 
essential. 

One  of  the  most  important  objects  in  freeing  desirable  species  is 
to  give  them  the  preference  over  less  desired  species  which  may  be 
more  rapidly  growing  during  youth.  For  example,  in  a  mixed  birch 
and  Scotch  pine  stand,  the  birch  might  damage  the  Scotch  pine,  which 
is  the  more  valuable,  unless  assistance  were  given  it. 

According  to  Schaeffer  cleanings  in  regular  high  forest  should  first  of 
all  destroy  the  weed  trees,  briars,  and  weeds  which  develop  on  rich 
soils,  so  as  to  conserve  light,  water,  and  food  for  the  future  commercial 
stand.  But  he  cautions  all  foresters  against  the  unnecessary  cleaning 
of  light-foliaged,  short-lived  trees  that  will  do  no  material  damage  to 
the  valuable  species.  He  favors  the  Bagneris  method  of  only  topping 
competing  unmerchantable  weed  trees  instead  of  cutting  them  off  at  the 
stump.  This  method,  which  prevents  sprouting,  and  though  cheaper,  it 
must  be  recognized,  means  more  work  because  it  must  be  done  oftener; 
it  should  rarely  be  appHed  in  the  United  States.  The  best  time  to  clean 
out  weeds  from  young  growth  is  in  the  late  summer  or  autumn;  but  for 
cleanings  in  stands  the  spring  is  best  because,  if  too  heavy,  the  stand 
has  time  to  recover  before  snows.  In  fir  the  period  is  less  important,  but 
the  winter  is  best. 

In  selection  forests  the  procedure  is  somewhat  different.  There  are 
two  schools;  one  believes  that  the  ground  cannot  be  too  densely  covered, 
while  the  other,  led  by  Gurnaud,  believes  in  periodic  cleanings  in  the 
understory.  Probably  the  theory  of  at  least  partial  cleanings  in  selection 
forests  is  correct,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  study  the  soil  conditions. 
Some  soils  may  need  every  shrub  or  weed  as  a  protective  cover.  But 
since  most  selection  forests  are  in  the  mountains,  moderate  cleanings 
are  usually  advisable  at  the  time  of  felling  the  saw  timber.  This 
cleaning  removes  small  trees  damaged  by  exploitation,  weed  trees, 
holly,  and  even  beech  which  is  not  required  for  soil  cover  in  the  moun- 
tains. 


108  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

In  coppice  cleanings  protect  the  seedlings.  They  must  be  started 
4  or  5  years  after  cutting  the  coppice  and  continue  for  15  or  20  years. 
They  act  as  a  thinning  in  increasing  growth  and  in  removing  the  briars 
and  weeds,  weed  trees,  and  poor  stems  of  more  valuable  species.  The 
increased  growth  due  to  a  cleaning  may  be  40  to  50  per  cent  or  more. 
Where  the  coppice  is  grown  under  standards  the  cleaning  is  all  the 
more  essential,  because  the  best  standards  are  of  seedhng  origin,  a  class 
of  tree  especially  protected  by  the  cleaning.  To  give  the  best  results 
cleanings,  according  to  Schaeffer,  must  be  made  every  3  or  4  years. 
The  growth  of  the  standards  is  increased.  Jolyet  is  satisfied  with  clean- 
ings at  5,  10,  or  15  years. 

Thinnings.  —  Thinnings  have  three  main  objects:  (1)  To  eliminate 
the  least  desirable  specimens;  (2)  to  increase  the  rate  of  height  and 
diameter  growth  of  the  final  stand  by  artificially  removing  a  portion  of 
it  in  order  that  the  competition  for  existence  need  not  weaken  the  best 
trees;  (3)  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  trees  of  the  final  stand.  (See 
Fig.  9,  a  and  h).  It  is  erroneous  to  believe  that  a  very  dense  stand 
means  rapidity  of  height  growth.  To  secure  proper  development  trees 
must  have  sufficient  growing  space  so  that  their  crowns  can  increase  in 
vigor. 

While  thinnings  do  not  always  result  in  a  greater  final  yield  the 
quantity  of  large,  good-quality  timber  is  certainly  increased  and  the 
intermediate  plus  the  final  yield  of  a  thinned  stand  is  always  more 
than  the  final  yield  of  an  unthinned  stand.  Thinnings  decrease  insect 
and  fungus  loss  as  well  as  windfall  and  snow  breakage.  There  is  a 
general  feeling  among  foresters  that  the  French  believe  in  making  heavier 
thinnings  than  do  the  Germans.  The  old  axiom  of  thinning  early  and 
often  is  actually  practiced  in  the  forest  in  France  and  is  advocated  in 
the  text-books.  The  French  believe  in  thinning  the  top  story  in  order  to 
decrease  the  struggle  for  existence  among  the  dominant  species. ^^  On  the  other 
hand,  as  in  other  divisions  of  French  silviculture,  the  French  methods  are 
simple  and  direct.  They  have  not  classified  the  thinnings,  as  have  the 
Germans,  into  a  large  number  of  grades. 

In  coppice  with  long  rotations  the  French  believe  in  moderate  thin- 
nings [111].^^  Most  thinnings  start  in  France  when  the  stand  is  20 
years  old  and  continue  every  6  to  20  years.  They  are  marked  by  the 
guards  and  rangers  under  the  personal  direction  of  the  inspector,  assist- 
ant inspector,  or  forest  assistant  [134].     With  a  species  hke  maritime 

-^  The  bracketed  page  references  are  to  Jolyet. 

25  This  naturally  is  not  an  ironclad  rule.  In  the  forests  of  Mouthe  and  Fuvelle  (Jura 
fir)  up  to  50  to  60  years  the  thinnings  were  largely  in  the  understory;  only  after  the  stand 
had  closed  were  the  thinnings  in  the  top  story.  This  is  logical.  After  60  to  70  years  the 
thinnings  in  fir  may  remove  up  to  one-fifth  the  stand. 


THINNINGS 


109 


pine  it  is  invariably  the  practice  to  make  heavy  thinnings  -^  in  order 
that  the  crowns  may  be  fully  developed  when  tapping  for  resin  begins. 
These  start  at  10  years  of  age  and  continue  every  5  years  until  tapping 
to  death  begins  at  about  20  years.    Jolyet  says  [155]: 


A  B 

Fig.  9  (a).  —  Pole  stand  of  spruce  at  an  altitude  (west  exposure)  of  4,590  feet  in  the 
communal  forest  of  Beaufort.  There  are  364  trees  per  acre,  yielding  117  cubic  meters 
(23,000  feet  board  measure).  The  thinnings  thus  far  have  too  much  hght  to  permit 
crown  development. 

(6).  —  Spruce  and  fir  running  255  trees  and  283  cubic  meters  (74,000  feet  board 
measure)  to  the  acre,  in  the  Canton  du  Mont,  communal  forest  of  Thones-Ville,  at  an 
altitude  of  3,120  feet  on  a  west  exposure.  Thinnings  have  been  insufficient  to  free  the 
crowns  of  the  most  promising  trees. 

26  This  is  entirely  proper  with  maritime  pine  but  with  spruce  or  fir,  for  example,  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  open  up  the  stand  too  suddenly.  The  chief  danger  in  the  United 
States  is  of  too  heavy  thinnings  because  of  the  need  of  a  large  cut  at  one  time  to  reduce 


110  NATURAL   REGENERATION 

"At  15  years  there  is  a  second  thinning  (made  with  an  axe),  this  coupled  with  a 
pruning  of  the  remaining  trees  up  to  the  maximum  height  the  face  wUl  reach,  that  is  to 
say  up  to  6.6  to  9.8  feet  above  the  ground.  At  20  years  there  is  a  third  thinning,  pre- 
ceded by  the  tapping  of  the  trees  destined  to  be  felled.  There  is  no  reason  to  try  to 
maintain  the  vigor  of  these  trees;  the  essential  is  to  realize  as  quickly  as  possible  all  the 
resin  which  they  can  yield;  they  are  .  .  .  tapped  to  death  at  25  years,  and  at  30 
years  there  is  a  fourth  and  a  fifth  thinning,  always  preceded  by  tapping  to  death.  After 
the  fifth  thinning  is  cut  out  the  stand  becomes  very  open;  it  is  hardly  complete.  This 
condition  is,  however,  favorable  to  the  growth  of  maritime  pine,  since  the  crown,  when 
well  thinned  or  in  full  sunhght,  produces  more  rapidly  the  substances  necessary  for  the 
formation  of  wood  and  resin.  The  pine  trees  which  remain  are  now  called  pins  de  place 
and  are  tapped  alive,  that  is  to  say  they  are  worked  with  a  moderate  number  of  faces  so 
as  to  obtain  a  reasonable  amount  of  resin  without  compromising  the  vitality  of  the  tree. 
This  tapping  will  be  continued,  moreover,  during  the  entire  hfe  of  the  tree  (with  1  or  2 
years  of  respite).  In  addition  the  thinnings  (every  5  years)  are  continued  in  the  stand 
until  the  time  comes  for  regeneration  by  clear  cutting;  it  should  be  imderstood  that  each 
thinning  is  preceded  by  the  tapping  to  death  of  the  trees  marked  for  feUing." 

In  Scotch  pine  it  is  often  dangerous  to  wait  until  trees  are  large  enough 
to  yield  mine  props;  it  is  better  to  start  thinnings  earher,  say  at  18  or 
20  years,  as  purely  cultural  operations.  After  once  starting  they  should 
be  made  every  7  to  8  years  [163].  In  mixed  stands  [182],  such  as  beech 
and  fir,  the  thinnings  should  favor  the  fir  against  the  beech,  since  the 
latter  is  essentially  adapted  to  an  understory  rather  than  to  the  major 
stand  [182].  In  even-aged  stands  it  is  the  French  practice  to  choose 
the  trees  which  should  form  the  future  stand  and  then  favor  them  in 
the  thinnings.  The  mere  removal  of  suppressed  or  intermediate  trees  is 
not  countenanced,  since  the  French  beheve  very  firmly  in  thinning  the 
upper  story  [200].  The  chief  aim  in  making  thinnings  in  the  coppice 
of  a  coppice-under-standards  stand  8  to  10  years  before  the  coppice  is 
cut  is  to  increase  the  diameter  growth  of  the  most  vigorous  trees  which 
will  make  the  best  standards  for  the  upper  story  during  the  succeeding 
rotations  [245]. 

Another  operation,  in  reahty  a  thinning  or  loosening  (depressage) 
in  seedhng  stands,  is  very  necessary  in  crowded  maritime  pine  regenera- 
tion, and  often  in  dense  clumps  of  Scotch  pine  reproduction,  to  prevent 
damage  by  fungus  through  overcrowding.    Jolyet  -^  says  of  it : 

the  cost  of  logging.  Huff  el  says  in  the  preface  to  Vol.  II  of  Economie  Forestiere: 
"Exaggerated  thinnings  are  fatal  to  the  health  and  finally  to  the  very  existence  of  forests. 
By  breaking  the  cover  and  uncovering  the  soil,  they  diminish  or  destroy  its  productive- 
ness. The  humus  disappears;  the  soil  dries  out,  packs  and  hardens.  The  forest  is 
invaded  by  weeds,  heather,  and  grass;  the  valuable  species  are  gradually  ehminated. 
If  made  too  suddenly  thinnings  cause  windfall.  Too  heavy  thinnings  are  imeconomic 
since  they  increase  the  volume  of  branches  and  sapwood,  yield  short  tapering  boles. 
.     .     .     They  also  decrease  the  quality  of  wood.     .     .     ." 

27  Influence  des  Eclaircies  dans  les  Peuplements  reguUers  de  Sapin.  E.  Cuif, 
1905. 


IMPROVEMENT  FELLINGS 


111 


"It  is  necessary  to  break  up  these  thickets  by  cutting  a  certain  number  of  seedHngs. 
The  term  '  depressage '  (hterally  loosening)  explains  well  enough  the  nature  of  the  work 
which  is  done  with  a  bill  hook  or  pruning  iron.  To  sum  up,  the  'depressage'  is  not  a 
freeing  (degagement),  but  more  nearly  a  first  thinning  executed  in  very  young  stands." 

There  can  be  no  question  but  that  thinnings  are  profitable  when  the 
trees  to  be  cut  can  be  sold.  As  a  concrete  example  of  increment  the 
following  is  cited  for  a  fir  stand  in  France: 


Plot  A, 
thinned 

Plot  B, 
unthinned 

1913  value  of  stand 

$889.13 
667.01 

$1,687.78 

43  39 

Sales  since  1893 

Totals 

$1,556.14 
1,113.41 

$442.73 
3.76 
1.37 

$1,731.17 
1  323  21 

Price  in  1893 

Difference 

$407  96 

Per  cent  of  value  increment 

2  80 

Increase  in  average  price  per 

cubic  meter  (per  cent) . . 

.97 

Thus  thinnings,  properly  executed,  mcrease  average  annual  revenue 
and  the  unit  of  value  of  the  final  product.  On  account  of  the  larger 
logs  in  another  plot  the  price  increment  per  meter  was  17  cents.  Cuif 
believes  that  good  thinnings  will  enable  the  State  to  decrease  the  ro- 
tations. 

Huffel  cites  some  authoritative  figures  for  the  growth  per  cent  for  a 
spruce  forest  thinned  and  unthinned.  Starting  with  20  years  the  growth 
per  cent  is  0.7  for  both  stands;  at  50  years  the  unthinned  stand  was 
growing  at  the  rate  of  4.3  per  cent  and  the  thinned  at  4.5  per  cent,  at  100 
years  the  growth  per  cent  for  the  unthinned  stand  was  2.6  and  for  the 
thinned  3  per  cent. 

The  losses  througn  poorly  executed  thinnings  may  be  lasting. 
Schaeffer  ^^  cited  a  case  where  a  compartment  was  ruined  for  30  years 
because  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  marking  did  not  study  the  stand 
curves  in  the  working  plan  (see  p.  216).  He  cited  diameter  Hmit  mark- 
ing as  abominable.  Important  marking,  according  to  French  behef, 
should  always  be  executed  under  the  direction  of  a  trained  officer. 

Improvement  Fellings.  —  French  text-books  do  not  refer  to  "  improve- 
ment fellings"  as  such.  They  describe  freeings,  cleanings,  thinnings,  and 
accompanying  cultural  operations.  But  in  State  forest  and  communal 
working  plans  there  are  always  instructions  under  the  head  "Coupes 
d' amelioration,"  as  distinct  from  regeneration  fellings  and  freeings. 

In  the  forest  of  Argon  according  to  the  original  working  plan,  when 

28  Sylviculture  Administrative.    A.  Schaeffer.     Besangon,  1907. 


112  NATURAL  REGENERATION 

the  stand  is  50  to  60  years  old  there  are  careful  thinnings  in  the  poles 
and  the  removal  of  dry,  suppressed  trees  and  final  felhngs  with  light 
thinnings  in  the  pole  stands  and  the  gradual  ehmination  of  the  beech. 
According  to  the  working  plan : 

"1.  In  the  spring,  one  shall  carefully  reconnoiter  the  windfall,  dry  trees,  dead  trees, 
or  those  declining  in  vigor;  the  volume  shall  be  determined  from  the  volume  table. 
Under  the  head  of  defective  wood  should  be  included  all  trees  seriously  defective,  such 
as  rotten,  fungus  infected,  or  very  crooked  trees,  or  those  exuding  resin  or  showing 
cancer." 

This  clean-up  in  the  almost  mature  stands  is  in  effect  an  improve- 
ment felling.  In  the  forest  of  Malmifait,  under  the  heading  "Improve- 
ment Fellings,"  the  working  plan  prescribed  the  following: 

"The  cultural  rules  to  apply  will  vary  according  to  the  working  group.  In  the  third 
group  (the  first  to  be  regenerated  so  far  as  the  mature  reserves  are  concerned,  which 
must  be  zealously  kept  to  furnish  most  of  the  future  seed  trees),  it  is  necessary  that  only 
dead  and  dying  trees  be  cut  and  everywhere  on  those  areas  where  it  is  impossible  to  find 
suitable  seed  trees  in  the  poles;  on  those  areas  all  the  trees  are  defective  or  hollow.  In 
the  poles  the  young  trees  of  desirable  species,  which  must  furnish  the  future  seed  trees, 
will  be  freed  rather  energetically  and  prepared  for  seeding  purposes  along  with  the  mature 
reserves  and  especially  when  these  reserves  are  lacking;  moreover  the  thinnings  will  be 
very  fight  so  as  not  to  expose  the  soil;  otherwise  the  seeding  would  be  started  (prema- 
turely) along  with  briars  and  grass  which  would  form,  later  in  the  third  period,  an  ob- 
stacle to  natural  reproduction.  The  same  cultural  rules  will  be  applied  in  the  fourth 
group,  but  with  even  greater  moderation;  it  wiU  be  possible  to  sacrifice  some  of  the  old 
trees  which  are  hollow  or  in  mediocre  condition  in  favor  of  good  stems,  stiU  young, 
existing  in  the  poles;  but  here,  also,  the  thinning  as  a  whole  win  be  fight.  .  .  .  In  the 
young  growth  of  the  fifth  group,  where  old  reserves  are  lacking  or  few  in  number,  the 
oak  must  be  freed,  and  the  good  beech  as  required;  there  should  be  no  hesitation,  in  the 
areas  where  the  oak  is  the  dominant  species  and  where  the  beech  is  insufficient,  in 
sacrificing  the  former  of  these  two  species  to  assist  the  latter,  so  as  always  to  make  sure 
of  a  proper  mixture  of  these  two  species. 

"Finally,  in  the  compartments  of  the  second  group  where  it  will  be  necessary  to  pass 
most  often,  the  special  cutting  scheme  provides  for  four  fellings  instead  of  two,  for  the 
other  groups,  during  the  last  26  years  of  the  period;  the  improvement  cutting  will  take  the 
form  of  cleanings,  liberation  cuttings,  or  thinnings,  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
stands;  besides  it  is  necessary,  wherever  the  regeneration  does  not  take  hold,  to  assist 
the  seeding  by  means  of  wounding  the  soil  and  to  complete  it  by  plantations  of  oak 
and  even  beech  where  necessary.  It  is  essential  to  continually  see  to  it  at  the  start  that 
the  seedlings  and  plants  are  not  choked  by  the  briars  .  .  .  and  later  on  that  the 
promising  individuals  of  the  good  species  should  not  be  hindered  in  their  growth  by 
secondary  species.  These  operations  are  especially  delicate.  So  far  as  possible  they 
will  actually  be  done  by  the  employees  as  betterments  (improvement  work).  They 
must  be  carefully  and  progressively  executed  at  short  intervals  on  the  same  ground. 
Often,  especially  at  the  start,  it  would  be  better  to  cut  out  the  weed  trees  gradually 
rather  than  to  remove  them  all  at  the  same  time,  which  would  uncover  the  seedlings 
too  brusquely.  .  .  .  Often  it  will  be  preferable  to  kill  the  weed  trees  by  girdling 
rather  than  to  cut  them  level  with  the  ground,  which  would  favor  the  production  of 
vigorous  sprouts,  able  to  very  rapidly  interfere  with  the  young  growth  of  valuable 
species." 


IMPROVEMENT  FELLINGS  113 

Judging  from  this  quotation  the  term  "improvement  felhngs"  in 
France  is  used  rather  as  a  general  term  to  signify  any  kind  of  intermediate 
felling.  It  has  been  employed  by  some  officers  in  a  narrower  sense  to 
denote  the  improvement  of  mature  stands  prior  to  regeneration,  where 
dead,  dying,  and  diseased  trees  are  cut  out  systematically  to  reahze 
profit  on  what  would  otherwise  constitute  a  loss. 


CHAPTER  VI 1 
ARTIFICIAL   REFORESTATION 

French  Policy  (p.  114).     General,  Choice  between  Sowing  and  Planting. 

Seed  (p.  117).     Cultural  Value  of  Seed,  Seed  Testing,  Rules  for  Seed  Control. 

Nurseries  (p.  122).  Location  of  Nurseries,  Nursery  Practice,  Two  Sample  Nurs- 
eries. 

Planting  (p.  125).  Cultivation  and  Spacing,  Age  of  Plants,  Time  to  Plant,  Planta- 
tion by  Holes,  French  Planting  Technique,  Cover  and  Protection,  Species  and  Methods 
to  Use,  Chief  Dangers. 

FiBLD  Sowing  (p.  132).  Prepared  and  Unprepared  Soil,  Amount  to  Sow,  Season  for 
Sowing,  Summary  of  Sowing  Methods  as  Applied  to  Species  and  Regions. 

FRENCH   POLICY 

General.  —  Notwithstanding  the  sentiment  in  France  in  favor  of 
regeneration  by  natural  means  it  is  obvious  that  with  only  18.7  per  cent 
of  the  land  under  forest,  considerable  areas  must  be  restocked  artifi- 
cially if  France  is  not  to  suffer  for  lack  of  wood  (of  the  kinds  needed). 
Thus  far  the  Government  has  devoted  the  most  time  and  revenue  to 
the  reclamation 'of  the  sand  wastes  in  the  Landes  (see  Chapter  VIII) 
and  to  the  reforestation  of  lands  in  the  mountains  (see  Chapter  VII), 
denuded  through  past  improvident  overcutting  and  overgrazing.  Next 
in  importance  has  been  the  planting  and  sowing  in  the  Sologne  and 
Champagne.  Besides  this  restocking  of  barren  areas  there  has  been 
occasional  sowing  and  planting  to  supplement  natural  regeneration 
when  this  has  been  a  partial  failure.  There  are  always  fail  places  in 
natural  reproduction  where  nature  must  be  assisted  to  maintain  pro- 
duction and  to  keep  the  present  stand  from  deterioration.  For  example, 
with  more  than  three-fifths  of  the  forest  area  in  coppice  or  coppice- 
under-standards  these  stands  must  be  continually  sown  to  oak  or  under- 
planted  (the  usual  practice)  to  prevent  blanks.  In  conversion  from 
these  systems  to  high  forest  more  desirable  species  than  can  be  secured 
by  natural  seeding  must  be  introduced. 

Too  frequently,  however,  the  private  owner  has  allowed  his  forest  to 
deteriorate  because  sowing  or  planting  involved  direct  expenditures 
to-day,  with  returns  deferred  until  the  next  generation. 

To  practice  good  forestry  is  to  save,  so  it  is  somewhat  surprising  that 

1  Prof.  J.  W.  Toumey,  Dean  of  the  School  of  Forestry,  Yale  University,  and  Lt.-Col. 
A.  S.  Peck  kindly  reviewed  this  chapter  and  made  many  valuable  suggestions. 

114 


CHOICE   BETWEEN   SOWING  AND   PLANTING  115 

to-day  there  is  not  a  larger  per  cent  of  French  territory  under  well- 
managed  forest.  The  main  reasons  for  this  deficiency  can  be  traced  to 
the  vicissitudes  of  families  and  of  the  nation,  coupled  with  the  selfish- 
ness of  pleasure-loving  nobles,  kings,  and  pohticians.  Yet,  curiously 
enough,  the  search  after  pleasure,  in  the  form  of  hunting  and  shooting, 
is  responsible  for  some  of  the  most  famous  high  forests  of  France. 

Trees  are  sometimes  planted  as  shelter-belts  for  the  fields  on  the 
right  of  way  along  the  railways.  This  apparently  is  a  wise  use  of  land 
otherwise  unproductive,  but  it  is  very  hard  on  the  eyes  of  travelers. 
Where  the  railroad  grade  passes  through  cuts  trees  have  been  planted 
to  hold  the  earth  and  prevent  erosion.  This  is  a  practice  which  American 
railroad  engineers  might  well  follow.  At  Toulouse  cypress  trees  are 
planted  along  canals  to  protect  them  against  drying  winds. 

Roadside  tree  planting  is  practiced  very  generally  throughout  France 
and  results  in  endless  rows  of  trees  flanking  the  highways  which  is  one 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  French  countryside  that  impresses  itself 
most  indelibly  on  the  traveler. 

French  writers  ^  class  (a)  the  forestation  of  the  Landes  and  mountains 
as  obligatory  forestation  and  {h)  the  stocking  of  poor  agricultural  land 
or  waste  land,  which  has  never  been  cultivated,  as  optional.  From  the 
standpoint  of  public  economics  no  nation  can  afford  to  permit  land 
suitable  for  growing  crops  of  trees  to  lie  idle.  If  the  individual  cannot 
afford  the  proper  forestation  the  State  must  step  in.  There  should  be 
no  waste  land  nor  should  its  use  for  forestry  be  optional.  It  should  be 
obligatory,  but  with  the  alternative  of  yielding  ownership  to  the  State 
under  equitable  conditions.  With  at  least  300,000  acres  partially  or 
completely  denuded  by  the  recent  war,  France  has  a  vital  problem  of 
reforestation  to  meet  and  must  import  a  large  portion  of  her  seed  or 
plants.  It  would  certainly  be  a  just  settlement  if  the  Germans  were 
made  to  furnish  much  of  the  seed  and  plant  material. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  treat  the  subject  of  artificial  stocking 
systematically;  instead  only  the  most  interesting  and  instructive  phases 
of  the  problems  will  be  covered  in  varying  detail. 

Choice  between  Sowing  and  Planting.  —  According  to  such  foresters 
as  Lorentz  and  Parade  field  sowing  is  considered  especially  useful  on  a 
large  scale,  since  it  is  alleged  to  be  simpler  and  cheaper  than  plantations 
and  because  the  result  is  more  nearly  like  the  natural  forest.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  recognized  that  the  plantation  is  surer  and  results  in 
more  regular  stands.  Therefore  where  the  soil  is  dry,  where  it  is  de- 
nuded, and  where  it  is  eroding,  as  in  the  majority  of  cases  in  the  Alps, 
planting  is  preferable  to  sowing.  While  no  absolute  rule  can  be  formu- 
lated for  the  choice  between  sowing  and  planting,  Demontzey,  the 
2  For  example,  see  Jolyet,  pp.  467-468. 


116  ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 

father  of  mountain  planting,  believes  that  planting  is  usually  preferable 
and  that  sowing  should  be  done  only  in  special  cases,  since  the  sowing, 
while  sometimes  less  costly  than  planting,  is  less  certain  and  often  in- 
complete. Sowing  is  best,  according  to  the  French  writers,  on  some 
kinds  of  rocky  soil  where  plantations  are  made  with  diflficulty,  where 
seed  is  very  cheap,  and  where  the  soil  need  not  be  previously  prepared. 
Otherwise  it  is  usually  more  expensive. 

Planting  was  neglected  for  a  long  time  in  France,  but  Government 
forestation  has  given  it  an  impetus  and  formally  established  its  desira- 
bility under  certain  conditions.  Planting  makes  possible  the  control 
of  species,  mixtures,  and  spacing,  and  is  generally  considered  better  on 
very  rich  soils  where  weeds  abound,  where  there  is  damage  from  rodents 
or  squirrels,  and  in  hot  and  dry  regions  where  the  young  trees  cannot 
be  protected  but  must  resist  the  heat.  For  successful  direct  seeding, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  that  (1)  there  be  no  dense  cover  that  will 
shut  out  the  light,  (2)  the  young  plants  should  have  a  little  protection 
against  the  snow,  (3)  the  soil  should  not  be  too  exposed  to  heaving  by 
frost,  but  that  it  should  have  a  moist  surface,  and  (4)  the  slopes  should 
not  be  too  steep.  Otherwise  the  plants  will  be  eroded  or  covered  by 
earth  transported  by  flood  water.  There  are  other  considerations. 
Certain  seeds  take  more  than  a  year  to  germinate  so  that  they  remain 
exposed  for  a  long  time  to  the  different  agencies  of  destruction.  For 
example,  cembric  pine  seeds  and  some  species  of  ash  belong  to  this  class. 
Therefore,  planting  is  to  be  preferred  to  sowing  for  these  species.  Not- 
withstanding this,  however,  cembric  pine  is  sometimes  sown  because  of 
the  shortness  of  the  favorable  season  at  the  high  altitudes  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  handling  labor  in  these  out-of-the-way  places.  Of  course, 
species  which  develop  a  long  taproot  at  the  start  are  better  sown,  as, 
for  example,  the  holm  oak  and  the  maritime  pine.  In  the  case  of  the 
cypress  it  is  better  to  plant  because  a  certain  number  of  seeds  bear 
plants  having  a  pyramidal  form.  In  Savoie  and  in  the  Basses-Alpes 
sowing  is  often  employed,  in  connection  with  planting,  at  high  alti- 
tudes and  on  stable  ground  for  the  cembric  pine,  the  mountain  pine, 
and  the  larch;  spruce  is  also  sown  in  Savoie.  In  the  Basses-Alpes, 
Drome,  and  Vaucluse  acorns  and  aleppo  pine  seed  are  sown;  beech 
nuts  are  also  sown  in  the  Basses-Alpes.  Aleppo  pine  comes  up  well 
from  sowing  operations  in  the  Maritime  Alpes.  Scotch  pine,  Corsican 
pine,  and  maritime  pine  are  sown  successfully  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  the  Gard  department.  Elsewhere  in  this  department  sowing  is  re- 
served for  the  summits  and  high  altitudes  where  the  wind  is  very  strong. 
The  sowing  of  Scotch  pine  on  heather  has  been  employed  in  the  Central 
Plateau,  in  which  region  sowing  and  planting  generally  give  about 
equivalent  results.     In  the  Ardeche  the  sowing  of  fir  under  the  shelter 


CULTURAL   V.AXUE   OF  SEED 


117 


of  open  stands  of  beech  or  pine  often  succeeds,  as  in  other  places  where 
this  species  is  suited  to  the  cHmate.  In  the  Lozere  seeding  is  employed 
only  for  the  pedunculate  oak,  chestnut,  and  Scotch  pine.  In  the  Aude 
and  the  Pyrenees-Orientales  holm  oak  and  maritime  pine  are  sown. 
Pedunculate  oak,  chestnut,  and  aleppo  pine  in  this  region  are  both  sown 
and  planted,  with  a  preference  for  sowing. 

SEED 

Cultural  Value  of  Seed.  —  It  is  important  for  successful  artificial 
forestation  that  the  real  cultural  value  of  the  seed  to  be  used  should 
be  known  in  advance.  Much  attention  has  been  given  to  this  point. 
After  comparing  the  results  obtained  at  Paris  and  Barres  with  those 
at  other  experiment  stations,  Fron  concludes  that  the  average  seed 
value  of  the  principal  tree  species,  bought  in  the  open  market,  is  as 
given  below.  This  signifies  that  for  larch  10  pounds  must  be  used 
where  the  sowing  plans  call  for  4  pounds. 

TABLE  9.  — AVERAGE  SEED  VALUE 


Species 


Scotch  pine. . . 
Mountain  pine 
Austrian  pine. 
Maritime  pine. 
Aleppo  pine. . . 

Spruce 

Larch 

Fir 


Average 
purity, 
per  cent 


95+ 

95+ 

95+ 

95+ 

95+ 

95+ 

80-85+ 

88+ 


Average 

germinatioi 

per  cent 


75-80+ 

70 

75-80+ 

75 

80 

75-80 

45-50 

20 


Duration  of 

test,  days 


Average 

cultural  value, 

per  cent  <* 


70-75+ 
66+ 
70-75+ 
70+ 
75 

70-75 
40+ 
16.6(Zurich) 


Obtained  by  dividing  the  product  of  germination  and  purity  coefficients  by  100. 


The  experiments  conducted  also  emphasized  the  fact,  now  so  generally 
known,  that  forest  tree  seeds  cannot  be  stored  successfully  without 
losing  so  much  of  their  germinative  per  cent  that  storage  becomes  un- 
profitable, unless  kept  in  air-tight  retainers — not  yet  generally  em- 
ployed by  seed  houses.  Scotch  pine,  with  a  cultural  value  of  74  to  79 
per  cent,  was  reduced  to  49  to  58  per  cent  the  second  year,  28  to  45  per 
cent  the  third  year,  and  less  than  5  per  cent  the  sixth  year.  These  are 
maximum  losses.  The  cultural  value  of  mountain  pine  and  Austrian 
pine  decreases  as  rapidly,  but  maritime  pine  stands  storage  much  better, 
and  even  after  10  years'  storage  has  a  cultural  value  of  40  to  60  per 
cent.  Spruce  seed  values  decrease  rapidly  with  storage;  if  73  to  77  per 
cent  the  first  year,  they  are  53  to  62  per  cent  the  second,  and  but  26  to 
44  per  cent  the  third  year.     It  might  almost  be  said  that  larch  seed 


118 


ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 


cannot  be  stored;  if  39  to  44  per  cent  the  first  year,  it  is  only  16  to  18 
per  cent  the  second,  and  5  to  8  per  cent  the  third  year. 

Seed  Testing.  —  As  a  result  of  these  experiments  a  fixed  procedure  was 
adopted  for  official  tests  on  tree  seeds.  It  must  be  known  ^  (1)  whether 
seed  can  germinate  and  what  the  germination  per  cent  will  be;  (2)  per 
cent  of  impurities,  since  the  germination  per  cent  plus  the  purity  per 
cent  gives  the  cultural  value  of  the  seed,  subject  to  practical  field  condi- 
tions which  always  modify  the  supposed  cultural  value.  In  addition 
to  the  above  factors  it  is  also  necessary  to  know  (3)  germinative 
energy. 

In  1872  germinative  seed  tests  were  started  at  the  secondary  school 
for  rangers  and  guards  at  Barres.  An  experimental  seed-testing  station 
at  Paris  was  established  in  1884.^  There  were  117  analyses  in  1895 
and  2,201  in  1902-03.  The  object  was  to  control  and  better  the  tree- 
seed  market  of  France.  This  seed-testing  laboratory  enabled  the  State 
to  purchase  seed  with  a  guaranteed  germinative  per  cent,  and  the  cumu- 
lative result  of  germinative  tests  at  the  various  stations  has  made  it 
possible  that  no  one  need  purchase  or  sow  tree  seeds  without  knowing 
their  germinative  value.  The  first  column  following  gives  the  gross 
amount  of  seed  required  for  a  complete  test,  and  the  second  column  the 
amount  usually  required  in  the  laboratory  for  the  actual  test. 


TABLE  10.  — SEED  REQUIl 

lED 

Birch  and  analogous  species 

Seed  required, 
complete  test 

Seed  required, 
actual  test 

Grams 

Troy 
ounces 

Grams 

Troy 
ounces 

Scotch  pine,  Corsican  pine,  aleppo  pine 

Spruce,  larch,  alder,  hornbeam,  maple 

Cembric  pine,  fir,  cedar,  oak,  beech 

Acacia,  ash,  linden,  maritime  pine 

50 
100 
200 
250 

1.6 
3.2 
6.4 

8 

20 
30 
50 
100 

0.6 
1.0 
1,6 

3.2 

3  Analyse  et  Controle  des  Semences  Forestieres,  par  A.  Fron,  Paris,  1906,  pp.  1-128. 
Those  interested  in  seed  control  should  study  this  monograph. 

^  So  far  as  possible  the  French  forest  administration  collects  its  own  seed.  Various 
local  dry-kilns  have  been  established  as,  for  example,  at  Murat  (Cantal),  Puy-de- 
Dome,  and  Gap  for  Scotch  pine;  at  Modane,  Briangon,  and  Cavanasse  for  mountain 
pine,  although  some  Scotch  pine  is  produced  at  Cavanasse.  At  Salzman,  Corsican 
pine  seed  is  produced.  At  Montiers  (Savoie)  spruce;  and  aleppo  pine  at  Font-de- 
rOrme  (Vaucluse),  d'Aubagne  (Bouches-du-Rhone).  Maritime  pine  is  secured  from 
Lavandee,  although  a  part  is  secured  from  permittees  who  have  the  right  to  collect 
cones  in  the  dunes  of  Gascogne.  Larch  and  cembric  pine  are  purchased  in  the  Hautes- 
Alpes  and  Basses-Alpes  and  distributed  from  Embrun  and  Barcelonette.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  that  the  larch  seed  is  collected  by  beating  the  trees  when  they  are 
ready  to  shed,  between  January  1  and  March  1. 


SEED   TESTING  119 

For  determining  the  weight  by  volume  one  and  one-half  quarts 
are  usually  required.  It  goes  without  saying  that  the  samples  from 
each  lot  must  be  chosen  with  the  utmost  care.  First,  the  shipment 
must  be  thoroughly  mixed,  then  at  least  ten  samples,  selected  from 
different  places  in  the  pile,  are  mixed  and  a  final  average  lot  selected. 
When  the  seed  comes  in  sacks  ^  samples  can  be  extracted  from  each 
sack  or  from  a  certain  proportion  mixed  together  and  sampled  as  given 
above.  Where  samples  must  be  sent  away  for  testing  they  must  be 
labeled  and  sealed  in  air-tight  bags,  but  if  the  water  content  of  the 
sample  is  to  be  determined  the  shipment  is  made  preferably  in  corked 
glass  or  air-tight  metal  boxes.  It  is  of  value  to  keep  samples  of  seed 
known  to  be  normal  to  use  as  a  basis  for  comparson ;  with  reliable  samples 
officers  that  are  not  experts  can  readily  check  species  and,  occasionally, 
varieties.  The  separation  of  the  debris  from  the  real  seed  can  best  be 
made  by  hand.  The  seeds  are  placed  on  a  glass  and  separated  from  the 
wings,  particles  of  cone,  refuse,  debris,  wood,  sand,  and  damaged  or 
puny  seed  by  the  use  of  a  penknife.  The  operation  must  be  completed 
as  soon  as  possible  to  guard  against  changes  in  weight  due  to  drying. 
The  absolute  weight  is  determined  by  averaging  the  weight  of  two 
lots  of  1,000  seeds  each;  with  this  figure  the  number  of  seeds  to  the  pound 
can  be  decided  by  multiphcation.  When  the  amount  of  seed  per  quart 
is  to  be  secured  a  number  of  quarts  must  be  averaged  owing  to  the 
variations  usually  encountered. 

A  reliable  germination  test  must  include  four  separate  lots  of  100 
seeds  each,  or  for  acorns  and  nuts  four  of  50  seeds  each;  the  choice  of 
which  seeds  to  use  must  be  by  lot  to  eliminate  absolutely  the  personal 
element.  After  the  tests  on  each  lot  the  results  ought  not  to  vary  more 
than  10  per  cent  for  seed  with  high  germination  powers  nor  more  than 
15  per  cent  for  seed  germinating  around  50  per  cent.  Before  the  germi- 
nation tests  it  is  customary  to  soak  conifer  seeds  in  sterilized  luke- 
warm water  for  from  6  to  15  hours.  This  time  counts  on  the  total  length 
of  time  allowed  for  germination.  For  germination  Fron  recommends 
a  heavy  sterilized  blotting  paper  or  sand  with  a  Schribaux  stove,  the 
humidity  l^eing  kept  at  50  per  cent  to  60  per  cent  during  the  entire  test. 
No  chemicals  are  used.  The  temperature  is  maintained  between 
20°  C.  (68°  F.)  and  30°  C.  (86°  F.);  for  conifers  Fron  recommends  a 
temperature  of  20°  C.  to  25°  C.  (68°  F.  to  77°  F.)  during  18  hours,  and 
25°  C.  to  30°  C.  (77°  F.  to  86°  F.)  during  6  hours,  but  Schwappach 
recommends  25°  C.  and  30°  C.  (68°  F.  to  86°  F.),  respectively.  Mari- 
time pine  can  stand  up  to  35°  C.  (95°  F.)  for  short  intervals.  Ordinarily 
no  light  is  admitted,  but  alder  and   birch  appear  to  germinate  more 

5  In  Germany  the  sampler  (Sonde)  of  Professor  Noble,  made  by  Mathes,  of  Tharandt, 
Saxony,  has  been  used  with  success. 


120  ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 

rapidly  if  they  are  exposed  to  daylight.  The  official  duration  for  tests 
has  been  30  days  for  Scotch  pine,  Corsican  pine,  spruce,  larch  and  most 
conifers,  willow,  alder,  elm,  hornbeam,  maple,  oak,  and  beech,  and  42 
days  for  maritime  pine,  aleppo  pine,  mountain  pine,  fir,  and  white 
pine  (P.  strohus). 

After  these  tests  are  completed  note  is  always  made  as  to  how  many 
of  the  ungerminated  seeds  are  still  fresh,  but  these  figures  do  not  enter 
into  the  calculation  of  cultural  value. 

To  obtain  the  actual  sowing  value  of  any  seed  the  product  of  the 
coefficient  of  purity  and  the  germination  per  cent  is  divided  by  100. 
The  germinative  energy  is  measured  by  the  number  of  seeds  which  have 
germinated  after  a  fixed  period,  which  is  usually  10  days  for  species 
germinated  for  30  days  in  all  and  14  days  for  those  requiring  42  days  to 
complete  the  normal  tests. 

The  following  variations  are  allowed  in  deciding  whether  to  accept 
purchases  or  not :  For  germination  per  cent,  5  per  cent  for  species  running 
90  per  cent  and  more ;  8  per  cent  for  species  less  than  90  per  cent ;  purity, 
2  per  cent  and  3  per  cent;  cultural  or  real  value,  6  per  cent  and  9  per 
cent.  As  Fron  remarks,  "If  the  cultural  value  were  guaranteed  at  80 
per  cent  but  showed  only  70  per  cent  or  less,  the  seed  could  be  accepted." 
For  American  conditions  such  percentages  set  too  high  a  standard;  they 
should  be  at  least  10  to  20  per  cent  less. 

The  water  content  of  samples  is  found  by  taking  10  to  20  grams 
(0.3  to  0.6  ounces  T.)  and  maintaining  it  for  three  days  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  105°  C.  (221°  F.).  The  loss  in  weight  after  being  dried  gives 
the  desired  per  cent  when  divided  by  100. 

The  station  record  shows  how  the  tests  were  made,  the  amount  of 
seed  received  and  actually  used,  date  seed  was  shipped  and  received, 
how  packed,  and  conditions  after  transport. 

Rules  for  Seed  Control.  —  French  foresters  have  tried  to  have  all 
sales  of  tree  seeds  controlled  by  the  State  so  that  buying  would  be  done 
on  the  basis  of  cultural  value  rather  than  on  a  gamble,  but  as  yet  no 
such  regulation  is  in  general  force.  The  proposed  rules  to  govern  the 
analysis  and  control  of  forest  tree  seeds  are  as  follows: 

"Article  I.  —  Name  of  method  of  analysis  and  of  control. 
A.   The  aim  of  the  analysis  and  control  of  forest  seeds  is  as  follows: 

1.  To  centralize  everything  touching   on  the  study,  analysis,  and  control  of 

forest  seed. 

2.  To  contribute  to  the  continuous  improvement  of  collected  forest  seeds 

sold  or  utilized  in  France,  based  on  the  results  of  authentic  samples  of 
different  kinds  and  by  researches  on  the  physiologic  growth,  selection, 
and  variety  with  the  aim  of  practical  results. 

3.  To  contribute  to  the  study  of  exotic  forest  species  by  experiments  carried 

out  on  the  seeds  locally  and  in  arbor etums  and  experimental  plots. 


RULES  FOR  SEED  CONTROL  121 

B.    So  far  as  the  analysis  and  control  of  forest  seeds  is  concerned  the  experiments 
will  determine: 

1.  Correctness,  so  far  as  possible,  of  genus  or  species. 

2.  The  purity. 

3.  Absolute  weight. 

4.  The  actual  weight  in  case  demand  is  made. 

5.  Germinative  figure  and  germinative  per  cent. 

6.  Water  content. 

The  experiments  must  be  carried  out  in  conformity  with  exact  technical  methods. 
The  experiments  with  knife  without  being  proved  by  germination  may  suffice  for  the 
large  seeds  (cembric  pine,  oak,  beech,  etc.),  but  give  only  approximate  results.  The 
results  given  by  the  experimental  service  are  obtained  by  experimenting  with  average 
specimens,  that  is  to  say  that  the  advertisements  of  the  analysis  executed  by  the  ex- 
perimental service  cannot  be  utihzed  by  the  vendor  as  exact  data  on  the  value  of  a 
given  purchase. 

Article  II.  —  Control  of  the  sale  of  forest  seeds. 

1.  Analysis  of  control.  Contract  houses  (with  the  aim  of  controUing  the  sale  of 
forest  seeds)  and  experimental  service  can  conclude  contracts  with  seed 
merchants  entitled  contracts  of  control.  The  list  of  houses  placed  under 
the  control  of  the  experimental  service  can  be  mailed  free  to  persons  who 
demand  it.  It  may  be  pubhshed.  The  conditions  of  these  contracts  are 
as  follows : 

A.  The  house  promises  to  observe  the  rules  in  every  particular. 

B.  The  house  engages  to  indicate  on  the  bill  the  guarantees  for  the  merchan- 

dise sold  and  dehvered  to  the  purchasers  under  the  conditions  given  in 
the  certificates  of  control  and  to  furnish,  at  the  expense  of  the  house,  an 
analysis  of  control. 

C.  The  purchasers  of  seed  from  a  controlled  house  acquire,  if  purchasing  the 

minimum  amount  stipulated,  without  further  formality  and  without 
special  authorization,  the  right  to  have  a  free  analysis  by  the  experi- 
mental bureau  of  the  material  purchased. 

D.  The  controlled  houses  must  agree  that  the  analysis  made  by  this  bureau 

shall  be  final  for  the  purposes  of  fixing  the  amount  of  the  bill.  If  the 
results  of  the  analysis  do  not  correspond  with  the  guarantee  given,  they 
promise  to  make  it  up  to  the  purchaser. 

E.  The  houses  controlled  do  not  pay  any  annual  charges  to  the  testing  bureau 

.  .  .  since  the  expenses  are  borne  by  the  Maison  de  Commerce.  .  .  . 

F.  The  houses  which  do  not  guarantee  to  their  purchasers  free  analysis  or 

which  do  not  even  give  a  limited  guarantee  cannot  be  admitted  as  houses 
controlled  by  the  bureau. 

G.  The  controlled  houses  are  forbidden  to  furnish  several  certificates  of  free 

analysis  for  a  single  sale  of  the  same  sort  of  seed.     Each  certificate  is 
valuable  only  for  the  special  sale  for  which  it  has  been  delivered. 
H.    It  is  forbidden  to  insert  in  the  contracts  of  control  any  stipulations  con- 
cerning the  probable  analysis  cost.     The  analysis  of  this  kind  must  be 
paid  for  according  to  the  tariff."  ^ 

^  Such  a  system  of  general  seed  control  is  needed  in  the  United  States.  Under 
present  conditions  a  private  purchaser  of  forest  tree  seeds  has  no  guarantee  of  the  real 


122  ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 


NURSERIES 

Location  of  Nurseries.  —  Judging  from  visits  to  a  number  of  nurseries 
(1)  near  areas  under  natural  regeneration  and  (2)  at  regular  forestation 
projects,  France  has  not  much  to  teach  us  in  the  minutiae  of  modern 
nursery  practice.  What  there  is  to  learn  is  chiefly  along  the  lines  of 
policy.  For  example,  French  foresters  have  demonstrated  that  in  the 
forestation  projects  in  the  mountains  it  is  important  to  have  small  local 
nurseries  near  the  area  to  be  forested,  while  the  tendency  in  the  United 
States  has  been  to  maintain  large  central  nurseries  from  which  stock 
can  be  shipped.  On  the  National  Forests  in  the  United  States,  according 
to  Greeley: 

"The  policy  has  been  pretty  generally  adopted  of  maintaining  large  nurseries  rather 
than  small  ones,  notwithstanding  the  shipping  cost  and  the  danger  of  the  stock  drying 
out  in  transit.  A  few  years  ago  a  large  number  of  so-called  ranger  nurseries  were  es- 
tablished on  almost  every  Forest,  but  this  proved  expensive  and  unsatisfactory.  Many 
of  the  rangers  wasted  time  .on  their  nursery  work  and  it  seriously  interfered  with  their 
regular  executive  duties." 

At  Barcelonnette,  in  the  Basses-Alpes,  they  have  tried  three  kinds  of 
nurseries:  (1)  Permanent  or  central  nurseries,  (2)  so-called  "flying" 
nurseries,  and  (3)  fixed  local  nurseries. 

Permanent  or  central  nurseries  are  now  rare.  Small  temporary  or 
"flying"  nurseries  in  or  near  the  area  to  be  sown  are  extremely  popular. 
After  they  have  produced  once  or  twice  and  the  nearby  planting  is 
completed  they  are  abandoned.  The  small  fixed  local  nurseries,  often 
two  or  three  in  each  working  group,  are  placed  conveniently  near  plant- 
ing sites  where  for  a  number  of  years  material  will  be  required. 

Departing  somewhat  from  this  practice.  Dinner,  an  eminent  author- 
ity on  forestation,  had  very  few  temporary  nurseries  in  the  Maritime 
Alps  because  he  believed  in  thorough  irrigation,  and  it  was  often  diffi- 
cult to  secure  a  certain  water  supply  near  the  planting  site.  Dinner 
used  1  to  3  year  old  untransplanted  stock  and  developed  a  formula  to 
govern  the  size  of  his  nurseries.    For  100  acres  of  planting  site  his  nursery 

,  ^  planting  site  area       100       -^t        ■  ■<  ^\    4.  u.\,-  i    j 

covered  1  acre  or  ' =  -r—      He  said  that  this  worked 

nursery  area  1 

out  with  remarkable  accuracy,  and  cautioned  against  establishing  nurs- 
eries at  too  high  an  altitude  (where  the  climate  is  severe)  because  of 
the  increased  cost  of  working. 

The  following  general  principles  have  been  developed  in  France 
to  govern  the  establishment  of  nurseries: 

cultural  value.  Other  commodities,  such  as  lumber,  wool,  or  cotton  are  sold  on  the 
basis  of  grade  or  quality.  If  our  export  of  tree  seeds  is  to  grow  a  definite  scheme  of 
seed  control  will  be  essential  in  order  to  protect  foreign  purchasers  against  fraud. 


NURSERY  PRACTICE  123 

It  is  advisable  to  locate  nurseries  near  the  land  to  be  restocked  to 
reduce  the  inconvenience  and  cost  of  transport,  provided  the  climate 
is  not  too  severe.  They  are  usually  established  on  a  bench  where  the 
soil  is  sufficiently  deep  and  fresh,  near  a  brook  or  a  spring,  and  near  a 
forest  house  or  camp. 

The  higher  the  altitude  the  more  the  plants  may  suffer  from  frost, 
from  throwing,  or  from  the  snow;  therefore  the  nursery  should  not  be 
established  at  an  altitude  higher  than  the  average  elevation  at  which 
the  species  are  to  be  used;  in  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees  it  is  rarely  advisable 
to  establish  nurseries  at  a  higher  elevation  than  5,600  feet.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  growing  season  at  high  altitudes  is  very  short, 
the  growth  is  slow,  and  the  dangers  from  snow,  etc.,  considerable.  Nurs- 
eries in  the  Cevennes  or  the  Central  Plateau  are  rarely  higher  than 
4,600  feet. 

If  it  is  necessary  the  plants  can  be  transported  and  heeled  in  where 
they  are  to  be  used  at  high  altitudes  the  autumn  preceding  field  work; 
or  they  can  be  heeled  in  at  the  nursery  itself  in  order  to  retard  vegetation 
where  nurseries  are  situated  considerably  below  the  planting  area. 
One  should  not  hold  stock  at  the  nursery  for  later  shipment  into  higher 
altitudes  if  the  nursery  is  much  lower  or  on  a  warmer  site.  Ship  earlier 
and  heel  in  where  they  are  to  be  planted. 

The  usual  nursery  practice  in  regions  where  regular  reforestation 
work  is  carried  on  is  as  follows:  The  soil  is  cultivated  to  a  depth  of  16 
to  20  inches,  leaving  the  humus  near  the  surface,  and  the  French  pohcy 
is  to  use  plenty  of  fertilizer — either  manure  or  any  standard  chemical 
type  of  plant  food.  As  much  vegetable  mould  as  possible  is  retained 
in  the  soil.  It  favors  the  seedling,  the  transplant,  and  all  other  forms  of 
vegetation,  and  sometimes  doubles  the  growth.  Usually  sowing  is  in 
strips  2.6  to  3.9  feet  in  width  according  to  the  slope;  the  sowing  on  the 
strips  is  usually  in  drills  about  1.1  inches  apart.  Conifers  are  covered 
with  about  0.4  inch  of  soil.  To  conserve  the  freshness  of  the  soil  the 
area  sown  is  often  covered  with  one  layer  of  moss  or  pine  needles.  Some- 
times flat  stones  are  placed  between  the  drills  to  prevent  throwing  and 
to  conserve  the  moisture.  Before  germination  the  seeds  are  protected 
against  birds;  weeding  is  done  as  required.  As  a  protection  against  the 
sun  in  summer  lath  shade  frames  are  used  or  else  branches  are  stuck 
in  the  ground  at  each  side  of  the  strips  and  inchned  toward  the  center. 
As  a  rule,  the  simplest  possible  methods  are  followed. 

Nursery  Practice.  —  One  moderate  watering  is  favored  and  then  only 
when  the  germination  is  being  hindered  by  drought  or  the  health  and 
vigor  of  the  plants  require  moisture.  But  much  irrigation  washes  the 
soil,  decreases  its  fertility,  and  exaggerates  the  growth  of  the  plants, 
so  that  later  they  are  all  the  more  susceptible  to  drought.     Irrigation 


124  ARTIFICIAL   REFORESTATION 

should  l)e  followed  by  cultivation.  Yet  it  should  be  noted  that  Dinner 
departed  from  this  policy  in  the  Maritime  Alps  where  the  climate  is 
especially  dry. 

The  object  is  to  produce  nursery  stock  which  will  have:  ^ 

"1.   A  complete  well-developed  root  system,  with  regular  and  numerous  rootlets. 

"2.  A  straight  regular  stem,  a  well  branched  and  vigorous  crown  with  lateral 
branches  proportionate  to  the  age  of  the  stock. 

"3.   Fohage  or  buds  complete  and  well-formed. 

"4.  A  healthy  appearance,  the  stem  and  roots  without  any  wound  or  suspicious 
scars." 

Two  Sample  Nurseries,  —  A  model  nursery  representing  the  best  of 
French  nursery  practice  ^  is  to  be  seen  at  the  Barres  Secondary  School 
for  Rangers.  The  seed  here  is  carefully  stored.  It  is  left  in  sacks  no 
longer  than  necessary  and  is  frequently  shifted  so  as  to  be  thoroughly 
aerated.  As  a  general  rule,  the  scales  and  debris  are  kept  with  the 
seed,  approximating  the  natural  method  of  leaving  the  seed  in  the  cones, 
which  is  recognized  as  the  best.  The  nursery  consists  of  twenty-seven 
plots,  each  0.037  acre  in  extent,  with  two-thirds  in  cultivation  and  one- 
third  in  paths.  The  work  is  very  systematically  arranged.  Every  year 
one  plot  is  sown,  another  transplanted,  while  the  third  furnishes  the 
plants  for  shipment  after  a  year  in  the  transplant  beds.  Each  plot  con- 
sists of  ten  strips  33  feet  long  and  3.3  feet  wide,  separated  by  2-foot 
paths.  Each  strip  has  six  lines  of  plants,  single  or  double,  separated 
by  6.3  inches  from  axis  to  axis  with  a  margin  on  the  edge  of  3  inches. 
The  sowing  for  most  species  ^  is  done  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible, 
beginning  not  later  than  March  15. 

An  annual  is  usually  sown  and  plowed  in  once  every  three  years  to 
enrich  the  soil.  A  very  simple  sowing  board  is  used,  V-shaped  (double 
or  single),  and  about  1  inch  deep.  This  is  merely  pressed  in  the  ground 
in  a  straight  line  and  the  seed  distributed  along  the  bottom  of  the  de- 
pression thus  made. 

The  beds  are  protected  against  birds  and  rodents  by  small  frames  4 
inches  high  covered  with  1-inch,  or  smaller,  wire  mesh.  The  frames 
are  covered  with  a  few  branches  for  protection  against  the  sun  for  six 
to  eight  weeks  after  the  seed  has  germinated.  Rodents  have  been  suc- 
cessfully destroyed  by  strychnine  which  was  mixed  with  flour,  placed 
in  a  pan,  and  covered  to  protect  it  from  the  rain.  Very  little  success  has 
resulted  from  treating  oak  acorns;  the  general  policy  is  to  kill  the  rodents 
rather  than  to  prepare  the  seed  so  that  it  will  not  be  eaten.  Stones 
are  often  placed  between  the  transplant  lines  to  hold  the  moisture  in  the 

7  See  Boppe,  pp.  349-392. 

*  From  notes  supplied  by  the  director  of  the  school. 

8  A  species  like  silver  fir  would  be  sown  in  the  fall. 


CULTIVATION  AND  SPACING  125 

soil  and  prevent  throwing.  As  a  general  rule,  untransplanted  stock  is 
recommended  in  big  planting  operations,  2  to  3  year-old  conifer  seed- 
lings being  preferred.  Transplanted  stock,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used 
to  complete  natural  regeneration.  Here  the  cost  is  less  important  be- 
cause only  a  small  percentage  of  the  total  area  need  be  planted  and 
better  success  is  secured,  since  it  is  less  likely  to  be  crowded  out.  The 
plants  are  never  pulled  and  are  not  watered  before  shipment  because 
of  the  danger  of  heating  while  en  route.  Baskets  or  open  boxes  are 
generally  used  for  shipping. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  large  nurseries,  such  as  the  one  just 
described,  are  no  longer  numerous,  many  of  them  having  been  abandoned 
in  favor  of  small  local  nurseries  near  the  planting  site.  Much  more 
typical  is  the  small  local  nursery  at  Royat  in  the  Central  Plateau,  which 
is  situated  in  a  narrow  valley  on  a  6  per  cent  west  slope.  The  main 
product  here  is  3-year-old  spruce  fir  or  Scotch  pine  seedlings.  There 
is  no  transplanting,  since  it  is  considered  too  expensive.  The  fir  is  sown 
under  lath  frames  6.5  feet  wide  and  placed  2.5  feet  above  the  soil  and 
the  pine  is  sown  in  drills  spaced  3  to  4  inches  apart.  Shade  frames,  10 
to  12  inches  above  the  ground,  are  used  for  the  Scotch  pine  also  during 
the  heat  of  the  first  year. 

PLANTING 

Cultivation  and  Spacing.  —  In  planting,  Jolyet  says  "  cultivation 
should  usually  be  considered  indispensable  —  always  advantageous." 
The  great  aim  of  planting  is  the  use  of  the  most  economical  local  means 
to  get  the  roots  in  touch  with  the  humus  and  the  soil.  Complete  culti- 
vation is,  of  course,  never  necessary  and  would  only  increase  the  danger 
of  erosion.  Planting  trees  in  horizontal  strips  is  often  advantageous  in 
dry  regions,  but  the  general  preference  of  the  forester  should  be  for 
holes  or  spots.  As  a  rule,  the  French  favor  much  wider  spacing  in 
plantations  than  do  the  Germans.  Bartet  even  suggests  spacing  spruce 
6.5  feet  apart  owing  to  its  superficial  root  system  and  in  order  to  give 
the  crown  a  chance  for  development.  In  Germany  the  average  distance 
for  spacing  spruce  is  usually  4  feet  and  sometimes  closer.  The  French 
rule  is  never  less  than  3.3  feet  and  never  more  than  10  feet.  Intolerant 
species  Hke  maritime  pine  can  be  spaced  wider  apart  than  a  tolerant 
species  such  as  fir;  and  as  a  general  rule,  rapidly  growing  species  can  be 
spaced  wider  than  species  that  are  slow  growing  during  the  seedling 
and  sapling  stages.  Ordinarily  the  spacing  is  5  to  6.5  feet.  It  is  cer- 
tainly apparent,  without  going  into  further  detail,  that  the  French 
system  is  more  in  accordance  with  American  practice,  namely,  wide 
spacing  and  comparatively  few  trees  per  acre  as  contrasted  with  the 
close  spacing  in  Germany. 


126  ARTIFICIAL   REFORESTATION 

Age  of  Plants.  —  ''In  every  conifer  plantation  aimed  at  restocking 
mountain  slopes  you  should  follow  the  principle  of  having  the  plants 
as  young  as  possible." 

The  ages  indicated  below  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  species, 
the  altitude  of  the  nursery,  and  according  to  whether  the  plants  are 
transplanted  or  not:  Cypress,  2  to  3  years;  fir,  3  to  4;  spruce,  3  to  4; 
larch,  2  to  4;  cedar,  2  to  3;  Scotch  pine,  mountain  pine,  Corsican  pine, 
Austrian  pine,  and  Cevennes  pine,  2  years  (occasionally  3) ;  aleppo  pine, 
preferably  1  year  (sometimes  2);  cembric  pine  3  to  5;  ash,  2  to  6;  beech, 
1  to  5;  chestnut,  1  to  4;  sessile  oak,  1  to  4;  other  broadleaves,  2  to  6. 
Older  plants,  4  to  5  years  old,  are  used  in  certain  limestone  soils  where 
the  ground  is  badly  heaved  by  the  frost,  on  very  steep  slopes  where 
snowslides  are  feared  and  where  the  plants  may  be  torn  out  if  they 
are  not  deep-rooted,  and  also  on  unstable  shallow  ground  where  there 
is  danger  that  the  young  plants  may  be  covered  with  debris  already 
eroded.  The  natural  larch  stock  secured  from  neighboring  stands  is 
usually  ball-planted  at  5  to  8  years  of  age. 

At  Barcelonette  (Basses-Alpes)  the  local  rule  still  holds  that  the 
younger  the  plants  the  better  the  success.  Austrian  pine  is  ordinarily 
used  at  2  to  3  years  of  age  with  4  to  5  year  plants  on  exceptionally  diffi- 
cult and  steep  talus.  Larch  and  mountain  pine  are  used  at  2  years  of 
age  and  cembric  pine  at  3  to  5  years,  the  stock  rarely  being  transplanted. 
(See  also  p.  165.) 

Time  to  Plant.  —  It  has  been  found  best  to  plant  coniferous  trees  in 
the  spring  because  the  soil  is  then  fresh  and  the  plants  will  have  one 
whole  growing  season  for  development  before  the  severe  autumn  weather. 
If  solidly  rooted  in  the  soil  they  can  resist  to  better  advantage  the  frost, 
erosion,  sliding  snow,  and  drought,  as  well  as  the  wash  of  heavy  rains. 
The  autumn,  however,  is  sometimes  used  for  planting  conifers  at  high 
altitudes  because  of  the  shortness  of  the  working  season. 

The  deciduous  species,  which  are  habitually  planted  at  lower  altitudes, 
may  be  set  out  in  the  spring  before  the  beginning  of  vegetation  but 
ordinarily  this  is  not  done  until  the  autumn.  Soil  and  climate  have 
weight  in  deciding  upon  the  proper  season.  For  example,  in  the  Ardeche 
the  autumn  plantations  alone  give  satisfactory  results  on  limestone  soils 
situated  at  low  altitudes.  Planting  is  preferably  done  also  in  the  autumn 
in  the  Aude  since  frosts  are  rare  at  this  season  and  because  in  the  spring 
there  are  often  prolonged  rains  which  may  completely  wash  out  the  soil 
from  around  the  plants.  Dinner  stated  that  in  the  Maritime  Alps,  in 
the  zone  where  it  does  not  freeze  hard  in  winter,  he  can  plant  in  the 
fall,  but  higher  up  in  the  mountains  he  must  plant  entirely  in  the 
spring. 

At  Marseilles  in  the  forest  of  La  Gardiole  the  best  time  for  planting  on 


FRENCH  PLANTING  TECHNIQUE  127 

this  limestone  soil  is  in  November,  December,  and  January  so  as  to 
benefit  from  the  late  autumn  rain. 

At  Barcelonette  autumn  planting,  especially  when  done  in  September 
or  in  October,  gives  very  good  results  in  the  high  altitudes. 

Plantations  in  Holes  (or  Spots). —While  to  have  a  complete  stand 
from  the  start  4,000  spots  to  the  acre  would  be  required,  this  number  is 
largely  reduced  to  an  extent  varying  with  the  region  and  on  the  species 
in  order  to  cut  down  the  cost  of  forestation  and  thinning.  Dense  planta- 
tions are  reserved  for  land  which  presents  very  difficult  conditions  on 
account  of  the  soil  or  of  the  climate.  The  depth  and  length  of  the  spots 
is  ordinarily  16  to  12  inches,  the  size  being  reduced  where  the  plants 
may  be  badly  damaged  by  the  frost  or  where  the  slope  is  very  steep. 
On  difficult  slopes  the  conifers  are  often  planted  by  the  French  i°  in 
clumps  of  two  to  three  seedhngs;  the  larch  is  usually  planted  single. 
With  transplanted  stock  the  single  plants  are  used  in  the  case  of  the 
broad  leaves,  except  that  beech  is  sometimes  planted  in  pairs.  Protec- 
tion is  frequently  afforded  by  overturned  sod  or  by  stones.  According 
to  Dinner,  he  is  obliged  by  the  Paris  office  to  do  some  sowing,  but  would 
otherwise  do  all  his  reforestation  by  planting.  The  main  feature  of  his 
planting  technique  is  the  size  of  the  holes.  The  Paris  authorities  impose 
a  size  of  10  inches  square,  but  Dinner  uses  16-inch  "spots"  and  even 
larger  if  the  ground  is  bad.  He  feels  that  the  secret  of  success  is  in 
large  spots  which  hold  the  moisture,  whereas  small  spots  would  be  dried 
out.  On  large  areas  he  plants  strips  of  broadleaved  trees  as  future  fire 
belts.  Where  there  are  1,600  to  2,000  plants  per  acre  the  whole  expense 
is  $10  to  $12  per  acre  with  labor  at  70  to  80  cents  a  day.  The  average 
loss  through  his  inspection  is  25  per  cent,  some  seasons  being  almost 
nothing,  but  other  years  60  to  70  per  cent.  At  Barcelonette  the  plant- 
ing in  spots  or  in  bunches  (that  is,  three  or  four  plants  to  the  spot)  is 
favored.  They  count  2,000  spots  per  acre  and  three  plants  per  cluster. 
This  cost  (in  1912)  $3.86  to  $5.79  per  acre  without  the  cost  of  the  stock. 

French  Planting  Technique.  —  The  usual  implements  employed  are 
the  pick,  mattock,  and  shovel.  When  digging  a  hole  the  grass  is  thrown 
to  the  right,  the  fine  soil  to  the  left,  and  the  poor  bottom  soil  in  front. 
When  the  tree  is  planted  the  fine  soil  is  placed  immediately  around  the 
roots  and  the  poorer  bottom  soil  above.  In  this  way  the  humus  is  left 
where  it  is  most  needed  to  enrich  the  root  system.  The  French  favor 
the  use  of  stones  to  protect  the  planting  spot  from  washing  and  to  pro- 
tect the  surface  from  drying  out ;  often  in  extensive  planting  operations, 
furrows  are  plowed  to  assist  the  hand  work. 

1°  See  French  Forests  and  Forestry,  already  cited,  especially  pp.  41-43,  77-87.  This 
planting  of  more  than  one  seedling  in  a  spot  is  distinctly  French  and  would  rarely  be 
advisable  in  the  United  States. 


128  ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 

Care  is,  of  course,  taken  to  keep  the  rootlets  fresh  and  moist  during 
the  operation,  a  fundamental  of  successful  planting.  The  usual  method 
of  planting  is  as  follows:  A  few  handsful  of  fine  soil  are  placed  next  to 
the  roots  while  the  root  collar  is  held  close  to  the  ground.  With  the 
right  hand  the  planter  fills  in  the  loose  soil  after  arranging  the  roots 
so  as  to  lie  naturally.  The  ground  is  pressed  lightly  with  the  hands 
after  the  soil  is  filled  in.  Soil  is  usually  piled  an  inch  above  the  root 
collar  to  allow  for  natural  sinking.  But  the  French  are  very  careful 
not  to  plant  too  deep  since  this  checks  the  roots,  encourages  false  roots, 
and  induces  rot.  On  very  dry  ground,  or  sand,  the  planting  is  cheaper 
than  on  very  compact  moist  soils  where  they  rarely  plant  below  the 
root  collar.  In  very  dry  regions  where  rocks  are  not  available,  a  mound 
4  to  12  inches  high  is  often  built  up  on  the  south  side  of  the  plant  for 
protective  purposes. 

For  really  difficult  planting  the  French  favor  ball  planting  with  the 
ball  of  earth  3  to  4  inches  in  diameter.  This  conserves  the  moisture, 
but  of  course  costs  much  more.  It  is  always  necessary  that  the  ball  of 
earth  adhere  to  the  surrounding  soil,  since  if  this  contact  is  not  made 
the  soil  will  dry  out  and  the  beneficial  results  of  ball  planting  be  lost.  De- 
montzey  adopted  a  so-called  bush  or  clump  method  of  planting  which  is 
sometimes  used  in  Algeria,  in  which  three  or  four  plants  are  placed 
together.  This  was  alleged  to  be  cheaper  and  surer.  Apparently  French 
foresters  argued  that  there  was  no  danger  of  too  many  plants  and  that 
there  would  always  be  one  most  vigorous  plant  that  would  survive  in 
the  competition  for  existence.  This  method  is  only  used  in  the  moun- 
tains. The  disadvantage  is  that,  if  there  are  contagious  diseases,  all 
plants  will  be  affected  and  succumb. 

In  water-logged  soil  the  French  prefer  ridge  planting  rather  than 
mound  planting.  They  call  a  stand  planted  by  the  mound  method, 
where  it  is  necessary  to  pile  up  3  or  4  cubic  yards  of  earth  per  thousand 
plants,  a  "plantation-de-luxe."  The  plowed  ridges  ordinarily  used 
are  much  cheaper,  since  the  work  can  be  done  on  a  large  scale.  Another 
special  method  used  by  the  French  is  the  so-called  basket  method. 

"The  method  consists  in  excavating  a  hole  (like  a  cone  upside  down)  2  to  3  feet 
wide  at  the  top  and  10  to  14  inches  in  depth;  all  around  the  sides  of  this  hole  a  series 
of  short  or  average-sized  stems  (generally  broadleaf)  are  placed  4  to  6  inches  apart  and 
placed  so  that  the  stems  form  the  skeleton  of  a  basket.  Then  the  whole  is  filled  with 
loose  soil,  mixed  with  humus,  if  that  is  possible." 

This  results  in  a  little  green  island  of  trees  and  is  especially  useful 
for  planting  in  torrent  beds  or  on  thin  soil. 

Occasionally  it  has  been  found  possible  to  plant  profitably  on  un- 
prepared soil  by  simply  making  a  hole  in  the  earth  with  a  spade  or 
stick,  inserting  the  plant,  and  pressing  down  the  soil  with  the  foot. 


COVER  AND  PROTECTION  129 

Of  course  this  is  an  exceedingly  cheap  method.  It  has,  however,  the 
disadvantage  of  favoring  a  high  percentage  of  loss.  It  is  only  desirable 
on  exceedingly  rich  or  fertile  soil  where  the  spade,  dibble,  or  grub  hoe 
can  be  used  to  advantage.  With  very  compact  clay  the  method  is 
rarely  successful,  since  the  roots  will  not  secure  sufficient  aeration. 

In  the  forest  of  La  Gardiole,  on  exceptionally  difficult  ground,  the  seed- 
lings are  raised  in  pots  and  set  out  directly  without  disturbing  the  root 
system.  This  system  is  very  expensive.  When  2-year-old  aleppo  pines 
are  planted  in  pots  the  stock  cost,  prior  to  1912,  approximately  $4.82 
per  thousand  trees  plus  transport;  to-day  it  would  be  at  least  $10  to 
$12.  In  the  drier  localities  where  sowing  by  the  seed-spot  method  had 
been  employed,  the  few  surviving  seedlings  were  under  the  shade  of 
the  stone  which  anchored  the  branches  or  under  the  shade  of  the  stumps 
or  the  larger  branches.  Apparently  even  better  results  would  have  been 
secured  if  heavier  protective  cover  had  been  used.  The  object  of  the 
reforestation  project  of  La  Gardiole  was  to  serve  as  an  example  to  the 
surrounding  population  and  if  possible  to  temper  the  hot  climate  of 
Marseilles. 

Cover  and  Protection.  —  On  slopes  or  soils  that  are  so  unstable  that 
forest  trees  cannot  be  planted  at  once  it  is  first  necessary  to  anchor  the 
soil  with  grass  or  shrubs.  The  best  shrubs  to  use  are  those  of  rapid 
growth,  since  they  must  be  able  to  take  possession  of  the  soil  and  fight 
successfully  against  the  effects  of  erosion.  Usually  the  seed  of  French 
grass  and  rye-grass  pure  or  in  mixture  is  used.  The  sowing  is  done  in 
the  spring  from  the  top  down  in  order  that  the  lower  lines  of  sowing 
will  not  be  covered  with  debris  from  the  higher  elevations.  Since  the 
seed  is  so  small  it  is  covered  with  an  extremely  thin  layer  of  soil.  Strips 
of  sod  are  planted  in  order  to  stop  the  erosion  of  the  surface  soil  and 
in  order  to  make  possible  the  growth  of  trees.  These  strips  or  benches 
of  sod  are  planted  horizontally  on  the  slope.  In  very  easily  eroded  soil, 
such  as  the  glacial  muds,  it  is  often  necessary  to  protect  the  Inrush  or  sod 
by  fascines  in  horizontal  strips.  No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down  as 
to  when  to  apply  sod  and  when  to  use  brush,  but  it  is  true  that  shrubs 
resist  erosion  better  and  are  often  preferable  to  sod  in  maintaining 
certain  kinds  of  unstable  ground.  The  shrubs  are  sown  or  planted, 
layered,  or  suckered.  The  hazel  may  be  sown  or  planted,  while  the 
cherry  and  the  alder  are  planted.  The  willows  and  the  poplars  are 
usually  layered  but  the  aspen  and  the  willow  may  be  reproduced  from 
slips. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  seeding  of  some  of  these  shrubs  often 
takes  place  naturally  after  the  bed  of  a  stream  has  been  fixed  by  means 
of  correction  works.  It  often  happens,  however,  that  the  slopes  are 
too  steep  to  be  stabiUzed  by  any  vegetation.     In  such  cases  it  is  neces- 


130 


ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 


sary  to  wait  until  the  talus  can  be  terraced  when  it  assumes  a  suffi- 
ciently gentle  slope  to  permit  this  work.  The  natural  talus  frequently 
corresponds  to  a  slope  of  67  per  cent  while,  with  the  use  of  terraces, 
the  ground  can  be  stabilized  up  to  a  100  per  cent  slope.  (See  Chapter 
VII.) 

Species  and  Methods  to  Use.  —  Jolyet  ^^  advocates  the  planting  of 
coniferous  stands  since  they  furnish  a  larger  percentage  of  timber. 
While  he  recognizes  the  force  of. the  argument  in  favor  of  mixed  forests 
he  favors  a  coniferous  stand  with  some  broadleaves  to  assist  in  the 
preservation  of  soil  conditions  and  to  make  natural  regeneration  more 
convenient.  He  recommends  the  introduction  of  a  very  Jew  species  of 
exotics.  As  for  conifers  he  recommends  the  planting  of  spruce  and 
Scotch  pine,  and  where  there  is  a  choice  as  to  which  of  these  to  plant 
he  prefers  Norway  spruce  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth  and  high  yield. 
If  for  some  reason  or  other  so-called  exotics  have  to  be  introduced  Jolyet 
especially  favors  the  Japanese  larch  and  the  Douglas  fir.  He  cites  an 
ideal  plantation  (made  at  Nancy  by  Cuif)  spaced  5  by  5  feet,  which 
contained  the  following  species  in  the  ratio  indicated:  As  major  species, 
spruce  44  per  cent;  Scotch  pine,  31  per  cent.  As  secondary  species, 
Japanese  larch,  6  per  cent;  Douglas  fir,  13  per  cent;  "concolor"  fir, 
3  per  cent;  beech  and  sycamore  (each  one-half),  3  per  cent.  Total, 
100  per  cent. 

Dinner,  head  of  the  "  Reboisement "  at  Nice  (which  includes  the 
drier  portions  of  the  Southern  Alps),  uses  aleppo  pine  on  hmestone  soil 
and  maritime  pine  on  sandy  soil  (only)  up  to  2,100  feet;  for  altitudes 
of  2,100  to  4,500  feet  he  has  found  Austrian  pine  (see  p.  167)  better 
than  Scotch  pine,  his  20  years  of  experience  having  shown  that  it  grows 
more  rapidly  and  has  fewer  enemies;  above  4,500  feet  he  prefers  larch. 

For  various  soil  conditions  Jolyet  recommends  the  following  species 
and  methods: 


TABLE  11.— FORESTATION  METHODS  FOR  TYPICAL  SOIL  CONDITIONS 
IN   FRANCE « 


recommended 


(1)   Areable  land 


For  profit 


Scotch  pine 


April-May.  Broadcast  7  pounds  per 
acre  with  oats.  Cultivate  (plow)  in 
autumn,  again  in  spring.  Harrow, 
sow,  and  harrow  in 


"  Compiled  and  digested  from  Jolyet,  pp.  468-520. 
11  Quellos  essences  faut-il  planter?     Par  Jolyet.     Besangon,  1911,  pp.  1-15. 


SPECIES  AND  METHODS  TO  USE 


131 


Objective  Product  Species  recommended  | 


(2)  Light  areable  land 


Permanent  har- 
dy forest  with 
natural  regen- 
eration 


Scotch  pine  often  mixture  with 
broadleaf,  desirable 


(3)  Heavy  areable  land 


Sow  May  1  to  31  in  plowed  furrows,  2  to 
3  inches  deep  and  5  feet  apart,  480 
pounds  of  acorns  per  acre 


(4)    Brush  and  pastu 


Permanent  forest 


Scotch  pine 


ow  as  in  (2)  or  as  above  in  strips 
if  ground  cannot  be  plowed;  strips 
should  be  east  and  west.  If  brush, 
short  strips  12  inches  wide;  if  light, 
brush  double  width.  Strips  5  to  8  feet 
apart.  Preferable  to  cultivate  in 
autumn  and  in  spring,  sow  April  15  to 
May  15,  4^  pounds  per  acre.  If  desir- 
able to  economize  sow  on  portions  of 
strips.  On  rough  ground  use  seed 
spots  14  inches  square,  6j  feet  apart. 
Increase  size  if  brush  is  thick  and  tall. 
Occasionally  sowing  7  pounds  per  acre 
broadcast  on  heather  has  succeeded  if 
sheep  are  grazed  afterwards  to  work 
the  seeds  into  the  ground.  Maritime 
pine,  if  in  Laurentum  (see  p.  27)  zone, 
can  (a)  broadcast  11  pounds  per  acre, 
(6)  sow  strips  7  pounds  per  acre,  (c) 
seed  spot  3  pounds  per  acre 


(5)   Barren  land  {dry  and  hilly)  ' 


Reclamation  and 
soil  cover 


Of  secondary 
importance 


Few  spruce  or  larch  or  Scotch 
pine,  best  sites  with  Aus- 
trian pine  as  major  species. 
Sometimes  Scotch  pine  can 
be  used  more  freely.  Use 
beech,  maple,  linden,  horn- 
beam, willow,  alder,  etc.  In 
mixture  according  to  condi- 
tions. 


Plant  5  by  5  feet.  Take  advantage  of 
favorable  pockets  of  soil.  Use  grub 
hoe  and  work  soil  well  3  to  8  weeks  or  a 
season  ahead  of  planting.  Plant  in 
autumn  preferably.  Must  be  finished 
before  April  1.  Holes  should  be  at 
least  10  inches  square.  Fill  in  with 
humus.  Dirt  put  under  sod,  then  sod, 
and  lastly  the  dirt  from  bottom  of 
holes.  Cover  with  flat  stones.  Plant 
on  still  day 


For  example,  see  Jolyet,  pp.  467-468 

(6)  Bogs  and  swamp  land 


Reclamation  and 
drainage 


Of  secondary 
importance 


Alder,  birch  (white  pine), 
mountain  pine,  Murray  pine 
(Scotch  pine  where  layer  of 
alios) 


Mound  planting  (or  perhaps  plow  2  fur- 
rows and  plant  on  upturned  ridges  of 
earth) 


132  ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 


Objective  |        Product  Species  recommended  | 

(7)  Small  scale  {lots  of  less  than  2j  acres) 


on  fresh  soil) 


Hornbeam,    acacia    (or   alder     Broadcast    with    easy    natural 


regeneration 


Chief  Dangers.  —  The  dangers  to  sown  or  planted  seed  arise  mainly 
from  drought,  mammals,  insects,  and  birds.  For  rabbits,  a  source  of 
much  damage  in  France,  it  is  considered  necessary  to  fence  with  wire 
mesh  usually  3  feet  high,  the  barrier  leaning  away  from  area  protected, 
and  sunk  8  to  12  inches  under  the  ground.  Mice  and  other  small  rodents 
are  killed  with  poisoned  oats  or  barley.  For  birds  poison  is  used,  or 
in  the  case  of  seed  spots,  a  cover  of  wire  mesh.  To  avoid  damage  from 
drought,  deep,  large,  well-prepared  holes  are  used  in  planting,  and  the 
young  trees  protected  with  flat  stones;  these  holes  or  spots  must  often 
be  protected  under  especially  unfavorable  conditions  by  a  layer  of  brush. 

FIELD   SOWING 

Prepared  and  Unprepared  Soil.  —  When  sowing  is  attempted  soil 
preparation  is  usually  necessary  to  give  the  young  seedhngs  a  start 
against  weeds  and  grass.  The  previous  vegetation  must  often  be  re- 
moved and  the  soil  cultivated.  This  cultivation  enables  the  soil  to 
absorb  water,  diminishes  evaporation,  and  permits  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  root  system  and  relieves  the  young  plants  of  competition 
with  weeds  for  water.  Soil  preparation,  on  the  other  hand,  increases 
the  danger  of  the  young  plants  being  frozen  or  thrown,  and  in  light  soils, 
especially  on  slopes,  may  result  in  erosion.  Seed  may  be  broadcasted, 
as  in  ordinary  agricultural  practice,  after  the  surface  of  the  ground 
is  cleared.    For  broadcast  sowing,  cheap  seed  is  a  necessity. 

Sowing  in  patches  is  merely  localized  broadcast  sowing.  This  method 
is  a  convenient  means  of  supplementing  partial  failures  in  natural  re- 
generation, and  is  especially  useful  in  introducing  more  valuable  species 
into  a  natural  stand,  which  varies  a  great  deal  in  quality,  since  it  per- 
mits the  choice  of  the  best  spots  and  the  adaptation  of  the  proper  soil. 
Seed  spots  are  considered  economical,  but  there  is  always  considerable 
danger  from  mammals  and  from  weeds.  Sowing  in  continuous  or  broken 
strips  requires  less  seed  than  broadcasting,  and  there  is  less  danger 
from  the  uncleared  areas.  The  sown  strips  are  20  to  40  inches  in  width 
with  3  to  10  feet  of  uncultivated  land  between  the  strips.  On  level 
ground  or  gentle  slopes,  it  is  the  custom  to  run  the  lines  east  and  west, 
but  always  horizontally  on  slopes  above  7  or  8  per  cent.  Where  there 
is  danger  of  water  collecting,  the  lines  must  be  broken,  even  on  hori- 
zontal strips.  There  will  then  be  16  to  20  feet  of  sown  strip  separated 
by  5  to  10  feet  of  unsown  strip. 


AMOUNT  TO  SOW  133 

Where  the  sowing  is  on  unprepared  soil  the  ground  must  be  loose, 
the  seed  must  be  cheap,  and  the  growth  of  the  species  sown  rapid,  so 
that  it  can  protect  itself  against  the  weeds.  The  best  example  of  suc- 
cessful broadcast  sowing  on  unprepared  soil  is  the  sowing  of  maritime 
pine  seed  on  the  sand  dunes  of  the  Landes  and  Gascogne.  Another 
well-known  example  is  on  the  Central  Plateau  where  Scotch  pine  has 
been  successfully  sown  without  any  advance  soil  preparation.  Occa- 
sionally, the  sowing  has  been  followed  by  sheep  grazing,  in  order  that 
the  sheep  may  eat  out  the  heather  and  let  the  seeds  get  to  the  soil. 
The  hoofs  of  the  sheep  cover  the  seed  sufficiently,  but  failures  following 
this  method  are  even  more  frequent  than  successes.  According  to  my 
original  notes, 

"At  Cleremont-Ferrand  in  the  Central  Plateau  Scotch  pine  region  one  of  my 
friends  mentioned  a  former  method  used  for  the  cheap  artificial  stocking  of  Scotch 
pine  by  broadcast  sowing.  The  seed  was  sown  plentifully  in  the  fall  and  during  the 
winter  rains  sheep  were  allowed  to  trample  the  seed  into  the  sod.  The  results  I  saw 
were  very  good,  but  I  found  no  one  who  had  practiced  it  himself." 

Sowing  without  soil  preparation  outside  the  Landes  is  best  justified 
on  rocky  soil  in  the  mountains,  at  the  foot  of  cliffs  —  in  other  words, 
where  cultivation  is  impossible.  If  the  soil  is  fresh  and  there  is  no  fear 
of  mice  and  grass,  broadcast  sowing  is  often  successful  after  snowfall 
(see  p.  136)  or  on  the  bare  soil.  One  advantage  is  that  it  can  be  done 
when  other  work  is  impossible.  When  sowing  on  rocky  ground  the 
seed  should  be  thrown  up  hill  from  below  so  that  it  will  get  some  pro- 
tection under  the  rocks.  Where  there  is  danger  of  erosion,  broad- 
casting should  not  be  attempted. 

There  are  a  number  of  short-cut  sowing  methods  which  find  favor  in 
France  and  which  are  well  known  in  the  United  States,  such  as  hoeing 
the  soil  and  covering  the  seed;  dibbling  to  complete  regeneration;  at 
high  altitudes,  where  the  ground  is  fresh  and  where  regular  cultivation 
is  impossible  or  difficult,  the  dibbling  or  cane  method  of  sowing  (see 
p.  167)  may  be  advisable. 

On  the  whole,  these  special  broadcasting  or  planting  methods  are 
justified  only  where  made  necessary  by  peculiar  conditions  and  rarely 
are  as  successful  as  really  thorough  soil  preparation. 

Amount  to  Sow.  —  The  amount  of  seed  to  use  naturally  varies  with 
the  soil,  slope,  and  local  climate,  and  also,  of  course,  with  the  size  of 
the  seed,  quality,  method,  and  season  of  planting.  The  amount  sown 
must  be  increased  if  there  are  droughts,  frost,  or  mammals  to  allow  for 
prospective  losses. 

The  sowing  figures  used  by  the  French  foresters  are  shown  in  the 
following  table  (after  Boppe) : 


134 


ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 


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SOWING   METHODS  AS  APPLIED  TO  SPECIES  AND  REGIONS      135 


Season  for  Sowing.  —  The  natural  time  to  sow  is  when  nature  sows, 
but  this  is  often  impossible  owing  to  the  price  of  labor  and  the  difficulty 
of  seed  collection.  The  best  season  for  sowing  seeds  ripening  toward 
the  end  of  summer  is  the  autumn  or  winter.  This  has  the  additional 
advantage  that  the  seeds  germinate  early  in  the  spring  and  get  the 
start  of  the  weeds.  The  spring  gives  the  best  results  when  species  ger- 
minate quickly  and  when  there  is  danger  from  rodents. 

The  directions  for  sowing  which  are  standard  in  France  have  been 
summarized  in  the  following  table.  It  covers  the  more  important  species 
only : 

TABLE  13.— SEASON  AND  METHOD  OF  SOWING  CHIEF  SPECIES 


Species 

Method 

Season 

Oak 

Sowing  best  on  account  of  taproot;  deep  soil, 

can  plow  L6  to  2.4  inches  deep;   dibbling 

good. 
Like  oak. 
Broadcast  under  partial  cover  best;   0.4  to 

0.8  inches. 
Only  need  partial  cover  at  low  elevations; 

cleared  soil  by  strips  or  seed  spots,  rake 

into  soil;    all  methods  applicable;    strips 

and  seed  spots  especially  good. 
Best  for  direct  seeding;   no  need  of  cover;  if 

seed  is  expensive  planting  is  better. 
Better  than  Scotch  pine  for  limestone  soil; 

same  method. 
Direct  seeding. 

Bears  heat  and  drought;  bare  ground. 
Soak  seed  in  water  15  to  20  days  before 

sowing;  like  spruce;   needs  moist  soil  but 

good  for  rocky  ground. 

Spring. 

Beech. . 

Hornbeam 

Spruce . . 

Autumn. 
Spring. 

Autumn  or  spring. 

Scotch  pine 

Austrian  pine 

Maritime  pine.  .  . 
Aleppo  pine 

Summary  of  Sowing  Methods  as  Applied  to  Species  and  Regions.  — 

In  the  Alps  at  high  altitudes  the  sowing  of  larch,  mountain  pine,  and 
cembric  pine  is  usually  done  with  seed  spots  or  furrows  of  variable  size. 
In  the  seed  spots  three  to  four  seeds  of  cembric  pine  are  planted,  and 
eight  to  ten  of  larch  or  of  mountain  pine.  They  are  then  covered  by 
hand.  In  the  furrows  one  or  two  seeds  per  running  0.4  inch  of  soil  are 
sown.  In  the  case  of  the  larch  it  is  especially  necessary  to  sow  strictly 
according  to  the  germinative  per  cent,  which  often  varies  from  40  to  70. 
The  amount  of  soil  needed  for  covering  depends  on  the  size  of  the  seed. 
Larch  and  mountain  pine  are  covered  with  0.4  inch  of  soil,  while  cembric 
pine  seeds  are  covered  with  0.8  inch.  Seed  bought  in  the  autumn  is 
sown  the  following  spring.  The  spring  sowing,  while  securing  the  benefit 
of  the  heat  and  humidity  favorable  for  germination,  does  not  always 
resist  the  summer  drought.  Autumn  sowing  often  gives  the  best  results 
because  the  seed  can  germinate  early  in  the  spring,  thus  getting  a  start 


136  ARTIFICIAL   REFORESTATION 

over  the  seed  sown  later.  Broadcast  sowing  in  the  spring  on  snow  where 
the  mineral  soil  is  bared  often  succeeds.  According  to  my  original  notes: 
"Another  special  method  of  sowing  was  illustrated  by  a  splendid  larch  stand  near 
Barcelonette.  Here  European  larch  was  sown  broadcast  before  or  during  a  snow 
storm.  The  moisture  conditions  here,  however,  are  much  better  than  in  many  parts 
of  the  western  United  States  where  we  have  tried  this  method  without  success.  Per- 
haps one  reason  we  have  failed  is  that  the  French  soak  the  seed  in  water  for  about  a  week 
(larch  three  weeks)  before  sowing  so  that  it  will  germinate.  We  might  try  this  out  on  a 
small  scale.  I  am  still  convinced  that  we  should  not  try  to  sow  on  our  most  difficult 
ground;  that  for  the  very  worst  soil  we  must  use  spots  or  a  substitute  (such  as  ball 
planting),  but  that  the  cost  will  be  prohibitive  for  some  years  to  come." 

In  the  Ventoux  sessile  and  holm  oak  are  sown.  Eight  hundred  to 
1,600  seed  spots  each,  12  inches  square  and  12  to  16  inches  deep,  are 
sown  per  acre  with  60  to  120  quarts  of  acorns.  Shrubs  are  placed  as  a 
shelter  over  the  seed  spots  and  as  a  further  protection  stones  are  heaped 
up  to  the  south  side.  In  each  seed  spot  the  fifteen  to  twenty  acorns  are 
covered  with  0.8  to  1.1  inches  of  soil;  this  depth  is  varied.  The  sowing 
is  generally  during  November  and  December  after  the  collection  of  the 
acorns  and  before  the  frost,  or,  if  it  is  not  done  at  this  time,  in  February 
and  March.  In  the  Basses-Alpes  seed  spots  are  used  for  sessile  and  holm 
oak  and  aleppo  pine,  species  of  a  temperate  climate.  These  seed  spots 
are  10  to  14  inches  deep  and  in  each  spot  are  placed  five  to  six  acorns  or 
eight  to  ten  pine  seeds.  The  sowing  is  generally  in  the  autumn.  In  the 
Maritime  Alpes  aleppo  pine  and  maritime  pine  are  sown  in  seed  spots  in 
the  spring;  2,400  seed  spots  per  acre  are  prepared  16  inches  square  and 
12  to  18  inches  in  depth.  The  same  method  is  used  for  sowing  chest- 
nut and  oak.  In  the  Cevennes  and  Central  Plateau  strip  sowing  is 
sometimes  employed. 

In  the  Var  (near  Marseilles)  the  conditions  are  unfavorable  to  tree 
growth.  There  are  rains  from  September  15  to  December  15,  and  from 
February  15  to  April  15.  The  great  drought  occurs  in  June  and  it  is 
somewhat  dry  during  the  short  winter  season.  During  a  hot  summer 
day  the  temperature  rises  to  37°  C.  (98.6°  F.),  and  during  the  night  it 
rarely  falls  below  25°  C.  (77°  F.).  The  soil  is  hmestone  and  once  bared 
of  tree  growth  is  difficult  to  restock.  Under  these  conditions  there  is 
but  one  method  of  artificial  restocking  with  aleppo  pine.  The  sowing 
is  done  in  large  seed  spots,  3.3  feet  long  by  1.6  feet  in  width  and  10  to 
16  inches  in  depth.  The  whole  seed  spot  is  sown  thickly,  so  that  often 
as  many  as  ten  plants  germinate  in  one  spot,  but  because  of  drought 
few  survive  after  a  year  or  so.  Immediately  after  sowing  the  surface  of 
the  seed  spots  is  covered  with  brush  held  in  place  by  rocks.  This  brush 
protects  against  rodents,  heat,  and  wind.  The  top  of  the  seed  spot  is 
usually  left  0.8  to  1.2  inches  below  the  rest  of  the  ground  in  order  to 
collect  moisture. 


SOWING   METHODS  AS  APPLIED  TO  SPECIES  AND  REGIONS      137 

In  the  Puy-de-D6me  ^^  seed  spots  are  often  used,  protected  by  bunches 
of  brush  or  scattered  in  the  coppice  stands  which  are  being  improved. 
In  the  first  case  oak  or  pine  is  sown  pure  or  in  mixture;  in  the  second, 
oak  is  sown  with  beech. 

In  the  Haute-Loire  stands  of  spruce,  Scotch  pine,  mountain  pine,  and 
cembric  pine  have  been  obtained  by  means  of  broadcasting  or  by  seed 
spots.  The  Scotch  pine  is  usually  broadcasted  and  the  other  species 
sown  in  seed  spots  3.3  to  6.6  feet  apart.  These  species  do  not  give  as 
good  results  as  would  the  fir  if  there  were  the  necessary  protection 
available.  In  open  beech  stands  Scotch  pine  or  mountain  pine  is  often 
sown  in  strips  14  inches  in  depth  and  16  inches  wide,  the  length  depend- 
ing on  the  size  of  the  opening.  Sometimes  these  strips  are  cut  into  seed 
spots  16  inches  square.  In  this  region  sowing  is  done  in  the  spring  or 
even  later,  toward  the  middle  of  May.  The  amount  of  seed  used  is  about 
9  pounds  per  acre.  It  is  sown  generously  and  covered  lightly  with  loose 
soil.  After  the  sowing  seed  spots  are  covered  with  branches  which  are 
left  until  the  beginning  of  the  autumn.  The  seed  spots  are  visited  in 
the  following  spring  or  autumn  in  order  to  free  the  young  plants  of 
leaves  or  dead  needles  which  cover  them. 

In  the  Lozere  (Central),  Aveyron,  and  the  Correze  broadcast  sowing 
of  Scotch  pine  generally  succeeds  on  sandy  soil  partially  covered  with 
short  heather,  but  poor  results  are  certain  on  land  occupied  by  genista 
and  tree  heather.  Success  is  best  assured  by  opening  up  seed  spots  only 
2  inches  square  in  the  midst  of  the  heather  in  order  to  avoid  heaving 
by  the  frost.  Near  Nimes  maritime  pine  has  been  successfuly  repro- 
duced by  broadcasting  7  pounds  per  acre  on  heather  in  the  autumn  just 
before  the  winter  rains.  The  heather  is  then  cut  and  for  protection  the 
litter  left  as  it  lies.  Sowing  of  this  kind  is  done  very  late  in  the  spring 
just  before  hot  weather.  In  the  department  of  the  Lozere  there  is  also 
sowing  of  oak  and  chestnut.  The  slopes  are  generally  not  excessive 
and  the  seed  spots  are  opened  up  in  the  spring  and  in  the  autumn  are 
sown  with  acorns  and  chestnuts,  despite  the  damage  usually  done  by 
rodents;  3.4  bushels  of  acorns  or  chestnuts  are  used  per  acre  for  1,000 
seed  spots. 

In  the  Gard  and  Herault,  Scotch  pine,  Corsican  pine,  and  maritime 
pine  are  sown  in  seed  spots  in  the  spring;  chestnuts  and  acorns  in  the 
fall.  The  seed  spots  are  12  to  16  inches  square  and  6  inches  deep.  It 
takes  6  pounds  of  conifer  seed  or  3.4  bushels  of  acorns  or  chestnuts  per 

^2  Digested  from  Demontzey.  Elers  Koch,  of  District  1,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  once 
wrote  me:  "It  makes  me  weep  to  think  of  all  the  good  money  used  in  feeding  pine  seed 
to  the  chipmunks.  ...  If  there  is  going  to  be  any  money  spent  on  the  Lolo  Forest  for 
reforestation,  it  is  going  to  be  for  good  strong  nursery  stock,  and  we  will  have  something 
to  show  for  it." 


138  ARTIFICIAL  REFORESTATION 

acre.  In  the  Aude  the  sowing  is  done  with  seed  spots  in  the  autumn, 
the  spring  being  generally  too  rainy  and  day  laborers  too  difficult  to 
secure.  Sixteen  hundred  to  2,000  seed  spots,  12  to  16  inches  square  and 
12  inches  deep,  are  used  per  acre.  This  takes  60  to  80  quarts  of  acorns 
or  120  quarts  of  chestnuts.  The  conifer  seed,  such  as  Scotch  pine, 
Austrian  pine,  or  aleppo  pine,  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  2.2  pounds  per  1,000 
seed  spots.  Fir  seed  is  also  sown  in  the  autumn  in  seed  spots  4  to  5  inches 
square  and  3  inches  deep,  800  to  the  acre  where  there  are  open  beech 
or  pine  stands. 

In  the  Pyrenees,  in  the  eastern  part,  sowing  is  used  only  for  sessile 
and  holm  oak  and  in  order  to  introduce  fir  under  the  shelter  of  other 
species.  The  seed  spots,  about  1,000  per  acre,  having  the  same  size 
as  those  in  the  Aude,  are  sown  with  fifteen  to  twenty  acorns  each.  The 
young  seedhngs  obtained  are  cultivated.  The  stones  which  may  cover 
them  are  removed  and  every  2  or  3  years  trees  or  brush  which  suppress 
them  are  removed  until  they  reach  the  age  of  8  to  10  years,  when  the 
young  stands  are  cut  back,  after  which  they  grow  very  rapidly.  The 
cost  of  sowing  depends  on  the  region,  on  the  method,  and  on  the  kind 
of  seed.  As  an  average  the  cost  of  day  labor  per  acre  for  broadcast 
sowing  was  46  cents,  $1.73  for  sowing  with  a  very  Hght  soil  cover  at  high 
altitudes,  and  $2.31  to  $4.62  for  sowing  by  seed  spots.  To  this  expense 
must  be  added  the  cost  of  the  seed,  41  cents  to  $1.07  per  bushel  for 
acorns  or  chestnuts  and  44  cents  to  88  cents  per  pound  for  conifer  seed. 
To-day  all  these  prices  are  double  or  triple  —  or  even  more. 

According  to  one  authority  "  maritime  pine  will  not  grow  if  the  soil 
is  more  than  4  per  cent  lime,  but  ordinarily  the  reproduction  is  easy  on 
bare  soil,  since  the  seed  is  both  winged  and  abundant.  With  75  per  cent 
germination  and  broadcast  sowing  it  takes  about  10.6  pounds  of  seed 
per  acre,  with  strip  sowing  7  pounds,  and  with  seed  spots  4.4  pounds, 
but  these  figures  may  be  doubled  or  tripled  under  unfavorable  conditions. 
Where  sowing  fails  it  is  often  customary  to  fill  in  by  planting,  which 
can  be  successfully  done  if  the  seedhngs  planted  are  1  to  2  or  more 
years  old. 

On  the  Combre  dune  the  sowing  was  9  pounds  per  acre  of  maritime 
pine,  8  of  "genista,"  and  3.5  kilograms  of  "gourbet."  (See  p.  182  for 
additional  data  on  sowing  sand  dunes.) ^^ 

14  La  Foret,  par  L.  Boppe,  pp.  47,  205,  206,  332-341. 

15  In  1912  a  member  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  raised  the  follo^dng  questions  regard- 
ing the  French  f orestation  practice : 

1.  Question.  —  Is  there  any  way  to  treat  refractory  seed  to  make  it  come  up  the  first 
season?     Answer.  —  See  p.  119. 

2.  Q.  —  What  methods  and  tools  do  they  use  in  nursery  transplanting?  .4.— 
Seedling  stock  is  usually  preferred;  transplanting  methods  have  not  been  systematized 
as  in  Germany.     See  pp.  123,  124. 


SOWING   METHODS  AS   APPLIED   TO   SPECIES   AND   REGIONS      139 

3.  Q.  —  What  fertilizer  do  they  use  in  seed  beds?  How  much?  A.  —  Ordinary 
commercial  fertilizers  in  quantities  determined  by  local  soil  conditions.     See  p.  124. 

4.  Q.  — '  What  sort  of  packages  are  used  for  shipping  nursery  stock?  Is  stock 
puddled?     ^.  — Seep.  125. 

5.  Q.  —  What  ages  of  nursery  stock  are  chiefly  used?     A.  —  See  p.  126. 

6.  Q.  —  What  spacing  is  generally  adopted  in  planting?  If  we  assume  that  we 
cannot  thin  are  we  justified  in  spacing  widely?  A.  —  See  p.  125.  The  P>ench  justify 
wide  spacing  even  with  intensive  thinnings. 

7.  Q.  —  Just  what  tools  and  methods  are  used  for  field  planting?  A.  —  See  pp. 
127,  128. 

8.  Q.  — -Is  pine  seed  generally  sowed  broadcast  or  in  drills  in  the  seed  beds,  and 
why?     A.  —  See  p.  124.     Cultivation  is  easier  and  it  takes  less  seed. 

9.  Q.  —  Do  they  use  much  seedling  stock  or  transplants  in  conifers?  A.  —  Seed- 
ling stock  is  very  much  preferred  because  it  is  cheaper. 

10.  Q.  —  What  spacing  and  arrangement  of  transplant  rows  is  adopted?  Do  they 
irrigate  transplants?     A.  —  See  pp.  123,  124. 

Since  the  officer  who  raised  these  questions  had  the  supervision  of  a  very  large  and 
important  nursery  it  is  desired  to  emphasize  their  importance  by  special  page  references. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CONTROL   OF   EROSION   IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 

French  Policy  and  Summary  of  Reforestation  (p.  140).  Introduction,  His- 
torical Summary  of  Legislation,  Law  of  1882,  Statistics  of  Reforestation. 

The  Damage  (p.  147).  Erosion  and  Precipitation,  Rocks  and  Soils  Easily  Eroded, 
Definition  of  a  Torrent,  Formation  of  Torrent  Gorges,  Causes  of  Torrents  in  Mountain 
Forests,  Damage  Caused  by  Torrents. 

Corrective  Measures  (p.  15.3).  Policy  and  Summary,  Technique  of  Dams, 
Walls  and  Protection  Against  Avalanches,  Rock  Drains,  Paving  Channels,  Tunnels  and 
Aqueducts,  Wattle  Work  (Garnissage),  Forestation,  with  examples. 

Typical  Reforestation  Areas  (p.  168).     Regions. 

FRENCH   POLICY   AND    SUMMARY   OF   REFORESTATION 
Introduction.  — According  to  Daubree,  the  Minister  of  Agriculture: 

"The  Waters  and  Forests  agents  charged  with  the  application  of  the  laws  which  affect 
to  such  a  high  degree  the  national  safety  and  property  will,  in  the  performance  of  their 
duties,  continue  to  use  the  most  absolute  devotion  and  wiU  show,  as  in  the  past,  that 
they  are  worthy  servants  of  the  repubhc." 

The  Minister  thus  emphasized  the  responsibihty  and  efficiency  of  the 
officers  on  reforestation  work  because  he  reahzed  the  direct  bearing  of 
forestation  in  the  mountains  of  France  on  the  future  prosperity  of  the 
rich  valleys  many  miles  from  the  watersheds  now  being  forested. 

Moreover  Huffel  remarked:  "The  case  of  the  forest  is  special  because 
the  abuse  can  continue  a  long  time  before  the  consequences  become 
evident."     According  to  an  official  report :i 

"The  opinion  of  the  (local)  population  is  profoundly  modified;  confidence  has  taken 
the  place  of  enmity.  Communes,  of  whom  a  large  number  were  formerly  refractory, 
struck  with  the  advantages  of  reforestation,  assured,  moreover,  by  the  moderation  and 
by  the  spirit  of  broad  conciliation  of  the  Forest  Service,  ask  for  the  execution  of  work 
(in  this  locality)  at  home.  This  is  an  omen  of  happy  augury  which  cannot  but  encour- 
age the  administration  to  persevere  in  the  way  outlined  in  order  to  regenerate  the  moun- 
tains and  assure  the  safety  of  the  rich  valleys." 

The  necessity  of  forested  mountains  has  always  been  recognized, 
states  an  official  report.  Bernard  Palissy  (1510-1590)  advocated  the 
protection  of  forests;  he  paved  the  way  for  Surell,  Cezanne,  Gras,  Breton, 

^The  material  on  reforestation  is  taken  mainly  from  "  Restauration  et  Conserva- 
tion des  Terrains  en  Montague,"  Volumes  I  and  III,  1911,  and  from  Demontzey's 
treatise  on  "Reboisement." 

140 


INTRODUCTION  141 

Mathieu,  Costa  de  Bastelica,  and,  finally,  Demontzey,  whose  reforesta- 
tion work  for  France  will  never  be  forgotten. 

There  is  always  greater  rainfall  in  the  mountains  than  in  the  plains;  ^ 
this  favors  erosion  on  the  one  hand,  but  on  the  other  is  more  favorable 
to  tree  growth.  This  greater  rainfall  is  due  to  the  well-known  effect  of 
the  colder  air  on  the  moisture-laden  atmosphere,  as  it  is  forced  to  rise 
on  meeting  a  mountain  range.  But,  when  an  altitude  of  about  6,500 
feet  is  reached,  the  rainfall  begins  to  decrease  again,  and  only  scattered 
trees  or  groups  of  trees  are  found.  The  distribution  of  this  rainfall  has 
an  important  bearing  on  the  problem  of  reforestation.  Up  to  45°  north 
latitude  the  rain  is  evenly  distributed,  whereas  in  the  south  there  is 
Httle  moisture  in  summer,  the  rainfall  being  evenly  distributed  between 
winter,  spring,  and  autumn.  But  in  the  Alps  the  climate  seems  to  have 
become  drier,  a  fact  due,  as  some  authors  say,  "  to  the  intervention  of 
man"  though  others  say  it  is  because  the  air  has  really  become  drier 
through  climatic  changes.  Possibly  these  two  views  can  be  reconciled. 
The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  says: 

"The  direct  intervention  makes  itself  felt  in  mountain  regions  by  felling  trees  along 
the  forest  hmits,  by  unregulated  grazing,  and  in  certain  places  by  too  conservative 
forest  feUings,  as  M.  Thirion  has  indicated." 

In  the  mountains  the  forester  must  avoid  leaving  too  many  trees 
which  would  become  overmature  and  at  the  next  felling  could  not  assure 
the  perpetuation  of  the  forest,  because,  if  the  stand  has  not  been  opened 
up  while  the  trees  are  vigorous,  it  is  certain  that  regeneration  will  not 
be  complete;  and  if  at  the  same  time,  as  happens  only  too  often,  the 
forest  has  been  opened  to  grazing,  its  ruin  has  been  completed  through 
having  too  few  trees  and  trees  of  very  mediocre  quality.  To  this  fact 
can  be  attributed  the  so-called  receding  of  the  forest  growth  in  the  high 
mountains.  The  stand  not  having  been  thinned  when  the  trees  were 
vigorous  and  healthy  and  grazing  not  having  been  forbidden,  surfaces 
covered  with  old  stands  have  not  been  able  to  reseed  and  the  forest  has 
been  forced  to  disappear.     M.  Flahaut  says: 

"In  the  lower  mountains  the  passage  of  the  plains  climate  to  that  of  the  heights  is 
at  first  favorable  to  tree  growth.  As  you  rise,  the  pressure  diminishes,  the  capacity 
of  the  air  in  water  content  is  less,  the  rains  are  less  frequent  and  less  abundant,  the 
heaviest  winds  increase  the  transpiration.  These  conditions  are  unfavorable  to  tree 
growth;  when  extreme  they  become  fatal  and  completely  prevent  it;  they  are  on  the 
contrary  favorable  to  herbaceous  growth.  Commencing  at  a  certain  altitude,  which 
varies  according  to  the  geographic  situation  of  the  mountains,  according  to  the  cU- 
matic  conditions,  and  even  according  to  the  topographic  detail,  the  tree  growth  is 
then  impossible." 

2  A  brief  summary  of  the  campaign  for  forestation  in  its  broader  sense  will  help  to 
an  understanding  of  French  sensibihties  on  the  deforestation  caused  by  the  Great 
War,  The  statement  by  the  French  Government  has  been  followed,  for  it  gives  the 
oflBcial  viewpoint. 


142  CONTROL   OF  EROSION   IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 

Historical  Summary  of  Legislation.  —  The  first  complete  law  on  re- 
forestation dates  from  July  28,  1860.^  Up  to  that  time  methods  of  pre- 
venting flood  damage  had  been  tried  out  locally  and  sporadically,  "most 
active  when  the  catastrophies  took  place,  weakening  as  the  remembrance 
became  effaced." 

The  disastrous  inundation  of  1840  brought  the  problem  to  the  front. 
In  1846  a  proposed  law  "relative  to  the  reforestation  of  the  mountains 
and  the  conservation  of  forest  soil"  failed  to  pass  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties. It  was  considered  too  drastic  and  provoked  numerous  objections 
because  of  economic  questions,  aiming  especially  at  the  grazing  industry, 
which  it  aroused  and  antagonized.  The  bill  was  retired  several  months 
after  it  was  presented,  and  for  ten  years  a  means  of  combatting  inunda- 
tion was  not  considered  further.  A  veritable  cataclysm  was  necessary 
to  bring  up  the  question  anew.  In  June,  1856,  terrible  floods  ravaged 
the  valleys  of  the  Rhine,  the  Loire,  the  Rhone,  Garonne,  and  the  Seine, 
causing  the  loss  of  a  great  number  of  lives  and  doing  damage  amounting 
to  more  than  $38,600,000.  A  law  had  been  made  in  1858  for  the  defense 
of  towns  against  floods,  but  it  was  not  until  July  28,  1860,  that  the  law 
on  the  reforestation  of  the  mountains  was  passed.  It  was  received  with 
great  disfavor  by  the  grazing  interests.  "The  reforestation,"  they  said, 
"would  do  away  with  grazing;  the  forest  would  everywhere  replace  the 
pastures."  Very  vigorous  objections  were  made,  even  to  the  extent  of 
armed  resistance.  After  the  law  of  June  4,  1864,  was  passed,  which 
authorized  forestation,  they  learned  very  quickly  that  they  were  mis- 
taken. But  the  law  of  1864  could  not  produce  results.  Grassing  alone 
was  not  in  itself  sufficient  to  fix  the  sliding  land  where  it  was  heavily 
eroded,  land  whose  preservation  affected  the  pubHc  interest.  Besides 
the  law  of  1864,  which  included  the  same  principles  as  the  law  of  1860, 
also  contained  some  faults  —  "a  collection  of  defects,  any  one  of  which 
was  enough  to  kill  it."  The  appropriations  were  too  small  for  the  work 
to  be  accomplished,  but  the  main  defect  of  the  law  was  that  the  com- 
munal lands  could  be  taken  over  without  pay7nent.  The  dispossession 
was  only  temporary,  to  be  sure,  but  the  conditions  governing  the  return 
of  the  land  were  onerous  and  inequitable.  "Since  1874  a  devoted  repre- 
sentative of  the  mountain  population,  Doctor  Chevandier  (of  the  Drome) 
was  asking,  if  not  the  actual  repeal  of  the  legislation  on  reforestation, 
at  least  a  very  material  modification  of  its  provisions." 

In  1876  the  Government  proposed  a  law  destined  to  replace  the  laws 
of  1860  and  1864.  The  Chamber  passed  it  in  1877,  but  the  Senate  com- 
mittee opposed  it  with  a  counter  project,  which  included  the  regulation 
of  grazing.     The  Government  withdrew  the  bill  and  sent  to  the  Senate 

2  " Restauration  et  Conservation  des  Terrains  en  Montagne,"  Premiere  Partie, 
pp.  1-4. 


LAW  OF  1882  143 

in  1879  a  new  proposed  law  which,  after  having  been  modified  in  certain 
of  its  provisions,  became  the  law  of  April  4,  1882,  on  the  "Restoration 
and  the  Conservation  of  Mountain  Lands." 

Law  of  1882.  —  The  law  clearly  recognized  reforestation  as  obligatory 
public  work.  Local  commissions  examine  the  plans  proposed  by  the 
Forest  Service  and  finally  the  law  itself  (Art.  2),  and  not  merely  a  decree, 
determines  the  boundaries  within  which  the  work  must  be  executed  — 
that  it  only  applies  to  land  actually  damaged  or  in  ''  actual  and  present 
danger."  Within  the  estabhshed  boundaries  the  work  is  carried  out  on 
lands  belonging  to  the  State  in  fee  simple,  which  acquires  them  either 
privately  or  by  expropriation  (Art.  4).  Moreover,  the  private  owners, 
the  communes,  or  the  public  institutions  can  retain  the  ownership  of 
their  land  if  they  reach  an  understanding  with  the  State  before  the 
expropriation  and  if  they  engage  to  carry  out,  within  the  time  allotted, 
the  work  of  restoration  under  the  conditions  prescribed  by  the  Waters 
and  Forests  Service  administration  and  under  its  control.  The  State 
subsidizes  this  reforestation  work  because  of  its  value  to  the  public  and 
in  order  to  repay  the  owners  for  their  sacrifices.  The  law  also  prescribes 
the  *' reservation"  (for  a  period  not  to  exceed  10  years)  of  grazing  grounds 
whose  degradation  is  not  far  enough  advanced  to  justify  expropriation; 
and  the  boundaries  are  established  by  decree.  The  deficiencies  (without 
doubt  wilful  in  the  provisions  concerning  grazing)  have  rendered  the 
apphcation  of  the  law  extremely  difficult.  In  the  United  States  most  of 
the  additions  to  western  National  Forests  can  be  made  only  by  Congress, 
but  a  Presidential  decree  is  sufficient  for  eliminations.  The  same  dis- 
tinction is  made  in  France,  where  reforestation  boundaries  are  made 
by  law  and  grazing  betterment  boundaries  by  decree. 

"From  the  considerations  which  precede,  it  results  that  parhament,  guided  by  the 
dominating  thought  of  reconciUng  the  pubhc  interest  with  that  of  the  mountain  in- 
habitants, did  not  wish  that  the  boundaries  be  excessively  restricted.  The  original 
organic  law  did  not  foresee  the  inclusion  of  vast  areas  in  order  to  regulate  water  courses; 
it  only  gave  the  administration  the  power  to  take  the  live  sores,  the  lips  eroded  by  tor- 
rents, where  actual  and  present  dangers  presented  themselves." 

The  law  of  1882  ordered  the  revision  of  the  former  boundaries,  which 
were  found  much  too  extended.  It  follows  that  the  law  did  not  aim 
to  create  vast  forests  capable  of  yielding  large  revenue  in  the  future, 
but  rather  the  concentration,  over  limited  area,  of  intensive  work  — 
dams,  etc.  —  accompanied  now  and  then  by  forestation. 

But  if  these  lands  yield  nothing  in  money  to  the  State,  that  does  not 
mean  that  they  are  of  no  value  to  the  local  community,  for  they  protect 
the  villages,  the  roads,  the  railways,  and  the  crops  of  rich  valleys  against 
torrents  or  avalanches.  However,  in  certain  regions,  the  problem  has 
been  considered  somewhat  differently.     It  has  appeared  (the    damage 


144  CONTROL   OF  EROSION   IN  THE   MOUNTAINS 

being  small)  that  it  was  possible  with  the  approval  of  the  public  to 
make  the  boundaries  larger  and  to  really  reforest  on  a  considerable 
scale.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  Cevennes,  including  the  departments 
of  the  Gard  and  Herault,  a  region  which  has  neither  large  lakes  nor 
glaciers  to  regulate  the  water  flow,  it  has  seemed  best  to  create  considerable 
forested  areas. 

"The  great  forest  which  one  dreams  of  forming  in  this  region  will  act  like  an  enor- 
mous spring;  it  would  tend  to  retard  the  collection  and  then  the  runoff  of  water,  by 
decreasing  the  volume  and  by  storing  most  of  it  in  order  to  give  out  released  water, 
flowing  with  checked  or  diminished  speed,  to  the  tremendous  profit  of  business  and 
agriculture.     .     .     ." 

The  era  of  hesitation  and  doubt  in  regard  to  the  execution  of  the 
reforestation  work  has  passed;  mistakes  very  rarely  occur.  The  cer- 
tainty of  the  methods  used  for  combating  floods  at  their  starting  points, 
which  finally  consists  only  in  a  series  of  small,  inexpensive  measures,  is 
to-day  recognized.  The  facts  estabhshed  the  value  of  French  methods. 
The  soil  is  stabilized,  the  aridity  and  barrenness  of  the  slopes  disappear 
as  the  forest  and  grass  growth  is  re-established,  and  "the  torrent  muddy 
and  menacing  changes  into  a  brook  harmless  and  even  beneficent";  this 
is  what  has  happened  in  many  localities  through  the  application  of  the 
law  of  April  4,  1882.  Everywhere  the  efficiency  of  the  reforestation  work 
is  apparent. 

"The  provisions  of  the  law  of  1882  relative  to  grazing,  despite  the  efforts  of  the 
administration,  have  not  been  able  always  to  give  the  results  expected,  because  of  the 
opposition  of  the  mountain  people.  Must  one  fall  back  on  force?  Nothing  should 
oblige  too  rapid  a  march,  or  the  attempt  to  do  everything  at  once;  everything,  on  the 
contrary,  induces  one  to  advance  cautiously  and  progressively  in  a  way  which  the 
study  of  the  past  has  shown  full  of  difficulties  and  possible  dangers.  One  feels  that 
much  more  would  be  obtained  by  example  rather  than  by  force.  Encourage,  by  liberal 
grants,  the  individual  initiative;  stimulate  everywhere  good  will;  make  an  appeal  very 
skillfully  to  the  intelligence  and  interest  of  communities  and  individuals." 

Such  is  the  administration  program  adopted  in  order  to  bring  the 
grazing  population  to  a  better  comprehension  of  the  value  of  the  regula- 
tion of  grazing  land. 

The  work  of  grazing  betterment,  which  is  in  every  way  the  necessary 
counterpart  of  reforestation,  has  been  greatly  extended,  but  there  are 
still  obstacles  to  be  met. 

"Grazing  betterment  work  has  been  criticised  on  the  ground  that  it  has  only  ephem- 
eral duration;  the  habits  of  the  mountaineers  are  in  poor  keeping  with  the  betterment 
of  a  common  weal,  and  people  have  proposed  different  remedies.  Some  have  recently 
asked,  in  order  to  smooth  out  the  deficiencies  of  the  law,  to  place  the  communal  grazing 
under  'a  grazing  regime,'  similar  to  the  regime  applicable  to  the  administration  of 
the  communal  forests." 


STATISTICS  OF  REFORESTATION  145 

With  this  brief  sketch  (translated  and  digested  from  official  sources) 
of  the  development  of  reforestation  legislation  it  must  be  clear  what  a 
task  it  has  been  to  secure  the  legislative  authority  for  the  reclamation  of 
these  devastated  areas. 

Statistics  of  Reforestation.  —  The  figures  which  follow  show  the  ex- 
penditures and  acreage  as  of  January  1,  1909.  The  areas  comprise  the 
land  within  the  boundaries  of  the  projects  acquired  under  the  terms  of 
the  budget  for  reforestation  and  often  include  the  remains  of  ruined 
forests  which  require  improvement.  Land  of  this  nature  has  been  in- 
cluded under  the  term  "land  restocked."  The  land  impossible  of  forest- 
ation  includes  the  rocky  areas  of  shifting  soils,  or  areas  at  too  great  an 
altitude.  Land  of  the  last  two  classes  perhaps  can  some  day  be  in  part 
reforested.  Discrepancies  exist  between  the  area  of  the  land  belonging 
to  the  State  and  the  area  reforested  partly  because  the  State  has  of  its 
own  volition  decided  not  to  expropriate  land  where  the  conditions  have 
become  more  favorable,  and  partly  because,  in  some  places,  the  neces- 
sary nurseries  and  paths  could  not  be  constructed.  Moreover  where 
the  compartments  are  of  considerable  extent  the  area  to  be  forested  is 
naturally  Hmited  by  the  local  labor  supply,  for  it  appears  to  be  good  policy 
to  employ  the  local  mountaineers,  so  that  they  can  receive  in  salaries  an 
equivalent  of  the  revenue  which  they  lose  through  loss  of  grazing  ground. 
This  delay  is  not  disadvantageous,  for  it  gives  the  soil  an  excellent  rest. 
The  expense  does  not  stop  with  the  restoration  work,  for  the  maintenance 
cost  is  becoming  greater  from  year  to  year,  and  a  comparison  of  the  re- 
sults on  January  1,  1893,  and  on  January  1,  1909,  sixteen  years  later,  is 
of  interest.  During  32  years  —  1860  to  1891  —  248,863  acres  were 
purchased  and  16,951  acres  were  reforested.  During  the  period  from 
1893  to  1909  —  16  years  —  the  area  purchased  was  263,740  acres  and  the 
area  forested  was  194,236  acres.  These  figures  show  that  during  the 
latter  period  the  work  progressed  twice  as  rapidly  as  at  the  start.  The 
Alpes  contain  about  65|  per  cent  of  the  eroded  areas  of  France,  with  23^ 
per  cent  in  the  Cevennes  and  Central  Plateau  and  11  per  cent  in  the 
Pyrenees.  In  1894  Demontzey  reported  that  there  were  1,462  distinct 
torrents  in  France,  divided  as  follows:  Alpes,  1,138;  Cevennes  and  Central 
Plateau,  206;  and  Pyrenees,  118.  Huffel  says  that  "two-thirds  of  the 
torrents  of  Europe  are  in  France." 

For  the  three  main  forestation  divisions  (1)  the  Alpes,  (2)  the  Cevennes 
and  the  Central  Plateau,  and  (3)  the  Pyrenees  —  the  official  summary  of 
the  work  undertaken  is  given  in  Table  14. 

During  the  period  from  1860  to  1909  the  work  executed  by  the  com- 
munes (see  Table  15)  amounted  to  21.6  per  cent,  by  the  departments 
23.4  per  cent,  and  by  the  State  54.9  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditures 
of  $1,433,994.59  to  reforest   134,064  acres.     The  contribution  of  the 


146 


CONTROL  OF  EROSION  IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 


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EROSION   AND   PRECIPITATION 


147 


State  included  money  or  seed  and  plants,  the  plants  having  been  esti- 
mated below  their  actual  value. 

TABLE   15.—  SUMMARY  OF  FORESTATION  BY   COMMUNES,    1860-1909 


Area 
refor- 
ested, 
acres 

Amount  spent 

Departments 

By  the  com- 
munes 

By  the 
departments 

By  the  State 

Total  expense 

Alpes 

66,539 

48,169 
9,479 

9,877 

$159,428.48 

55,813.81 
35,843.09 

58,603.74 

$151,217.76 

123,803.13 
44,164.76 

18,830.41 

$349,176.16 

271.501.52 
106,814.37 

58,797.41 

$659,822.40 

Cevennes  and  Central 
Plateau 

Pyrenees 

Miscellaneous  depart- 
ments   

451,118.43 
186,822.20 

136,231.56 

Total 

134,064 

$309,689.12 

$338,016.06 

$786,289.46 

$1,433,994.59 

Most  of  the  forestation  work  done  by  individuals  (see  Table  16)  during 
the  period  from  1860  to  1909  was  paid  for  by  the  individuals.  The  de- 
partments assisted  them  to  the  extent  of  5.3  per  cent  of  the  total  expense 

TABLE   16.— SUMMARY  OF  FORESTATION  BY   INDIVIDUALS,   1860-1909 


Departments 


Alpes 

Cevennes  and  Central 
Plateau 

Pyrenees 

Miscellaneous  depart- 
ments   

Total 


Area 
refor- 
ested, 


13,092 


107,442 

7,887 


3,967 


132,388 


Amount  spent 


By  in- 


$72,862.02 

383,4.35.79 
54,011.72 

17,051. 47i 


departments 


$4,151.09 


42,427.33 
1,987.90 


By  the  State 


.$27,286.33 

270,860.93 
24,543.67 


115.80        13,847.72 


$527,361.00    $48,682.12    $336,538.65 


Total  expense 


$104,299.44 


396.724.05 
80,543.29 


31,015.00 


$912,581.78 


and  the  State  36.9  per  cent,  leaving  57.8  per  cent  to  be  paid  for  by  indi- 
viduals —  a  total  amount  of  $912,581.78  spent  to  reforest  132,388  acres, 
or  a  cost  of  $6.89  per  acre.'* 

THE  DAMAGE 

Erosion  and  Precipitation.  —  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  (see  p.  141 ) 
that  the  rainfall  is  heavier  in  the  mountains  than  in  the  plains,  and  that 

« In  addition  to  expenditures  for  reforestation,  allotments  during  the  10  years  from 
1899  to  1909  for  the  improvement  of  grazing  amounted  to  $110,440.  These  figures 
show  the  enormous  damage  that  has  resulted  from  deforestation  (mostly  due  to  over- 
grazing) in  the  mountains  of  France,  which  should  serve  as  a  warning  to  all  other  coun- 
tries where  abuse  of  forest  or  grazing  lands  is  in  its  infancy. 


148  CONTROL  OF  EROSION    IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 

as  a  general  rule  the  precipitation  increases  with  the  altitude.     Accord- 
ing to  an  official  report : 

"While  atmospheric  precipitation  gives  birth  to  torrents  in  the  mountain  regions, 
one  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  this  same  moisture  enables  the  creation  of  forest 
stands  to  diminish  the  violence  of  floods." 

It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  the  rains  have  a  double  effect.  From  one 
viewpoint  they  damage  the  mountains;  and  from  the  other  they  make 
forests  possible  and  thus  prevent  disastrous  erosion. 

A  part  of  the  abundant  rainfall  is  absorbed  by  the  ground,  a  part  is 
evaporated  and  a  part  runs  off  in  streams.  The  quantity  of  water 
absorbed  naturally  depends  on  the  character  of  the  soil  and  on  its  vege- 
tative cover.  The  runoff  depends  on  the  slope  for  its  speed,  and  the 
evaporation  (which  is  often  very  great)  depends  upon  the  water  being 
available.  Natural  vegetation  plays  an  important  part.  On  impervious 
rocks  practically  all  the  water  either  runs  off  or  is  evaporated.  On  per- 
meable ground,  especially  if  it  is  wooded,  most  of  the  water  is  absorbed. 
The  desirability,  therefore,  of  having  the  slopes  forested  is  apparent.  On 
the  other  hand,  one  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  on  impermeable 
surf  aces  "  certain  ground  sometimes  .  .  .  absorbs  water  to  the  satu- 
ration point  and  slides  according  to  the  degree  of  slope." 

After  prolonged  rains  or  storms  the  water  erodes  the  surface  of  the  soil 
and  forms  ravines.  While  this  form  of  erosion  is  dangerous  it  is  not 
nearly  so  difficult  to  control  as  landslides,  which  occur  where  the  per- 
meable soil  is  saturated  and  slides  over  an  impermeable  surface.  Snow 
frequently  causes  damage;  it  forms  avalanches  which  erode  ravines  by 
tearing  away  the  surface-of  the  soil.  Hail  acts  mechanically  in  detaching 
little  particles  of  rock  and  in  facilitating  the  movement  of  large  rocks 
down  steep  slopes.  Variations  of  temperature  and  wind  all  assist  in 
erosive  action.  "The  wind  is  a  denuding  agent  which  is  often  very 
active."     According  to  my  notes: 

"In  the  Maritime  Alpes  on  a  windy  day  thousands  of  particles  of  rock  and  soil  are 
moved  by  the  wind;  this  makes  a  peculiar  noise  which  struck  me  as  being  especially 
mournful." 

Sometimes  a  considerable  mass  of  water  accumulates  under  a  glacier 
and  when  it  breaks  out  erodes  a  ravine  with  great  rapiditj^ 

Rocks  and  Soils  Easily  Eroded.  —  In  the  Alps  the  soils  which  disinte- 
grate the  more  readily  are  the  marls,  the  schists,  the  gypsums  (including 
the  so-called  "terres  noires"),  and,  finally,  the  detritus  and  the  glacial 
and  alluvial  sediment.  The  very  great  abundance  of  land  of  this 
nature  explains  the  intensity  of  the  damage  done  by  torrents  in  this 
region.  Most  of  the  slopes  are  steep,  and  the  water  of  storms  or  heavy 
rains  concentrates  rapidly  in  the  arroyos  and  is  laden  with  debris  of 


DEFINITION  OF  A  TORRENT  149 

every  kind  resulting  from  superficial  erosion.  The  black  schists  dis- 
integrate in  small  fragments  and  form  small  ravines  analogous  to  those 
in  the  granites  and  in  the  mica  schists  of  the  Cevennes  and  of  the  Central 
Plateau.  The  other  "black  soils"  are  even  more  easily  washed  and 
erode  with  very  great  rapidity.  Soils  of  this  kind  are  deeply  ravined 
as  soon  as  they  are  denuded.  Glacial  deposits  also  erode  with  extreme 
ease.  These  muds,  often  soaked  to  a  great  depth  by  rain  or  by  melted 
snow,  flow  wherever  they  are  not  held  in  place  by  vegetation.  The 
ravines  that  they  make  deepen  very  rapidly  and  become  the  courses  of 
torrents  which  transport  the  detritus  into  the  valleys  below.  It  often 
happens  that  erodible  soil  rests  on  a  steep,  rocky,  or  compact  clayey 
bed.  Here  the  water  filters  into  the  top  soil  and  great  masses  of  earth 
are  detached  and  slide  to  the  bottoms  of  the  ravines.  Unstable  ground 
frequently  flows  in  a  rock-mud-water  lava.  Fragments  of  all  kinds  of 
rock  accumulate  in  the  ravines  and  mix  with  the  eroded  earth  from  the 
black  soil,  forming  a  fluid  mass  which  shdes  slowly  or  rapidly  according 
to  the  slope  of  the  stream  bed  and  the  amount  of  rain. 

In  the  Cevennes  and  the  Central  Plateau  the  slopes  formed  by  gneiss, 
mica  schists.  Paleozoic  schists,  and  granites  disintegrate  the  most  easily. 
True  torrent  gorges  are  not  formed  on  them,  but  instead  a  multitude  of 
furrows  and  ravines,  which  transport  great  quantities  of  sandy  material 
and  fragments  of  rocks.  It  is  a  region  of  torrential  rivers  rather  than  of 
torrent  courses  such  as  are  found  in  the  Alps.  The  Pyrenees  are  char- 
acterized by  an  abundance  of  glacial  or  semi-glacial  deposits.  The 
granites  disintegrate  and  the  detritus  covers  considerable  areas.  In 
the  Corbieres  the  marls  are  especially  exposed  to  erosion,  which  form 
short,  straight  torrent  gorges  or  ravines  which  have  numerous  branches 
that  feed  and  fill  up  the  water  courses  with  detritus. 

Limestone  is  usually  fissured,  so  that  rain  water  rapidly  penetrates 
the  interior  of  the  rock  if  the  surface  is  not  protected  by  thick  grass  or 
by  well-rooted  forest  vegetation.  Where  the  soil  becomes  denuded 
steady  and  deep  erosion  often  forms  gorges  that  have  abrupt  slopes. 
It  is  clear  that  excess  of  water  is  the  chief  danger  on  all  easily  erodible 
soils.  From  the  forester's  standpoint,  however,  too  little  water  or 
drought  is  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  reclamation  of  land  of  this  type, 
for  the  soil  becomes  baked  and  excessively  arid  as  soon  as  it  loses  its 
protective  vegetative  cover.  The  soils  thus  suff'er  from  the  extremes  of 
too  much  moisture  and  lack  of  moisture. 

Definition  of  a  Torrent.  —  The  snow  on  the  high  mountains  protects 
the  rocks  and  soil  against  various  disintegrating  agencies  but  not  against 
erosion  due  to  glaciers  and  to  subglacial  water.  Erosion  of  the  soil 
and  of  the  rocks  accordingly  takes  place  below  the  limit  of  perpetual 
snow,  a  limit  that  ranges  from  8,850  to  10,800  feet  in  the  Alps  and  in 


150  CONTROL  OF  EROSION   IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 

the  Central  and  Western  Pyrenees.  In  the  Eastern  Pyrenees  and  in 
the  Cevennes  and  the  Central  Plateau  there  is  not  much  year-long  snow. 
Even  after  deducting  the  areas  protected  by  snow  in  the  Alps  and  Pyi-e- 
nees,  vast  areas  of  erodible  ground  remain.  The  north  and  northeast 
slopes  remain  covered  with  snow  for  considerable  periods  in  each  year 
and  consequently  suffer  less  than  the  other  slopes.  On  these  slopes  the 
variations  in  temperature  are  less  sudden  and  of  less  extent,  the  rains 
are  even  less  intensive,  and  the  vegetation  is  habitually  more  vigorous 
than  on  south  slopes.  Therefore  most  of  the  torrent  gorges  are  formed 
on  south  and  west  slopes.  A  French  definition  of  a  torrent  gorge  says 
it  is: 

"A  temporary  water-course  in  which  the  water  concentrates  after  heavy  rainfall 
and  acquires,  because  of  its  mass  and  because  of  the  slope  of  the  stream  bed,  a  con- 
siderable live  force.  The  characteristic  trait  of  torrent  gorges  is  the  faculty  which  they 
possess  of  reuniting  in  a  single  flood  all  the  water  falling  within  a  certain  time  on  an 
extensive  area.  This  faculty  is  due  to  the  configuration  of  the  ground  and  the  principal 
feature  of  a  torrent  gorge,  that  which  gives  it  being  is  a  collecting  basin  which  favors 
the  rapid  concentration  of  rainfall.  The  basin  of  reception  of  a  torrent,  called  also  the 
funnel,  is  a  more  or  less  complete  circle  on  whose  steep  slopes  falls  the  water  of  heavy 
rains.  .  .  .  The  Gavarnie 'circus' in  the  Pyrenees  is  a  good  example.  .  .  .  The 
torrents  run  in  very  short  valleys,  which  cut  the  mountains  at  right  angles  to  the  slope 
just  as  in  simple  depressions.  Their  slope  may  exceed  6  per  cent  for  their  entire  length 
but  it  varies  a  great  deal  and  is  never  less  than  2  per  cent.  They  have  an  entirely 
special  characteristic  in  that  they  flow  in  areas  determined  by  their  courses,  resting 
upon  one  another  and  diverging  because  of  their  deposits.  According  to  Scipiongras, 
a  torrent  is  a  water  course  whose  rise  is  swift  and  violent,  whose  slopes  are  considerable 
and  irregular  and  which  often  raises  certain  parts  of  its  bed  because  of  the  deposit  of 
material;  it  is  this  which  makes  the  water  diverge  at  the  time  of  floods." 

Torrent  gorges  may  be  the  courses  of  temporary  or  permanent  streams 
whose  beds  are  not  yet  fixed  and  which  perform  the  work  of  carrying 
away  the  mountain  for  deposit  in  the  plain.  The  following  definition 
is  also  of  value: 

"A  torrent  gorge  is  a  temporary  or  permanent  water  course  in  which  the  water 
concentrates  with  extreme  rapidity  after  heavy  rains  and  by  its  energy  of  movement 
digs  out  its  bed,  which  is  considerable  because  of  the  mountain  slope  and  because  of 
the  increase  in  density  of  the  material  transported.  The  soil  and  deljris  of  all  kinds 
eroded  by  the  waters  are  deposited  on  the  plain." 

These  different  definitions  support  each  other.  Ravines  have  the 
same  character  as  torrent  gorges  but  are  less  strongly  marked.  "A 
ravine  is  a  branch  of  a  torrent  gorge  in  process  of  formation.     ..." 

Formation  of  Torrent  Gorges.  —  The  energy  of  movement  or  force  of 
water  that  flows  down  a  steep  slope  is  greater  at  the  base  of  the  slopes 
than  at  the  summit  and  erosion  is  therefore  greatest  at  the  base.  It 
also  follows  that  the  lower  part  of  the  slope  is   often   erodible  ground 


CAUSES  OF  TORRENTS   IN  MOUNTAIN   FORESTS  151 

and,  moreover,  it  is  ordinarily  little  protected  by  forest  vegetation,  for 
in  France  much  land  of  this  type  is  in  fields  or  is  devoted  to  agriculture. 
The  formation  of  a  torrent  gorge  involves  three  distinct  areas:  (1) 
An  area  on  which  rain  water  falls  before  it  runs  into  the  "thalweg"  or 
collecting  basin;  (2)  an  eroded  area,  the  torrential  gorge  or  bed;  and 
(3)  an  area  of  deposit,  the  delta  or  torrential  cone.  Surell  designates, 
under  the  name  of  the  basin  of  reception  — 

".  .  .  The  region  in  which  the  water  collects  and  floods  the  ground,  but,  when 
concerned  with  work  of  restoration,  it  is  preferable  to  consider  the  entire  collecting  basin 
under  the  general  definition  of  basin;  .  .  .  the  space  at  the  bottom  of  which  runs  a 
course  of  water  and  into  which  all  the  slopes  are  drained." 

Torrent  gorges  that  form  on  steep  mountain  slopes  are  short  and 
usually  run  at  right  angles  to  the  slopes.  Where  the  slope  is  gentle 
the  length  of  the  gorge  increases  and  the  curves  or  bends  in  the  gorge 
probably  increase.  These  curves  seem  to  be  due  to  the  unequal  resist- 
ance of  different  parts  of  the  hills.  A  torrential  cone  does  not  always 
exist  at  the  base  of  the  torrent  gorge.  Sometimes  the  gorge  or  the 
drainage  way  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley  and  the  material  borne 
by  the  torrent  is  deposited  in  a  river  which  carries  it  away. 

Causes  of  Torrents  in  Mountain  Forests.  —  Huffel  says  that  torrential 
rains,  easily  eroded  surfaces,  and  steep  slopes  promote  torrents.  Tor- 
rent gorges  —  the  products  of  erosion  —  may  be  due  immediately  or 
directly  to  natural  conditions  or  operations,  but  are  usually  directly 
or  indirectly  due  to  the  destruction  of  the  soil  cover  by  the  residents  of 
the  region  in  which  they  occur.  It  is  conceivable  that  an  exceptional 
storm  might  start  erosion  that  would  form  a  torrent  gorge  in  a  virgin 
forest.  An  accumulation  of  overmature  timber  or  natural  windfall 
coupled  with  a  heavy  snowfall  and  rapid  melting  may  produce  avalanches 
and  denuded  slopes.  The  area  at  the  upper  limit  of  tree  growth  is 
always  liable  to  damage  from  the  normal  snowslides  which  are  so  preva- 
lent in  high  mountains.  Numerous  other  causes  of  "normal"  damage 
by  nature  to  forested  areas  could  be  cited,  but  under  the  usual  condi- 
tions this  change  in  topography  —  a  change  which  is  continually  going 
on  all  over  the  world  —  is  slow  and  localized.  Where  valley  after 
valley  that  was  once  forested  is  being  eroded  and  where  there  are  numer- 
ous torrents  nature  is  not  alone  to  blame.  The  destruction  must  be 
due  (1)  to  deforestation  and  (2)  to  the  breaking  of  the  soil  surface. 
In  France  the  once  forested  mountain  areas  that  are  now  being  repaired 
at  so  great  expense  were  overcut,  burned,  and  overgrazed.  This  might 
be  termed  collectively  "abusive  use."  Even  to-day  typical  examples 
abound  (see  also  p.  153). 

At  Mont  Dore  (Puy-de-D6me)  there  are  Roman  mineral  springs,  and 
around  the  watering  places  there  has  been  partial  deforestation  caused 


152  CONTROL  OF  EROSION   IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 

by  fire  and  grazing.  On  the  west  side  of  the  valley  there  are  belts  of 
forest  that  extend  from  the  foot  of  the  slope  almost  to  the  top.  On  the 
east  side,  which  faces  the  west  or  the  south,  the  forest  belt  is  narrower. 
At  the  head  of  the  valley  there  is  hardly  any  forest  at  all,  because  the 
slopes  are  rocky  and  very  steep.  Above  and  between  the  present  forest 
zones  grazing  by  sheep  had  started  erosion  and  landslides.  The  soil, 
permeated  with  water,  loosens  and  slides  down,  the  slides  producing  great 
gullies.     This  is  a  good  example  of  how  small  torrents  begin. 

At  Barcelonnette  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  beginning  of  ravines  on 
bare  grass-covered  slopes  was  usually  due  to  grazing  by  sheep  and  par- 
ticularly to  permanent  bedding  grounds  at  the  heads  of  high  mountain 
valleys.     According  to  my  field  notes: 

"The  Ravine  de  Roche  Noire  (Basses- Alpes)  50  to  60  years  ago  was  merely  a  cow 
trail  or  a  path  where  wood  was  sledded  down  the  slope.  The  soil,  formed  of  a  schist- 
marl,  has  now  been  eroded  to  a  depth  of  30  to  40  feet.  As  no  dams  were  built  when  the 
slopes  of  this  ravine  were  reforested  the  erosion  has  continued,  and  it  is  now  necessary 
to  build  low,  dry  stone  dams  to  prevent  further  damage.  Without  these  dams,  which 
are  built  without  masonry  binder,  the  erosion  will  eat  in  20  inches  after  a  single  bad 
storm.  It  was  explained  that  this  erosion  was  not  caused  by  grazing  but  was  merely 
due  to  the  falling  of  rocks,  through  natural  causes,  from  the  precipices  above.  This 
raises  an  interesting  question :  What  would  the  natural  erosion  in  the  Alps  have  amounted 
to  without  the  advent  of  man!  The  local  inspector  said  that  while  sheep  grazing  is 
still  doing  great  damage  it  cannot  be  forbidden  or  even  summarily  restricted  because 
it  is  the  sole  industry  of  the  mountain  villages,  and  drastic  restrictions  would  mean  the 
depopulation  of  the  countryside." 

Damage  Caused  by  Torrents.  —  We  have  already  seen  that  "  a  tor- 
rential wash"  is  a  fluid  mass  which  carries  material  of  all  sizes  and  whose 
speed  is  dependent  upon  the  slope  and  upon  the  amount  of  rainfall. 
This  material  comes  from  a  number  of  sources.  It  may  consist  of  debris 
from  the  disintegration  of  rocks,  carried  by  gravity,  by  water,  or  by 
avalanches;  (2)  it  may  be  due  to  simple  erosion  by  rainwater,  to  slides, 
or  to  the  movement  of  glaciers;  (3)  it  may  include  trees,  branches  of 
trees,  and  debris  from  fellings,  which,  even  if  small,  are  dangerous  ele- 
ments in  washes  because,  on  account  of  their  light  weight,  they  do  not 
stop  until  the  slope  becomes  very  gentle  and  they  form  temporary  dams 
behind  which  the  water  accumulates  only  to  break  forth  and  inflict  greater 
damage  lower  down.  Each  year  torrents  and  ravines  cause  material  and 
even  great  damage  and,  only  too  often,  loss  of  human  life.  Such  acci- 
dents direct  public  attention  to  their  danger.  The  direct  losses  during 
17  years  are  estimated  in  Table  17,  and  it  is  very  noteworthy  that  the 
damage  was  always  less  in  the  areas  where  erosion  betterments  had  been 
started: 


POLICY  AND  SUMMARY 


153 


TABLE   17  — LOSSES  FROM  NOTABLE  TORRENTS  FROM   1890-1907 


Year 

Locality 

Financial  loss 

18901 

Bassin  des  Gardens  (Lozere) 

1225,810 

317,485 
337  750  " 

1891) 
1891 

Bassin  de  la  Beaume  (Ardeche) 

1892 

Le  glacier  de  Tete-Rousse  (Haute-Savoie) 

1895 

Bassin  du  Gave  Pau  (Hautes-Pyrenees) 

10  000 

1897 

Bassin  de  la  Pique  (Haute-Garonne) 

100,000  « 

48  250 

1897 

Bassin  de  la  Haute-Ariege  (Ariege) 

1897 

Bassin  de  Bastan  (Hautes-Pyrenees) 

50,000  « 
9,650 

10,000  a 
2  000 

1899 

Bassin  de  I'Allier  (Ardeche) 

1899 

Bassin  de  la  Pique  (Haute-Garonne) 

1899 

Bassin  de  I'Arve  (Haute-Savoie) 

1900 

Bassin  de  la  Beaume  (Ardeche) 

1,761,125 
10  000 

1901 

Bassin  de  la  Pique  (Haute-Garonne) 

1901 

Bassin  du  Tarnon  (Lozere) 

57,900 
96,500 
115,800 
1,000'^ 
15,000  « 
2,000  « 
500  « 

1904 

Bassin  du  Doron  (Savoie) 

1906 

Bassin  de  I'Arc  (Savoie) 

1906 

Bassin  de  Bastan  (Hautes-Pyrenees) 

1906 

Bassin  de  Gave  de  Pau 

1907 

Bassin  de  la  Lergue  (Herault) 

1907 

Bassins  de  I'Herault  et  de  la  Dourbie  (Gard) 

1907 

Bassin  de  la  Ceze  (Gard) 

1,000" 
200  000 

1907 

Bassin  des  Gardons  (Gard) 

1907 

Miscellaneous  basins  (Lozere) 

5  000" 

Total  1890-1907 

3,376,770 

"■  Amount  of  loss  estimated. 


CORRECTIVE   MEASURES 

Policy  and  Summary.  —  Briot,  formerly  a  conservator  in  the  French 
Forest  Service,  was  the  first  to  make  a  fight  against  ''dead  works"  in 
reforestation  as  opposed  to  Hving  plantations  of  grass,  shrubs,  or  trees. 
The  final  judgment  of  the  French  foresters  seems  to  be  that  though  to 
permanently  reclaim  an  eroded  area  vegetation  is  essential,  yet  dams,  walls, 
and  like  works  are  also  necessary.  During  the  early  work  in  the  Alps, 
the  operations  of  the  French  engineers  might  possibly  be  criticised  on  the 
ground  that  they  depended  too  much  on  masonry  dams  (see  Fig.  10,  a  to  d) 
and  purely  artificial  corrective  works  rather  than  on  the  permanent  vege- 
tation (grass,  shrubs,  and  trees)  which  is  necessary  if  erosion  is  to  be 
-permanently  corrected.  Briot  did  a  great  deal  of  good  in  agitating  for  less 
masonry  and  for  more  vegetation.  He  argued  that  to  get  at  the  root 
of  the  evil  the  correction  must  start  at  the  top  of  the  slope  because  other- 
wise the  clams  fill  up  with  silt  and  the  slopes  remain  as  bad  as  before. 
Possibly  Briot  went  to  extremes  in  his  propaganda  against  the  methods 
then  current,  but  to-day  it  is  unquestionable  that  the  results  of  his 
attacks  have  been  beneficial.  The  present  methods  are  the  result  of 
having  wasted  public  money  and  of  having  profited  by  the  mistakes. 


154  CONTROL  OF  EROSION  IN  THE  MOUNTAINS 


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156  CONTROL  OF  EROSION   IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 

One  of  the  first  problems  to  arise  —  a  prolDlem  of  great  importance 
practically  —  was :  How  much  ground  should  the  work  of  restoration 
cover?  According  to  Surrel  and  his  followers  it  is  necessary  to  include  the 
entire  receiving  basin  of  a  torrent  and  the  slopes  of  the  gorge.  To-day 
it  is  still  felt  to  be  best  to  include  as  large  an  area  as  possible  to  take  in 
the  torrent  basins  and  their  slopes.  The  communes  usually,  with  their  nar- 
row self-interest,  argue  for  withdrawing  the  minimum  area;  the  Forest  Ser- 
vice, on  the  other  hand,  realizes  the  technical  requirements  and  desires  to 
set  aside  the  area  already  eroded  and  the  area  immediately  threatened. 

The  correction  of  the  effects  of  a  "torrent"  comprises  a  number  of 
operations,  all  closely  related  to  their  effect  upon  the  surface  of  the 
slopes  and  the  bed  of  the  stream:  Dams  (barrages),  walls,  rock  drains, 
protection  against  avalanches,  the  paving  of  channels,  the  building  of 
tunnels  and  aqueducts,  wattle  work  (garnissage),  and  the  introduction  of 
grass,  shrubs,  or  trees. 

Concisely  stated,  a  theoretical  torrent  above  a  rich  village  might  be 
controlled  somewhat  as  follows:  Where  a  ledge  of  rock  crosses  a  stream 
bed,  and  where  there  are  good  foundations,  a  base  masonry  dam  is  con- 
structed; at  the  same  time  dry  stone  dams  are  built  higher  up  the  main 
bed  to  prevent  deeper  erosion  of  the  stream  bottom.  A  slope  in  danger  of 
sliding  into  the  main  bed  is  fixed  by  a  masonry  retaining  wall.  Small, 
incipient  gullies  are  rocked  over  as  drains  to  prevent  further  erosion  and 
to  act  as  permanent  drains.  Small  ravines  are  held  in  place  by  wattle 
work  and  garnissage  (p.  162).  Beginning  at  the  top  of  slopes  that 
are  liable  to  erosion  selected  areas  are  first  sodded;  then,  as  soon  as  the 
soil  is  stable  enough,  shrubs  are  planted  on  the  slopes  and  in  the  stream 
beds.  After  shrubs  are  established  and  the  soil  is  held  in  place  trees  are 
planted.  Wattle  work  may  be  necessary  here  and  there  where  the  soil 
is  crumbling  away,  and  the  main  bed  of  the  torrent  perhaps  must  be  paved 
to  prevent  further  washing  below  the  base  dam. 

An  illustration  of  the  corrective  methods  employed  (see  also  p.  168) 
in  full  swing  is  afforded  by  the  torrent  of  St.  Julien,  in  Savoie.  Here  the 
schist  is  easily  eroded,  for  it  is  very  friable.  The  torrent  begins  at  an 
altitude  of  9,186  feet,  is  6.2  miles  long,  and  covers  some  4,942  acres  of 
land,  of  which  1,866  acres  belong  to  the  State.  The  village  of  St.  Julien 
had  been  damaged,  parts  of  a  railroad  and  wagon  road  had  been  washed 
away,  and  portions  of  Mont-Denis  were  gradually  sliding  and  were  being 
washed  away  by  the  torrent.  The  corrective  measures  employed  were 
as  follows : 

Where  there  was  danger  that  the  stream  might  undermine  a  promi- 
nent ridge,  and  to  reduce  the  flow  of  water  in  the  main  channel,  it  was 
conducted  843  feet  through  a  32  per  cent  tunnel  cut  through  solid  rock. 
Where  the  stream  passed  the  village  it  was  paved  to  prevent  further 


TECHNIQUE  OF   DAMS  157 

erosion.  In  order  to  reduce  the  slope  of  the  stream  bed  to  approxi- 
mately a  5  per  cent  grade,  where  the  erosion  was  most  severe,  it  was 
necessary  to  construct  twenty-six  small  and  three  large  dams.  Along 
one  stretch  there  was  one  dam  every  85  feet.  The  catchment  basin  is 
being  grassed  over  and  planted.  In  addition  a  very  complete  system 
of  rock  drains  has  been  built  on  the  most  dangerous  slopes.  A  drain 
13  feet  deep  and  5  feet  wide  cost  $2.31  per  running  yard;  one  5  feet  deep 
and  3.3  feet  wide  cost  only  97  cents  per  yard.  It  was  necessary  to  put 
in  a  holding  wall  at  the  foot  of  the  slope,  where  erosion  was  particularly 
severe.  The  trees  planted  included  alder,  willow,  Scotch  pine,  ash,  oak, 
maple,  and  poplar.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  for  planting  Scotch 
pine,  two-year  seedlings  are  used  in  spots  with  two  seedlings  per  spot. 
The  spots  are  12  to  20  inches  square  and  number  about  2,800  per  acre. 
The  cost  of  stopping  the  movement  of  the  earth  on  Mont-Denis,  together 
with  the  system  of  trails  that  it  was  necessary  to  build,  was  $30,494, 
and  the  improvements  on  this  one  torrent  alone  have  cost,  so  far  (1913), 
over  $129,310. 

This  example  affords  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  difficulty  of  cor- 
recting erosion  after  it  has  once  started,  and  shows  the  absolute  necessity 
of  not  letting  it  get  a  start.  Much  of  the  difficulty  has  been  caused  by 
waiting  too  long  l^efore  beginning  corrective  measures. 

Technique  of  Dams.  —  The  principal  objects  of  dams  are  (1)  to  stop 
material  transported  by  the  water,  (2)  to  diminish  the  speed  of  the 
water,  (3)  to  prevent  further  erosion,  (4)  to  prevent  the, enlargement 
of  the  torrent  bed  and  the  erosion  of  the  border  talus,  and  (5)  to  hold  up 
unstable  slopes.  Dams  are  constructed  in  torrents  and  ravines  that 
are  under  active  erosion.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  establish  dams  of 
about  the  same  size,  that  they  may  be  homogeneous,  and  to  avoid  the 
installation  of  secondary  dams  of  doubtful  stability.  Of  course,  uni- 
formity of  construction  cannot  always  be  maintained.  The  dams  must 
be  constructed  to  fit  local  conditions,  and  usually  the  torrents  have  a 
double  character.  Their  slopes  are  eroding  and  the  material  eroded  is 
carried  along  in  the  flood.  In  certain  places  it  is  sufficient  to  construct 
a  stone  step  across  the  bed  to  prevent  further  erosion.  As  the  construc- 
tion of  these  stone  dams  is  entirely  a  work  of  engineering  based  on  the 
stress  which  they  must  withstand,  no  details  of  construction  are  given. 
Above  each  dam  it  is  customary  to  construct  a  rough  paved  area  at  the 
level  of  the  dam,  2|  to  5  feet  in  thickness.  It  is  constructed  with  stones 
which  cannot  be  used  in  the  masonry  work.  These  paved  areas  are 
made  to  diminish  the  drop  upstream  so  as  to  decrease  the  pressure  of 
the  water  collected  behind  the  dam.  But  there  can  be  no  ironclad  pro- 
cedure. So  far  as  the  work  of  correction  is  concerned,  it  is  usually  best 
to  construct  only  absolutely  necessary  dams  at  the  base  of  the  torrent 


158  CONTROL  OF  EROSION   IN  THE   MOUNTAINS 

until  the  small  dams  at  the  head  have  been  built.  The  base  dam  must 
be  faced  upstream  on  a  part  of  the  stream  bed  which  is  absolutely  stable. 
It  is  necessary  to  avoid  building  so-called  ''suspended"  dams,  which 
must  necessarily  disappear  as  the  stream  erodes  upward  or  downward. 
It  often  happens  that  a  torrent  is  intersected  by  a  rocky  barrier.  This 
barrier  or  le.dgc  is  an  excellent  point  for  the  base  dam. 

Many  of  the  dams  in  the  Alps  are  simple,  some  of  them  consisting  of 
a  single  log  staked  in  position  across  the  bed  of  a  ravine.  The  general 
tendency  is  to  avoid  building  expensive  masonry  dams  and  to  build 
simple  stone  dams  without  mortar.  Formerly  it  was  often  the  practice 
to  curve  the  face  of  the  dam,  but  now  they  are  built  straight,  for  ex- 
perience has  proved  that  the  curved  dam  is  not  necessary  to  withstand 
the  average  pressure. 

Walls  and  Protection  Against  Avalanches.  —  The  main  protective 
measures  against  avalanches  are  walls,  benches,  or  steps  with  wattle 
work  or  high  stumps.  (See  Fig.  11,  a  to  c.)  Avalanches  are  very 
frequent  in  the  high  mountains,  and  most  of  them  follow  the  depres- 
sions or  the  lines  of  least  resistance,  where  they  do  not  cause  a  great 
deal  of  damage.  But  it  is  often  necessary  to  prevent  them,  especially 
if  they  menace  villages  or  carry  great  quantities  of  eroded  material  or 
if  they  damage  forested  areas.  Walls  (or  benches)  are  usually  built 
where  the  snow  begins  to  slide.  The  walls  are  built  of  dry  masonry  and 
usually  have  a  total  height  of  6|  feet  and  a  minimum  length  of  50  feet. 
The  width  at  the  top  is  from  24  to  31  inches,  depending  on  the  height. 
The  depth  of  the  foundation  varies  with  the  ground  and  is  sometimes  as 
much  as  5  feet.  So  far  as  possible,  large  stones  are  used,  preferably  of 
the  same  width  as  the  wall.  Masonry  is  used  when  dry  stone  of  the 
proper  size  and  quantity  is  not  available.  On  a  slope  that  has  a  practi- 
cally uniform  grade  walls  are  run  on  the  level  at  equal  distances  apart. 
Where  the  snow  slides  in  regular  runways,  the  walls  are  really  dams, 
some  with  a  clear  height  of  10  feet  and  a  width  of  31  inches  at  the  top, 
with  an  increase  of  one  in  five  inches  to  the  base.  In  Savoie,  where 
there  is  no  resistant  material  at  hand  for  such  construction  and  where 
consequently  it  is  not  possible  to  build  regular  barriers,  it  is  necessary 
to  build  benches,  a  bench  being  a  flat  pocket  in  the  rock  3.3  feet  wide 
and  about  33  feet  long.  Where  possible,  this  is  inclosed  with  a  small 
wall  on  the  outside  of  the  cut  to  collect  debris.  The  benches  constructed 
in  the  Pyrenees  are  of  two  different  types:  (1)  Horizontal  platforms 
about  6|  feet  wide,  slopes  slightly  downward  toward  the  mountain. 
The  talus  is  held  by  a  dry  stone  wall  with  a  decrease  in  width  of  1  in  5 
toward  the  top.  Its  length  is  16  to  49  feet,  33  feet  being  the  average. 
These  platforms  are  26  to  33  feet  apart  horizontally  and  about  33  feet 
below  one  another.     (2)  The  platform  cut  into  the  side  of  the  mountain 


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Fig.  11  (a).  —  Retaining  walls  on  a  hillside  that  had  been  shpping  down.  (French 
oflBcial  photograph.) 

(b).  —  Walls  to  prevent  avalanches  (at  top)  with  an  inspection  trail  in  the  fore- 
ground.    (French  official  photograph.) 

(c).  —  Walls  to  prevent  avalanches.     (French  official  photograph.)  159 


160  CONTROL  OF  EROSION   IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 

serves  as  a  support  for  dry  stone  barricades  that  jut  out  about  6^  feet. 
If  the  walls  or  benches  are  in  a  forested  region  the  plantations  are  made 
under  their  protection;  here  they  are  considered  only  temporary  for 
when  the  trees  take  hold  protection  is  no  longer  necessary.  Sometimes 
it  has  been  found  advisable  to  establish  ordinary  snow  walls  to  turn  snow 
slides  from  their  course;  where  pockets  of  snow  are  heaped  up  by  the 
wind  it  is  often  necessary  to  build  walls  3.3  to  5  feet  high  back  of  the 
drifts  to  prevent  the  snow  from  blowing  over.  Wooden  snow  fences 
and  wind  shields,  so  common  in  the  western  United  States,  are  not 
used  in  France.  The  tendency  in  France  is  ever  toward  simplification 
in  the  protection  against  avalanches;  sometimes  chunks  of  earth  are  cut 
out  of  a  steep  slope  13  to  16  feet  in  length  and  3.3  feet  in  width  at  the 
bottom.  Stakes  are  then  set  at  the  lower  limit  of  the  cut  and  are  bound 
together  with  branches.  With  a  large  number  of  these  steps  cut  in  the 
slope  avalanches  can  often  be  prevented,  for  the  pits  or  steps  act  as 
catchment  areas  for  loose  material  that  slides  down.  These  pits  are 
often  placed  7.5  to  10  feet  apart  vertically  and  6.5  feet  apart  horizontally. 
Where  there  is  danger  from  shdes  in  partly  forested  areas,  or  where  the 
timber  has  been  killed  by  fire,  dead  and  dying  trees  in  improvement 
fellings  are  cut,  and  their  stumps,  2  to  5  feet  high,  used  to  anchor  the 
snow. 

Rock  Drains.  —  Saturated  soil  loses  all  cohesion  and  flows  on  a  steep 
slope;  it  even  slides  on  underlying  strata  that  are  less  permeable.  These 
earth  movements  are  due  to  the  infiltration  of  water  coming  from  pro- 
longed rains,  from  the  melting  of  snows,  from  deep  springs,  and  from 
irrigating  canals  that  are  not  leak-proof.  Such  movements  are  combated 
by  drainage,  which  makes  the  soil  cohere  and  thus  prevents  slides.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this  work  canals  or  drains  are  built  to  conduct  the 
water  into  the  valley  bottoms.  (See  Fig.  12.)  Where  considerable 
ground  is  in  movement  it  is  not  possible  to  open  trenches  sufficiently 
deep  for  drainage,  but  by  digging  a  large  number  of  drains  the  soil  can  be 
dried  up  and  a  sufficiently  resistant  surface  formed  to  prevent  it  from 
disintegrating.  The  average  depth  of  such  drains  is  6.5,  5,  and  3.3  feet. 
The  deepest  drains,  called  "collectors,"  ordinarily  have  a  width  at  the 
bottom  of  28  inches  and  an  increase  in  width  toward  the  top  of  1  in  5. 
The  best  drains  have  a  concave  base,  built  on  a  radius  of  10  or  20  per 
cent,  and  are  so  constructed  as  to  form  a  canal  of  triangular  construction. 
Above  this  base  the  ditch  is  filled  with  stones  of  all  sizes,  the  largest 
being  placed  at  the  bottom.  Drains  6.5  feet  deep  for  the  chief  drainage 
and  3.3  feet  deep  for  the  lateral  drainage  generally  suffice.  The  triangular 
section  is  sometimes  replaced  by  a  half-circular  section  or  by  a  rectangular 
section,  which  is  easier  to  construct.  Second-class  or  third-class  drains 
have  a  depth  of  3.3  to  5  feet  and  a  width  at  the  bottom  of  16  to  24  inches. 


ROCK   DRAINS 


161 


The  drains  must  be  large  enough  to  insure  the  prompt  runoff  of  water. 
Under  exceptional  circumstances  the  French  have  managed  to  dry  ground 
to  a  great  depth,  sometimes  up  to  10  to  13  feet,  but  the  expense  is  much 
greater.  First-class  drains  are  generally  built  where  the  slope  is  steep,  in 
order  to  assure  rapid  runoff.  They  are  less  Hkely  to  be  dislocated  by  soil 
movements.     At  the  head  of  drains  little  walls  are  constructed  as  props. 


Fig.  12.  —  Paved   drains   at   Bastan    (Hautes-Pyrenees). 
graph.) 


(French   official  photo- 


When  the  drainage  water  is  abundant  it  is  often  united  in  a  paved  trench 
built  in  the  valley  bottom  to  carry  the  water  under  the  dams.  Where  the 
soil  movements  are  due  to  a  leaky  canal  it  is  often  better  to  stop  the  cause 
of  the  infiltration  rather  than  to  take  up  the  expensive  work  of  drainage. 
To  prevent  running  water  from  eroding  the  soil  it  is  often  advisable  to 
collect  it  in  Httle  canals,  about  20  inches  in  depth,  which  follow  the  slope 
and  which  are  filled  with  little  stones  or  fascines.  These  canals  can  be 
replaced  by  paved  drains  if  the  earth  is  in  movement.      Trees  are  planted 


162  CONTROL   OF  EROSION   IN   THE    MOUNTAINS 

as  soon  as  the  drainage  has  made  the  soil  sufficiently  stable.  Drainage 
has  always  been  satisfactory  where  it  has  been  used  to  stop  superficial 
slides  over  a  small  area  or  to  dry  up  saturated  soil.  Where  earth  is 
sliding  over  a  nonpermeable  surface  the  timber  still  standing  is  almost 
invariably  cut  so  as  not  to  retain  surplus  water. 

Paving  Channels.  —  The  typical  torrent  is  almost  dry  except  during  a 
period  of  storms.  To  prevent  erosion,  enlargement,  and  changes  in  the 
main  channel  bed  it  is  necessary  to  pave  the  bed.  This  facilitates  the 
passing  of  the  detritus  during  floods,  especially  below  the  base  dam. 

Tunnels  and  Aqueducts.  —  In  a  few  places  it  is  necessary  to  use  tunnels 
or  aqueducts  to  conduct  excess  water  through  ridges  or  over  artificial 
obstacles,  such  as  roads  or  railways.  For  example,  near  Thonon  (Haute- 
Savoie),  where  the  limestone  soil  is  badly  eroded,  a  road  is  protected  by 
carrying  the  wash  from  a  ravine  over  it  on  an  aqueduct. 

Wattle  Work  (Gamissage).  —  On  steep  slopes  (more  than  60  per  cent) 
and  in  small  ravines  wattle  work  is  often  necessary.  (See  Fig.  13,  a  and 
6.)  A  common  method  is  to  stick  willow  shoots  in  the  ground  1  to  3 
feet  apart  and  to  weave  willow  branches  in  between  the  shoots  to  hold 
the  rocks  and  shifting  earth.  The  shoots  take  root  and  when  established 
assist  in  holding  the  sod,  when  forestation  becomes  possible.  Another 
system  of  building  wattle  work  (now  largely  abandoned)  was  to  lay  the 
brush  straight  up  and  down  the  stream  bed  and  pin  it  in  position  with 
cross  pieces  every  6.5  feet.  The  latest  method  is  to  lay  the  brush  as 
formerly  but  to  hold  it  in  place  with  two  stakes  driven  in  the  soil  in  the 
shape  of  a  V,  the  head  of  the  V  pointing  down  stream.  According  to 
Demontzey: 

"The  'garnissage'  correction  of  little  dry  ravines  and  the  consolidation  of  unstable 
slopes  is  as  follows: 

"In  the  dry  ravines  of  the  Alps  'garnissage'  is  often  used  in  the  bed  of  the  stream; 
stems  of  branches  are  laid  on  the  bottom  so  that  the  ends  of  the  branches  may  be  toward 
the  top.  By  dry  ravines  is  meant  those  that  carry  no  water  during  normal  times  or 
those  in  which  there  is  a  very  small  trickle  of  water.  The  branches  are  so  placed  as 
to  form  a  shghtly  concave  surface,  and  are  held  in  place  here  and  there  by  cross  pieces 
fixed  in  place  by  stakes.  The  most  common  form  of  'garnissage'  employed  during  the 
past  years  has  been  to  place  brush  on  the  bottom  of  the  ravine  and  then  to  mat  it  down 
by  interwoven  branches.  When  completed,  the  branches  form  squares  on  top  of  the 
debris.  Winter  willow  or  poplar  branches  are  used,  and  the  ends  are  covered  with 
earth,  commencing  from  the  top  of  the  ravine  and  extending  downward,  so  that  they 
can  take  root  and  form  a  living  protection.  Most  'garnissage'  eventually  results  in 
vegetation  that  forms  a  permanent  protection  against  erosion.  In  the  Maritime  Alpes 
where  branches  cannot  be  had  at  a  reasonable  expense,  the  flow  of  water  in  the  ravines 
is  controlled  by  a  series  of  little  dams  formed  of  balls  of  sod,  used  alone  or  combined 
with  stone.  When  the  water  falls  it  is  stopped  at  each  dam  so  that  it  cannot  attain 
sufficient  velocity  to  be  dangerous.  The  debris  backs  up  behind  each  little  dam  and 
further  lessens  the  velocity  of  water.  .  .  .  The  dams  must  become  larger  and  larger 
down  stream  in  order  to  resist  the  floods     .     .     .     until  these  dams  reach  a  height  of  3.3 


WATTLE  WORK   (GARNISSAGE) 


163 


CQ    o 

r     -« 
I      a 


—  a. 


164  CONTROL  OF  EROSION   IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 

feet  and  a  length  of  several  yards.  Where  sod  cannot  be  obtained  layers  of  branches 
alternating  with  layers  of  stone  are  used.  Sometimes  also  these  ravines  are  held  in 
place  by  small  dry  stone  dams  some  16  to  23  inches  in  height,  solidly  anchored.  In 
the  high  mountains,  in  certain  places,  some  of  the  ravines  are  filled  with  stones  just  as 
if  they  were  small  drainage  canals.  This  method  of  cover  has  given  good  results  on 
slopes  situated  at  an  altitude  of  6,500  feet  in  the  upper  Verdon  valley.  In  addition  to 
fixing  the  ravine  bottom,  a  necessary  precaution  to  prevent  erosion  from  extending 
farther  up  is  to  construct  just  below  the  summit  a  so-called  consolidation  wall  about 
20  inches  in  height,  which  if  well  anchored  holds  the  ground.  After  this  wall  is  built 
the  soil  around  it  can  often  be  sodded  over.  The  methods  used  for  fixing  unstable 
banks  or  slopes  are  extremely  variable.  If  their  instability  is  very  pronounced  they 
must  be  sustained  at  the  bottom  by  transverse  works  very  much  like  the  wall  that 
holds  up  the  side  of  the  ridge.  Some  slopes  can  be  held  up  by  a  superficial  cover  of 
branches  held  in  place  by  stakes  or  poles,  such  as  are  used  in  a  ravine.  Under  the 
shelter  of  this  cover  natural  vegetation  can  easily  be  developed.  Little  horizontal 
structures,  wattle  work  10  to  12  inches  high,  or  fascines  reinforced  by  layers  of  shoots 
between  which  are  sown  forage  plants,  are  used  everywhere.  Where  stones  are  abun- 
dant little  walls  of  dry  stone  are  built,  topped  with  sod." 

Forestation,  with  Examples.^  —  The  purpose  of  dams,  walls,  drains, 
wattle  work,  and  other  artificial  "dead  works"  is  to  stop  the  movement 
of  the  surface  soil,  because  until  that  is  anchored  forestation  is  impossible, 
and  before  the  final  protective  cover  is  planted  the  surface  must  often 
be  held  in  place  by  grass  or  shrubs.  It  is  clear  from  the  French  literature 
on  reforestation  that  engineers  have  not  always  admitted  or  realized  the 
importance  of  vegetative  cover  for  permanent  reclamation: 

"Some  geologists  have  expressed  the  view  that  a  torrent  is  a  phenomenon  whose 
development  cannot  be  stopped.  If  this  opinion  is  accepted  there  is  nothing  to  do  but 
to  let  the  destruction  of  the  mountain  go  on  and  try  to  defend  the  valleys  against  the 
results  of  torrents.  Some  feel  that  protection  against  torrents  can  be  obtained  in  a 
certain  measure  (when  the  limit  of  slope  erosion  has  approached)  by  instalhng  a  canal 
to  conduct  the  eroded  material  from  the  foot  of  the  mountains  to  the  river.  But  the 
danger  is  not  overcome.  The  detritus  is  merely  transported  from  the  torrential  valley 
to  the  main  valley.  Others  believe  that  it  is  impossible  to  slow  up  the  torrent  by 
these  canals  and  use  the  water  for  commerce.  They  beHeve  that  a  dam  can  be  built 
high  enough  to  retain  the  flood  waters  and  that  these  waters,  once  stored,  can  be  used 
for  commerce  or  for  agriculture,  thus  making  the  flood  a  benefit  rather  than  a  damage. 
Quite  often  this  method  is  possible,  provided  the  ground  and  the  economic  conditions 
permit,  but  it  cannot  be  considered  a  general  answer  to  the  problem.  Foresters  take 
another  point  of  view.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  rapidity  of  erosion  depends  on 
the  fluid  mass,  on  the  slope,  on  the  river  bed,  and  on  the  resistance  of  the  ground.  Is 
it  not  necessary,  therefore,  to  try  to  retard  the  flow  and  diminish  it  and  to  retain  the 
rocky  debris  which  is  shding  on  the  slopes?  This  result  can  be  obtained  only  by  a 
forest  cover  on  the  soU  in  and  between  the  existing  ravines." 

Surrel  (quoted  by  Huffel)  concluded  that:  "  (1)  Forests  stop  the  forma- 
tion of  torrents;  (2)  deforestation  delivers  the  soil  as  a  prey  to  torrents; 

5  The  methods  of  forestation  are  described  in  Chapter  V  and  the  chief  species  used 
in  French  reforestation  work  are  given  in  the  Appendix,  p.  407. 


FOREST ATION,   WITH  EXAMPLES  165 

(3)  the  development  of  forests  tends  to  stop  torrents;  (4)  the  fall  of 
forests  redoubles  the  violence  of  torrents  and  can  even  start  them  afresh." 

An  interesting  study^  that  illustrates  methods  of  reforestation  is  an 
area  in  the  basin  of  the  Ubaye  (see  Fig.  14,  a)  which  comprises  some  46,661 
acres,  18  per  cent  of  which  was  natural  forest,  now  bearing  only  34  per 
cent  of  a  stand.  The  species  growing  naturally  include  larch,  fir,  spruce, 
mountain  pine,  beech,  oak,  alder,  and  willow.  The  species  introduced 
artificially  are  Austrian  pine,  ash,  locust,  birch,  green  alder,  and  aspen. 
Of  the  species  growing  naturally  the  larch  is  the  most  valuable  and  is 
found  at  its  optimum  in  the  forest  of  St.  Paul.  Unfortunately  the  growth 
of  Austrian  pine  slows  up  and  the  needles  turn  yellow  when  15  to  25 
years  of  age.     Prior  to  this  the  tree  makes  good  growth. 

In  this  region  the  hmit  of  stable  soil  is  a  slope  of  45  per  cent.  Where 
the  slope  is  less  than  this  the  ground  can  be  planted  immediately,  but 
where  it  is  more  the  ground  must  be  first  sodded  before  it  can  be  planted 
to  tree  growth.  Where  the  slope  is  60  per  cent  or  more  grassing  cannot 
be  undertaken,  for  the  instability  of  the  soil  is  an  absolute  obstacle.  In 
this  event  it  is  necessary  to  construct  artificial  dams  or  to  wait  until  the 
accumulation  of  talus  has  abated. 

Two  general  methods  have  been  used  to  grass  over  ground  that  has  been 
eroded  —  sowing  forage  seed  and  planting  sod.  The  first  method  was 
formerly  used  over  large  areas  in  this  region  but  is  now  limited  to  un- 
stable soil.  "Sainfoin"  and  "fenasse"  (see  p.  408)  were  used  separately 
or  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  one.  The  seed  was  sowed  in  small 
trenches  or  in  horizontal  Hues  at  variable  distances  apart.  On  an 
average  18  pounds  of  seed  (costing  $9.65)  was  necessary  to  sow  one  acre 
of  eroded  ground.  The  labor  amounted  to  $6.75,  making  a  total  cost  of 
$16.40  per  acre.  But  as  a  result  of  experience  laying  sod  has  proved  to  be 
the  best  method.  Large  tufts  of  Clamagrostis  argentea  were  cut  from 
near-by  grass  land  and  planted  in  rows  1|  to  3  feet  apart,  or  in  quincunx. 
The  sod  costs  $3.83  a  thousand.  Still  another  method  that  is  often  used 
to  fix  rapidly  the  slopes  of  mountains  or  ravines  is  to  sow  "bugrone 
arbrisseau"  or  to  propagate  hippophse  rhamnoide,  or  willows,  by  suckers. 

Sowing  was  formerly  employed  in  reforestation,  but  to-day  the  pref- 
erence is  for  planting.  Cembric  pine,  larch,  and  mountain  pine  are  sown 
at  high  altitudes,  provided  the  slope  is  not  more  than  30  per  cent  to  40 
per  cent  and  there  is  enough  vegetation  or  rock  to  protect  the  young 
seedlings  against  water  and  sun.  Otherwise  planting  is  considered 
necessary.  The  seed  is  sown  in  the  spring,  at  these  high  altitudes  about 
the  end  of  May.  Although  the  spring  sowing  is  often  burned  out  by  the 
sun,  if  the  sowing  is  delayed  too  late  the  germination  is  retarded  and  the 

6  Etude  sur  les  Forets  et  les  Reboisements  de  la  Vallee  de  I'Ubaye,  par  H.  Vincent, 
1909. 


Fig.  14  (a).  —  The  Rata  ravine  at  Ubaye  (Basses-Alpes)  after  the  reclamation  work 
was  finished.     (French  official  photograph.) 

(6).  —  A  mountain  village  in  the  Pyrenees  menaced  by  erosion.     (French  official 
photograph.) 

(c).  —  Preventing  further   erosion   by  larch   plantations   in   Ubaye   area    (Ba 
Alpes).     (French  official  photograph.) 
166 


FORESTATION,   WITH  EXAMPLES  167 

seed  is  more  exposed  to  mice  and  to  birds.  The  seed  sown  in  the  autumn 
is  covered  almost  at  once  by  snow,  and  in  the  high  mountains  the  period 
from  September  1  to  October  30  is  considered  the  best  time.  Excellent 
results  were  occasionally  obtained  in  the  past  by  sowing  broad  cast  on 
the  snow,  especially  by  the  notable  sowing  at  Barcelonnette  in  the  years 
1842-1846.  Now,  however,  an  entirely  different  method  is  employed, 
known  as  the  stick  method  (a  la  pointe  du  baton)  (see  p.  133). 

"The  workman,  who  wears  a  little  apron  sack  belted  to  his  waist,  holding  4  to  6 
pounds  of  seed,  is  given  a  stick  1  to  1|  inches  in  diameter  and  12  to  16  inches  in  length. 
With  this  stick,  one  end  of  which  is  pointed,  he  makes  little  furrows  in  the  soil  at  suit- 
able places.  The  depth  of  these  furrows  should  not  exceed  0.8  to  1.2  inches  and  the 
length  should  be  between  8  inches  and  3.3  feet.  In  this  diminutive  trench  he  places 
pinches  of  seed  carefully  spaced;  one  or  two  seed  to  each  0.4  inch  is  amply  sufficient; 
as  a  rule  the  workmen  tend  to  put  in  too  much,  and  the  seed  is  thus  wasted.  Exper- 
ience has  shown  that  this  "stick  sowing"  gives  surer  and  better  results  than  sowing 
by  any  other  method.  It  is,  moreover,  quicker  and  cheaper.  Its  cost  does  not  exceed 
$3.86  to  $4.82  per  acre.  The  amount  of  seed  used  per  acre  is  variable,  an  average 
perhaps  of  8.8  pounds  for  the  larch  and  mountain  pine  and  22  pounds  for  cembric  pine. 
Moreover,  the  seedlings  obtained  by  this  procedure  have  also  the  advantage  of  being 
ready  for  removal  for  fall  planting  if  desired." 

This  is  a  local  method,  however,  which  has  not  received  wide  official 
sanction.  At  Barcelonnette  (see  p.  136  for  further  discussion)  consider- 
able success  was  attained  by  sowing  larch  seed  on  the  snow  in  March  or 
April,  especially  when  it  was  sown  on  the  grass  immediately  before  snow 
fall.  In  this  region  the  fir  is  both  sown  and  planted,  but  apparently, 
according  to  the  local  inspector,  the  best  results  were  obtained  by  sowing- 
seed  spots.  Spruce  is  usually  planted.  Planting  is  generally  employed 
where  the  soil  is  bare.  According  to  French  practice  transplants  are  not 
necessary.  Here,  in  accordance  with  French  practice,  good-sized  rocks 
were  placed  south  of  seedlings  on  south  slopes  in  grass  where  there  was 
danger  from  sun  and  drying.  It  is  curious  to  find  in  the  Barcelonnette 
region  a  considerable  use  of  Austrian  pine,  although  Scotch  pine  grew 
there  naturally.     According  to  the  local  inspector: 

"The  foresters  in  France  always  like  to  change  things.  This  apparently  was  the 
only  reason  for  using  an  exotic  when  a  local  species  would  have  given  better  results. 
In  this  locality,  for  planting  on  plateaus  in  grass,  the  hole  is  dug  12  by  12  by  12  inches 
with  a  grub  hoe.  The  richest  soil  is  placed  next  the  roots  and  the  sod  is  turned  up- 
side down  and  replaced  around  the  plant.  On  steep  slopes  the  method  is  somewhat 
different.  The  hole  is  dug  10  to  12  inches  deep,  4.5  to  6  inches  wide,  and  12  to  14  inches 
in  length,  and  care  is  taken  not  to  cut  the  sod  below  the  hole,  if  there  is  any,  in  order 
to  avoid  erosion.  A  peculiar  method  of  planting  in  grazing  land,  where  pubUc  interest 
demands  grazing  and  yet  some  tree  shelter  is  desired,  is  to  plant  a  group  of  fifty  trees 
and  then  another  group  about  160  feet  away." 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  reforestation  in  the  Alps  is  in  the  valley 
of  the  Drome  above  Valence,  called  the  Luc  working  group.     Corrective 


168  CONTROL  OF  EROSION   IN   THE   MOUNTAINS 

measures  were  begun  in  1865,  and  on  January  1,  1899,  1,547  acres  had 
been  reclaimed  at  a  total  expense  of  $67,656.15,  or  about  $42  per  acre. 
The  species  planted  were  chiefly  Austrian  pine  and  Scotch  pine,  but  in- 
cluded various  broadleaf  trees.  The  Scotch  pine  is  to-day  doing  very 
well.  In  another  nearby  project  the  cost  was  $40  per  acre,  divided  as 
follows : 

Cost  of  soil  purchase $9.10 

Corrective  works  (dams,  drains,  etc.) 11 .  60 

Plantations  (grass,  shrubs,  trees) 19 .  30 

Total $40.00 

These  costs  would  now  be  doubled  or  tripled,  but  today  the  difference 
in  the  present  rate  of  exchange  and  the  normal  must  be  deducted  to  get 
the  relative  cost  in  dollars. 

A  remarkable  example  of  the  control  of  a  torrent  which  did  a  great 
deal  of  damage  from  1832  to  1847  is  to  be  found  at  La  Grollaz.  The 
correction  work  was  started  in  1880.  To-day  the  torrent  is  a  pretty 
brook  with  waterfalls  over  artificially  constructed  cement  dams  protected 
by  an  absolutely  dense  cover  of  alder,  which  holds  the  soil  immediately 
along  the  brook.  Further  up  from  the  stream  Scotch  pine  has  been 
planted,  so  that  the  result  is  a  pretty  New  England  trout  stream  bordered 
by  trees  50  feet  in  height.  This  illustrates  the  two  great  principles  in  the 
control  of  erosion:  first,  to  stop  the  earth  from  moving  as  a  whole  and, 
second,  to  cover  it  with  shrubs,  nurse  trees,  and  forest. 

TYPICAL   REFORESTATION   AREAS 

Regions.  —  To  give  a  picture  of  the  conditions  in  the  principal  regions, 
important  reforestation  areas  (see  Fig.  14,  c)  in  the  Alpes,  sub-Alpes,  Cen- 
tral Plateau,  Cevennes,  and  Pyrenees  are  described  in  considerable  detail, 
the  material  being  furnished  in  the  official  report,  "  Restauration  et  Con- 
servation cles  Terrains  en  Montague."  The  routine  and  systematic 
descriptions  (given  in  the  Appendix,  p.  422)  of  the  conditions  following 
erosion,  and  the  tedious  difficulty  (see  Fig.  14,  c)  of  stopping  the  damage, 
emphasize  the  dangers  and  costs  of  overgrazing  and  deforestation. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FORESTRY  IN  THE  LANDES 

The  Dunes  (p.  169).  Introduction,  Kinds  of  Dunes  (Causes),  Rate  of  Advance, 
Local  Conditions. 

History  of  Reclaiming  the  Landes  (p.  173).  Periods  of  Work,  Before  Bremontier, 
The  Bremontier  Period,  The  Dune  Commission,  The  Bridge  and  Road  Service,  Waters 
and  Forests  Service,  Statistics. 

Fixing  the  Sand  (p.  177).  Construction  of  Coast  Dunes,  Forestation,  Special 
Betterments  in  the  Landes,  Cost  and  Price  Data. 

Management  of  Maritime  Pine  Forests  (p.  186).  Objects  of  Management 
(Protection  Forests),  Silvicultural  Systems,  Intermediate  Fellings,  Rotations,  Felling 
Cycles,  Working  Groups,  New  Tapping  Scheme,  Tapping  Other  Species,  Resin  Sales, 
French  Tools  for  Tapping  and  Their  Use,  French  and  American  Methods  Contrasted, 
Technique  of  Tapping,  Effect  of  Tapping,  Utihzation,  Logging  and  Local  Specifications, 
Yield  of  Maritime  Pine,  Protection. 

THE  DUNES 

Introduction.  —  The  reclamation  and  forestation  of  the  sand  wastes  of 
the  Landes  and  Gironde  between  Bayonne  and  the  Garonne  River 
(north  of  Bordeaux)  is  perhaps  the  best  possible  illustration  of  the  bene- 
fits of  forestry  to  the  individual,  to  the  community,  and  to  the  nation. 
The  individual  who  pioneered  in  sowing  these  sands  made  a  handsome 
profit,  the  communities  were  saved  from  obliteration  by  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  sand  dunes  and,  after  being  bankrupt,  became  rich,  and  lastly 
France  found  itself  sovereign  of  departments  producing  handsome 
revenues  instead  of  having  to  furnish  them  assistance.  Before  foresta- 
tion the  Landes  was  populated  with  a  shiftless  class  of  "poor  whites" 
eking  out  a  livelihood.  To-day  it  is  one  of  the  most  progressive  and  per- 
haps the  most  -prosperous  region  in  France,  with  good  schools,  splendid 
churches,  and  up-to-date  communal  buildings.  Nor  should  the  indirect 
benefits  of  this  work  be  overlooked;  a  region  formerly  fever-stricken  be- 
came healthy,  and  to-day  places  like  Arcachon  and  Mimizan  are  health 
resorts  both  in  summer  and  winter.  Much  of  this  land  was  sand,  worth- 
less for  agriculture  and  mediocre  for  grazing,  but  nevertheless  an  ideal 
soil  for  the  rapidly  growing,  resin  producing  maritime  pine.  Bremontier, 
a  great  engineer  and  believer  in  forestry,  was  able  to  put  the  work  of 
stabilizing  the  dunes  and  forestation  on  a  sound  basis  during  the  years 
1787  to  1817  and  the  problem  was  solved  during  his  administration.  He 
proved  to  the  canny  French  that  the  work  was  sound  financially.     The 


170  FORESTRY  IN   THE  LANDES 

parallel  between  the  so-called  sand  wastes  of  the  southern  United  States 
and  the  great  Landes  region  in  southern  France  is  most  striking.  What 
has  been  accomplished  in  the  Landes?  In  place  of  virtually  worthless 
fever-stricken  land  the  French  have  a  balance  sheet  of:  (1)  Revenue 
producing  forests,  protected  from  fire;  (2)  a  protection  for  such  important 
industries  as  agriculture;  (3)  a  needed  supply  of  timber/  mine  props,  and 
resin  products;  (4)  a  healthy  land  to  live  in  and  largely  increased  popu- 
lation. 

Is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies  has  de- 
clared that  producing  forests  are  of  paramount  necessity  to  the  nation 
and  insist  on  their  perpetuation,  or  that  reforested  land  of  this  class 
should  be  exempted  from  taxation  for  thirty  years?  But  it  should  be 
noted  that  the  French  Government  itself  took  the  initiative  financially 
and  technically  in  the  reclamation  and  sowing  of  the  Landes;  it  blazed 
the  trail  for  the  private  owner. 

The  Landes  is  a  triangular  area  of  some  1,977,000  acres  ^  bounded  by 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  three  rivers,  Garonne,  Midouze,  and  Adour. 
Three-quarters  of  a  century  ago  this  was  mostly  an  unhealthy  sand 
waste  of  swamp  land,  ponds,  brush,  and  limited  scrubby  stands  of 
maritime  pine  and  a  scattering  of  oak  with  other  broadleaves.  There 
was  no  system  of  roads  and  the  chief  industry  was  sheep  and  goat  graz- 
ing. As  early  as  1737  the  reclamation  of  this  waste  land  was  under 
consideration,  but  only  after  Chambrelent  and  Bremontier  had  shown 
that  drainage  and  forestation  was  practicable  did  the  State  secure  the 
law  of  1857  which  provided  for  the  (a)  drainage  of  communal  land  and 
(6)  the  construction  of  a  system  of  roads  to  feed  the  areas  drained  and 
forested.  Without  these  betterments  the  continued  forestation  on  a 
large  scale  would  have  been  well-nigh  impossible. 

The  drainage  was  finished  in  1865  and  cost  only  $172,484  to  drain 
468,767  acres  (which  had  been  purchased  from  the  communes),  and  by 
1860  $1,238,095  had  been  spent  on  roads.  The  communes  had  forested 
183,000  acres  by  1891  (or  three-fourths  the  waste  area  they  owned)  and 
the  forestation  of  private  land  had  not  lagged  behind.  It  should  be 
emphasized  that  to-day  the  State  and  communal  forests  under  working 
plans  occupy  the  poorer  sands  on  the  dunes  almost  entirely  on  a  strip 
within  four  miles  of  the  ocean.  They  form  protection  belts  for  the  richer 
private  forests  and  agricultural  land  which  is  found  on  the  better  soils 
inland.     The  system  of  management  described  later  in  this   chapter 

1  The  principal  exploitations  of  the  American  Forest  Engineers,  A.  E.  F.,  were  in 
the  Landes  south  of  Bordeaux.  They  cut  41.4  million  board  feet.  Major  Swift  Berry, 
who  was  stationed  in  the  Landes  for  two  years,  kindly  reviewed  this  chapter  and  made 
many  valuable  suggestions  which  were  incorporated  in  the  text. 

2  Huffel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  177-184. 


KINDS  OF  DUNES   (CAUSES) 


171 


applies  to  public  forests  under  working  plans.  The  distinction  between 
public  and  private  management  is  described  on  page  186.  The  State 
and  communal  forests  thus  lie  mostly  in  the  dunes  and  the  private  forests 
in  the  level  Landes  behind  the  dune  region. 

Kinds  of  Dunes  (Causes).  —  The  maritime  dunes  of  France  are  formed 
of  sand  usually  drifted  from  the  ocean  or  occasionally  from  the  beds  of 
rivers  near  the  sea.  The  sand  dries  out  on  the  beach  or  river  bed  at 
low  tide  and  is  blown  inland.  The  normal  dune  is  entirely  a  natural 
phenomenon,  but  its  movement  far  inland  is  usually  caused  and  accentu- 
ated by  the  destruction  of  bordering  forests  and  soil  cover.    Huff  el  ^  says: 


Fig.  15.  —  Protection  dune  at  Lacanau-Ocean  in  State  forest  of  Lacanau  (Gironde). 
The  sand  is  held  in  place  by  planting  maram  grass  on  the  wind-swept  dunes. 

"Two  kinds  of  dunes  are  found  on  the  shores  of  Gascony:  (1)  Recent  new  dunes 
which  were  fixed  during  the  last  century;  (2)  very  old  (prehistoric)  ones,  known  locally 
by  the  name  of  mountains,  which  are  still  covered  to-day  with  very  old  forests  of  pine, 
live  oak  and  cork  oak.  These  mountains  do  not  form  (as  the  recent  dunes  do)  chains 
of  ridges  separated  by  little  ravines  parallel  to  the  shore;  their  confused  grouping  tends 
to  show  that  they  formed  at  a  period  when  the  shore  line  was  not  so  remarkably  straight, 
as  it  became  in  recent  times,  under  the  action  of  the  north-south  currents." 

These  recent  dunes  *  may  be  of  three  kinds:  (1)  High  dunes;  (2)  flat 

3  Huffel,  Vol.  I,  p.  152. 

^  Notes  sur  les  Dunes  de  Gascogne,  par  J.  Bert,  1900,  which  has  been  largely  followed 
in  tracing  the  history  and  development  of  the  dune  reclamation  work.  River  sand  in 
the  dunes  probably  comes  down  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay  from  the  streams  of  the  Pyre- 
nees and  is  then,  according  to  Major  Berry's  conclusions,  thrown  up  on  the  beaches. 


172  FORESTRY  IN   THE   LANDES 

dunes;  and  (3)  scattered  dunes.  Types  (1)  and  (2)  require  no  fm-ther 
elaboration.  Type  (3)  are  dunes  where  the  sand  had  formed  irregu- 
lar banks  or  mounds  on  adjacent  level  areas.  Near  the  ocean  the  western 
slope  (facing  the  sea)  is  4  to  25  per  cent  and  the  eastern  slope  7  to  75 
per  cent.  Dunes  are  rarely  more  than  200  feet  high,  the  maximum 
height  being  292  feet  in  the  forest  of  Biscarrosse.    See  figure  15. 

Rate  of  Advance.  —  The  ends  of  a  dune  usually  advance  more  rapidly 
than  the  center,  but  the  ridges  are  about  parallel  to  the  beach  and  at 
right  angles  to  the  wind.  They  are  irregular  and  form  mounds  of  various 
shapes.  The  rate  of  advance  inland  has  been  estimated  at  from  33  to 
164  feet  per  year,  depending  unquestionably  on  the  wind  and  on  the 
local  topography.  The  average  is  probably  65  to  80  feet  per  year. 
There  is  another  phenomenon  connected  with  the  dunes  —  the  erosion 
of  the  shore  line  by  the  sea.     According  to  my  field  notes : 

"At  La  Teste,  during  the  period  1886  to  1912,  the  sea  has  eaten  away  2,231  feet  of 
shore  dunes  opposite  the  ranger  house  at  Gaillouneys,  and  at  the  ranger  station  of  La 
Sallie  623  feet  has  been  eroded  between  1886  and  1912  (86  and  24  feet  per  year)." 

It  appears  reasonably  certain  that  the  forest  of  Biscarrosse  (partly 
logged  by  the  American  E.  F.  in  1918)  extended  to  the  ocean  in  the 
13th  century.  Huffel  ^  finds  no  reference  to  moving  sand  prior  to  1580 
when  Montaigne  wrote:  "Along  the  ocean  in  Medoc  my  brother,  le 
sieur  d'Arzac,  saw  his  land  covered  with  sand  that  the  sea  vomited  over 
it  .  .  .  the  inhabitants  say  that  for  some  time  .  .  .  they  have 
lost  four  leagues  of  land."  ^  A  "lieve"  of  land  was  about  4.4  kilometers 
or  2.7  miles.  If  this  is  correct  it  might  be  argued  that  the  destructive 
action  of  moving  sand  in  France  dates  from  about  the  year  1200  ij  the 
land  was  covered  for  4  leagues  inland  (17.7  kilometers  or  11  miles)  at 
the  rate  of  50  meters  (164  feet)  a  year.     But  this  is  only  conjecture. 

Local  Conditions.  —  There  are  fresh  water  ponds  between  the  dunes 
from  the  Gironde  to  the  Adour.  Only  one  of  these  (Arcachon)  is  con- 
nected with  the  sea  so  as  to  form  a  bay.  The  average  elevation  of  these 
ponds  varies  from  39  to  59  feet  (Hourtin  and  Lacanau)  and  from  6  to  19 
feet  (Soustons).  These  ponds  are  typical  of  the  dune  region  and  are 
responsible  to  a  large  extent  for  the  unhealthy  chmate  of  the  region 
prior  to  the  systematic  drainage  undertaken  by  the  State.     The  water 

^  Huffel,  Vol.  I,  p.  153. 

6  That  the  area  from  Biscarrosse  north  to  the  Etang  of  Cazeau  has  been  forested 
for  a  long  period  is  evidenced  by  ancient  vested  rights  which  permit  residents  of  the 
community  to  cut  trees  for  fuel  and  construction.  It  was  originally  one  estate,  but  has 
since  been  divided  through  heirs  into  a  multitude  of  holdings.  The  owners  can  take 
the  resin  but  have  no  right  to  cut  the  trees.  The  portion  logged  by  the  A.  E.  F.  was 
on  the  newer  dunes  planted  by  the  French  Government,  and  possibly  a  little  farther 
south  than  the  old  forest. 


PERIODS  OF   WORK  173 

hollows  (lettes)  between  the  dunes  were  also  a  source  of  fever.  In 
former  days  there  was  considerable  cattle,  sheep,  and  goat  grazing 
which  did  a  great  deal  of  damage.     According  to  Bert: 

"  After  the  execution  of  the  first  work,  the  water  holes  between  the  dunes  furnished 
quite  good  drainage  ground  for  some  time.  But  because  of  the  drying  action  of  the 
pine,  the  grass  production  disappeared  little  by  little;  the  grazing  in  the  region  of  the 
dunes  became  practically  of  no  value." 

This  has  had  an  important  bearing  on  the  attitude  of  the  communes, 
since  the  restocking  of  the  sand  areas  often  meant  the  physical  oblitera- 
tion of  their  grazing,  and  because  grazing  was  often  disastrous  to  the 
artificial  forestation  and  had  to  be  curtailed  or  forbidden  altogether. 
Bert  says: 

"One  of  the  most  important  problems  confronting  the  Dune  Commission  was  the 
ownership  of  the  land.  The  dunes  were  evidently  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  State 
and  the  forestation  was  certainly  alluded  to  at  that  time  as  belonging  to  the  Nation, 
to  the  republic,  to  the  Government,  and  as  royal  property.  If  this  private  property, 
whether  belonging  to  individuals  or  to  communes,  had  been  left  to  shift  for  itself  it 
certainly  would  have  been  lost  to  the  Nation.  But  possibly  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
would  have  been  avoided  if  the  land,  then  worthless,  had  been  exappropriated  at  its 
actual  sale  value  instead  of  being  merely  sown  or  planted  by  the  State  after  having  been 
abandoned  by  its  original  owners.  It  is  significant  that  one  or  two  owners  in  after 
years  had  their  lands  returned  to  them  upon  payment,  with  interest,  of  the  cost  of 
forestation.  On  account  of  the  damage  done  by  grazing  these  private  rights  were 
gradually  extinguished  by  purchase  by  the  State." 

This  is  similar  to  the  policy  now  followed  in  the  Alps  (see  p.  143). 

The  climatic  conditions  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  maritime  pine 
since  the  extremes  of  temperature  are  3°  and  23°  C.  (37.4°  and  73.4°  F.) 
for  cold  and  heat,  the  average  rainfall  31  inches,  and  the  average  number 
of  rainy  days  200.  An  unfavorable  climatic  factor,  which  is  often  dis- 
astrous but  which  can  be  alleviated  by  shelter  belts,  is  the  violent  west 
winds  so  typical  of  the  region  (see  p.  204,  "Fire  Protection  ")•  According 
to  my  field  notes : 

"In  the  vicinity  of  the  Lacanau  Ocean  (forest  of  Lacanau)  the  average  tempera- 
ture throughout  the  year  is  13°  54'  C.  (56.3°  F.);  in  summer  the  average  is  20°  48'  C. 
(68  .9°  F.),  and  in  autumn  13°  .32'  C.  (56.3°  F.).  There  are  102  clear  days  annually, 
with  a  rainfall  of  32  inches,  coupled  with  frequent  fogs.  Violent  west  and  southwest 
winds  are  very  frequent." 

These  violent  winds  made  the  fixation  of  the  sand  all  the  more  cUfficult. 
The  main  dune  area  (see  p.  177  for  statistics)  is  between  the  Gironde 
and  Adour  rivers  in  a  strip  3  to  4  miles  wide  and  145  miles  in  length, 

HISTORY   OF  RECLAIMING   THE  LANDES 
Periods  of  Work.  —  Five  periods  ^  are  distinguished  in  the  develop- 
ment and  reclamation  of  the  dunes : 

^Bert,  id.  (seep.  171). 


174  FORESTRY  IN   THE   LANDES 

1.  The  groping  of  those  who  preceded  Bremontier,  1734-1786. 

2.  Bremontier  himself,  1787-1793  (with  interim). 

3.  The  Dune  Commission,  1801-1817. 

4.  Administration  of  the  Bridge  and  Road  Service,  1817-1862. 

5.  The  Waters  and  Forest  Service,  1862  on. 

(1)  Before  Bremontier.  —  Before  Bremontier's  time,  a  number  of 
persons  had  suggested  the  possibiUty  of  reclaiming  the  dunes  and  pre- 
venting the  disasters  caused  by  the  advancing  sand.  Following  a  dis- 
astrous fire  in  the  forest  of  Teste  in  1716  the  forest  was  resown  by  its 
communal  owners  in  1717,  although  there  is  a  possibility  that  the  records 
are  inaccurate  and  that  the  sowing  was  natural  rather  than  artificial. 
De  Ruat,  a  member  of  the  Bordeaux  Parhament,  argued  in  1776  that  it 
was  perfectly  practicable  to  sow  the  dunes,  and  on  March  23,  1779,  a 
decree  in  council  accorded  him  perpetual  ownership  of  a  concession  in  the 
Teste  region  if  he  would  reforest  the  area  and  prevent  the  sand  from 
further  encroachment.  He  had  to  pay,  as  purchase  price,  two  pounds 
of  wheat  for  each  acre.  Desbiey,  former  receiver  at  Teste,  on  the  25th 
of  August,  1774,  presented  a  statement  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Bordeaux  arguing  that  the  sowing  of  the  dunes  was  entirely  practicable. 
In  1779,  De  Villers  wrote  a  special  report  on  the  possibility  of  fixing  the 
Gascogne  dunes.  In  1778-1779  a  commission  studying  the  dune  problem 
proposed  interior  plantations  of  trees,  with  plantations  of  genista  and 
little  bundles  of  straw  held  in  place  by  stakes  to  hold  the  genista  in  place. 
According  to  Bert: 

"It  therefore  appears  certain  that  the  methods  of  sowing  and  fixing  dunes  were 
known  before  the  first  experiments  of  Bremontier.  They  had  been  appUed  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  by  Peychan,  taken  account  of  by  De  Ruat,  and  described  by  De  Villers." 

Tassin  made  some  claims  of  originating  the  dune  protective  work 
but,  apparently,  in  the  words  of  Bremontier: 

"  He  told  me  positively  that  my  sowing  and  plantation  of  the  dunes  would  never 
have  been  considered  except  as  a  brilliant  theory  which  it  is  impossible  to  make 
practical  use  of." 

Bremontier's  «  credit  for  this  great  reclamation  work  rests  on  his 
devotion,  activity,  persistence,  and  clearness  of  vision  rather  than  on 
an  origination  of  ideas  or  methods.     He  was  the  man  "to  put  it  across." 

8  According  to  the  Indian  Forester,  p.  415,  Vol.  21,  1895,  July  10,  history  has  given 
Bremontier  the  credit  for  being  the  father  of  dune  reclamation  in  France,  but  it  is 
certain  that  there  was  considerable  sowing  on  the  dunes  before  Bremontier's  time. 
In  1734  Alaire  de  Rust  planted  or  sowed  pine  and  oak  on  the  dunes.  In  1779  this  work 
was  continued  by  De  Rust's  grandson,  but  owing  to  fires  the  experiment  was  not  suc- 
cessful. In  1773  the  Comte  de  Mont  Ausier  presented  a  petition  to  the  King  to  under- 
take dune  reclamation,  but  at  that  time  it  was  declared   illegal.     In    1777  Desbiey 


PERIODS  OF  WORK  175 

(2)  The  Bremontier  Period.  —  Following  the  study  of  drainage  in 
the  Landes,  completed  in  1773,  the  Controller  General,  by  letter  dated 
September  20,  1786,  put  at  the  disposition  of  the  proper  authorities 
"the  sum  of  50,000  livres  (about  $9,650)  to  be  employed  in  works  aimed 
at  assuring  the  execution  of  a  canal  in  the  Landes  and  of  finding  efficacious 
means  of  fixing  the  dunes." 

This  work  was  assigned  to  Bremontier  who,  in  turn,  appointed  Pey- 
chan,  of  Teste,  who  had  taken  charge  of  the  sowing  of  the  water  hollows 
between  the  dunes  for  De  Ruat.  The  earliest  important  document 
signed  "Bremontier"  is  dated  September  28,  1781,  wherein  he  calls 
attention  to  the  necessity  of  having  90,000  livres  (about  $17,370)  to 
assure  the  maintenance  of  local  roads.  According  to  the  Memoir  of 
De  Villers  dated  1779: 

"Work  was  commenced  near  the  sea  at  a  point  above  the  high  tides  in  order  to  stop 
the  sand  in  the  areas  planted,  protect  these  parts  by  layers  of  wattle  work  or  fascines, 
scattering  the  pine  seed  evenly  over  the  ground  with  acorns  here  and  there  and  a  quan- 
tity of  bush  and  plant  seeds  in  order  to  fix  the  sand  in  place.  The  furze,  genista  and 
maram  grass  appear  especially  suitable  to  accomplish  this  object." 

On  the  21st  of  April,  1797,  Bremontier  sent  Peychan,  who  was  in 
charge  of  the  experimental  work  at  Teste,  specific  directions  which  did 
not  mention  the  use  of  genista,  furze,  or  maram  grass  seed  recommended 
by  De  Villers,  but,  nevertheless,  Peychan  mixed  the  genista  seed  with 
that  of  the  pine,  and  since  then  it  has  been  recognized  that  the  mixture 
was  indispensable.  The  work  began  March  12,  1787,  and  in  1793 
practically  the  whole  amount  appropriated  had  been  spent.  Peychan 
was  succeeded  by  Dejean  as  Inspector  of  Works. 

(3)  The  Dune  Commission.  —  The  Dune  Commission,  1801-1817,  on 
the  recommendation  of  Bremontier,  was  appointed  August  5,  1801,  after 
a  lapse  of  some  years  following  Bremontier's  first  experimental  work. 
The  commission  was  composed  of  the  Prefect  of  the  Gironde;  Du  Bois; 
Bremontier,  Engineer-in-Chief ;  Guyet-Laparde,  Conservator  of  Forests; 
and  three  scientists  from  a  Bordeaux  society.     Bremontier  was  the 

wrote  a  paper  on  the  sowing  of  pine  seed.  In  1778  the  engineer  Baron  de  ViUers  was 
sent  by  Louis  XVI  to  study  the  question  of  dune  reclamation  with  special  reference 
to  the  harbor  at  Arcachon.  He  recommended  in  his  report  the  sowing  of  pine  seed 
and  that  the  seed  must  be  prevented  from  being  blown  away,  and  he  solicited  a  trial 
of  the  system.  In  1784  Bremontier  was  set  to  carry  on  this  experiment,  being  aided 
by  a  private  landowner  named  Peychan.  This  gentleman  had  previously  made  several 
successful  attempts  and  he  had  covered  the  seed  with  branches  to  prevent  it  from 
being  blown  away.  In  1787  Bremontier  began  the  work  of  dune  forestation,  but  the 
first  experiments  were  failures,  since  he  refused  to  use  the  Peychan  method  of  covering 
the  soil  with  branches  to  prevent  damage  by  wind.  In  1802  Bremontier's  enterprise 
can  really  be  said  to  have  been  successfully  started  and  to  be  inaugurated  as  a  success- 
ful project. 


176  FORESTRY   IN   THE   LANDES 

ruling  genius  of  the  commission  until  he  was  appointed  Inspector  General 
of  Roads  and  Bridges  at  Paris.  He  claimed  that  the  cost  would  not  be 
more  than  4,000,000  livres  (about  $772,000). 

In  1804  the  new  Inspector  of  Dune  Work,  Dejean,  covered  the  sowing 
with  branches  with  the  ends  stuck  about  4  inches  in  the  sand,  using 
heather,  genista,  and  furze,  as  well  as  tamerisk  and  pine  branches. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  able  to  report  that  the  trees  sown  in  1788  and 
1789  at  Teste  (Gironde)  produced  2,196  pounds  of  resin  and  that  many 
trees  had  reached  12  inches  in  diameter  at  the  end  of  14  or  15  years, 
while  in  the  Landes  30  years  is  necessary  to  reach  the  same  size.  On 
September  17,  1808,  the  first  public  auction  was  held  by  the  Forest 
Service  agents  to  sell  resin  and  turpentine  secured  from  reforested  areas. 
The  cost  in  1807  was  about  $9.26  per  acre  but  varied  considerably  (see 
p.  183).  In  1810  locust,  chestnut,  poplar,  and  oak  were  planted  with 
some  success. 

(4)  Bridge  and  Road  Service.  —  The  administration  by  the  Bridge 
and  Road  Service,  1817-1862,  followed  the  commission  form  of  adminis- 
tration which  had  established  the  methods  of  sowing,  regulated  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  sown  areas,  and  had  practically  solved  the  question 
of  ownership.  The  principle  of  an  artificial  dune  was  described  by 
Bremontier  as  early  as  1787,  but  the  first  work  of  this  kind  was  under- 
taken some  years  later  by  the  Forest  Service  which  was  able  to  suc- 
cessfully stop  the  sand.  The  permanent  administration  of  these  areas 
and  the  continuance  of  the  work,  however,  required  a  stable  organization, 
and  the  commission  was  therefore  terminated  in  1817,  the  work  being 
turned  over  to  the  Bridge  and  Road  Service.  At  that  time  the  Forest 
Service  was  in  bad  odor  and  could  not  count  on  the  liberality  of  appro- 
priations which  the  Bridge  and  Road  Service  could  secure. 

(5)  Waters  and  Forest  Service.  —  As  the  stands  began  to  mature  it 
was  increasingly  difficult  to  keep  distinct  the  work  of  the  Forest  Service 
and  that  of  the  Bridge  and  Road  Service  which,  until  1862,  had  charge 
of  the  reclaimed  areas.  The  engineering  details  of  barrier  dunes  and 
drainage  had  been  solved  so  the  main  problem  was  to  protect  and  manage 
the  forests.  It  was  therefore  entirely  logical  to  turn  the  entire  forestry 
work  over  to  trained  foresters,  which  was  done  in  1862.  This  organiza- 
tion is  still  in  charge. 

Statistics.  —  Huffel  ^  says  there  are  the  following  maritime  dunes  in 

France : 

9  Huffel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  149-150. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  COAST   DUNES 
TABLE   18.— AREA  OF  FRENCH  DUNES 


177 


Departments 

Area  in  acres 

Main  ownership 

30,147 

3,954 

33,606 

1°  252,046 

2,422 

Two-thirds  private,  one-third  State 

State 

One-half  State,  one-half  private  or 

communal 
Private 

Loire-Inf.,  Vendee,  Charente-Inf. 
Gironde,  Landes 

Departments  on  Mediterranean. . 

322,175 

One-half  private,  one-half  State 

The  dune  areas  in  the  Gironde  and  Landes  are  about  equal.  The 
maritime  pine  covers  a  large  area  outside  the  dunes.  There  is  a  total 
forest  of  1,656,630  acres  in  the  Lot-et-Garonne,  Landes,  and  Gironde 
divided  as  follows : 

Oumership  Acres 

Private  and  communal  forest 1,510,549 

Communal  forest  under  State  control 17,411 

State  forest 128,670 

1,656,630 

By  1899  there  were  140  miles  of  artificial  barrier  dunes  in  the  Landes 
and  Gironde  Departments  alone,  the  first  barrier  dune  having  been 
constructed  in  1833  (see  p.  178). 

FIXING  THE  SAND 
Construction  of  Coast  Dunes.  —  It  has  already  been  seen  that  the 
ocean  sand,  if  unchecked,  drifts  inland  and  submerges  everything  of 
value  in  its  path.     The  theory  of  fixing  or  stabihzing  the  sand  is  to  secure 
and  maintain  the  following  conditions. 

Desired  conditions  Objective 

Gradual  shelving  beach ...  To  allow  the  waves  to  break  their  force  without  eroding  or 
washing  the  dry  sand. 

Barrier  dune To  dam  the  drifting  sand. 

Grass  or  vegetable  cover .  .  To  maintain  the  sand  in  place  on  and  around  the  barrier 
dune.     (See  Fig.  15.) 

Forest  protection  belt To  help  maintain  the  sand  in  place  and  to  protect  the 

merchantable  stands  from  the  effects  of  the  wind. 

The  underlying  principle  is  as  follows:  ^^ 

"Every  fixation  system  is  founded  on  the  following  principle :  In  the  mass  of  bare  sand 
susceptible  of  being  eroded  by  the  wind,  the  transport  takes  place  grain  by  grain.  .  .  . 

10  This  is  substantially  the  same  area  as  was  reported  in  1822;  in  1800  Bremontier 
had  estimated  it  at  271,815  acres  and  at  over  281,420  acres  in  1803,  while  Villers  had 
grossly  overestimated  the  area  in  1779  at  878,913  acres. 

"  Boppe,  pp.  478-481. 


178  FORESTRY  IN   THE   LANDES 

Therefore,  if  the  displacement  of  the  surface  particles  can  be  stopped  there  is  nothing 
to  fear  regarding  those  underneath,  and  the  entire  mass  is  fixed. 

"The  method  consists  in  sowing  the  maritime  pine  under  cover.  It  is  to  a  land- 
owner at  Teste,  Pierre  Peychan  —  often  known  as  Maitre  Pierre  — •  that  we  owe  this 
method,  both  simple  and  practical,  about  which  he  advised  Bremontier,  and  which  we 
stiU  use  almost  without  modification. 

"To  keep  the  seed  from  being  buried  by  the  sand  a  cover  of  brush  is  laid  over  the 
entire  surface  seeded.  This  precaution  is  necessary  not  only  for  holding  the  seed  but 
also  for  protecting  the  young  plants  against  the  action  of  the  moving  sand;  for  the 
moving  crest  of  particles,  projected  without  and  against  the  growing  stems,  wears 
them  out  to  a  point  when  they  fall  over;  being  no  longer  able  to  hold  up  their  heads, 
most  of  them  would  thus  die.  In  practice,  bundles  of  fagots  up  to  1,000  per  acre  are 
scattered  over  the  area  to  be  forested.  These  fagots  are  3.3  feet  in  circumference 
measured  on  the  withe  and  4.3  in  length.  For  their  manufacture  the  gorze  (ajouc)  is 
the  species  preferred;  then  comes  the  genista  (genet),  then  the  heather,  tree  heathers, 
the  ronches  (reed  of  fresh  water  marshes),  and  pine  branches;  but  these  latter  have 
the  disadvantage  that  too  often  under  cover,  cryptogamic  diseases  break  out.  The 
thorns,  briars,  ferns,  and  light  woods  do  not  protect  the  soil  sufficiently.     .     .     . 

"Immediately  after  the  sowing  of  the  seed  the  areas  sown  are  covered  over,  or  better 
still,  the  two  operations  are  carried  out  at  the  same  time.  The  brush  is  placed  as  you 
proceed  toward  the  sea,  the  large  ends  facing  (the  sea)  and  the  branches  of  each  tier 
covering  the  base  of  those  which  proceed  them.  Then  in  order  to  keep  this  cover  in 
place,  the  workmen  put  good  sized  (pelletees)  sand  on  the  portions  where  no  seed  has 
been  sown  and  spread  it  on  the  outstretched  branches,  about  12  inches  apart,  measur- 
ing from  the  centers.  The  sole  improvement  made  on  the  system  of  Pierre  Peychan 
and  Bremontier  is  that  of  fixing  the  cover  in  place  by  means  of  small  poles  placed  across 
and  held  down  by  notched  stakes  driven  into  the  sand." 

At  the  end  of  the  day's  work  the  last  row  is  securely  fixed  so  any  wind  storm  will  not 
wreck  the  work  already  done. 

"To  sum  up,  it  is  really  a  dead  cover  which  has  been  placed  on  the  soil.  But  it 
would  not  last  indefinitely,  it  is  but  the  beginning  to  be  followed  by  a  living  cover 
which  will  carry  on  its  role." 

Otherwise  the  sand  coming  from  the  ocean  would  be  blown  landward 
and  would  continue  to  cover  the  areas  which  had  been  reforested.  There- 
fore to  start  with: 

".  .  .  Therein  was  established  above  high  tide  at  a  distance  of  100  to  165  feet  a 
wattle  work  fence  or  palisade.  As  the  new  sand  drifted  in  front  of  this  obstacle  a 
part  passed  through  the  spaces  between  the  planks  or  the  wattle  work  holes  and  banked 
up  behind.  Little  by  little  the  sand  rose  and  covered  the  palisade  which  was  then 
gradually  raised  until  the  dune  was  33  or  49  feet  above  the  the  level  of  the  sea." 

When  the  proper  height  was  attained,  the  sand  was  planted  to  maram 
grass  in  order  that  it  might  be  held  in  place.  Once  it  was  fixed  in  this 
manner  it  had  to  he  maintained,  since  with  every  storm  there  were  areas 
to  be  repaired.     (See  Fig.  15.) 

"In  1858  "  there  were  17  consecutive  days  of  storm;  the  littoral  fine  was  broken  at 
several  points  and  it  was  impossible  to  repair  it  with  sufficient  rapidity.  More  than 
f9,650  damage  to  sown  areas  was  done  in  the  Department  of  the  Landes  alone." 

12  Les  Landes  et  les  Dunes  de  Gascogne,  par.  ch.  Grandjean,  Paris,  1897. 

13  Boppe,  pp.  471-481. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  COAST   DUNES  179 

According  to  Grandjean: 

"In  the  Gironde the  pahsade  was  estabhshed  quite  close  to  high  tides  .  .  .  but  in 
the  Landes  on  the  contrary  it  was  490  feet  from  high  tide.  This  pahsade  having  been 
successively  raised  until  the  dune  attained  an  elevation  of  20  to  26  feet  and  the  talus 
becoming  too  steep  they  established  (5  feet  to  the  west)  a  cordon  of  fagots  at  the  foot 
of  the  talus." 

This  lessened  the  steepness  of  the  slope  and  was  an  excellent  modifica- 
tion. The  tendency  has  been  to  build  the  artificial  dunes  farther  from 
the  sea,  up  to  820  to  980  feet.  In  1851  the  artificial  barrier  or  coast  dune 
was  constructed  as  follows: 

"At  165  to  260  feet  from  the  high  tide  mark,  parallel  to  the  shore  that  is  to-day  per- 
pendicular to  the  direction  of  the  wind,  a  palisade  is  built  of  joists  4.7  inches  wide  and 
1.2  inches  thick;  these  joists  are  deeply  imbedded  in  the  sand  with  a  projection  of  3.3  feet 
above  the  soil;  they  are  spaced  0.8  to  1.2  inches  from  each  other.  After  each  storm 
the  sand,  driven  by  the  wind,  accumulates  in  front  of  the  palisade  and  piles  up  on  the 
other  side  through  the  spaces  left  between  the  joists;  according  to  the  size  of  the  particles 
the  equilibrium  between  the  piles  on  the  two  sides  is  more  or  less  readily  established. 
This  operation  is  repeated  until  the  artificial  dune  is  33  to  39  feet  high  above  high  tide. 
The  theory  of  this  method  is  that  the  wind  is  harnessed  by  man  to  do  his  work.  The 
slope  is  quite  rapid  on  the  talus  facing  the  sea  and  the  best  grade  or  relief  is  always  an 
important  problem  which  must  be  studied  locally.  The  surface  is  fixed  with  maram 
grass  (gourbet,  calam  agrastis  arenacea)  secured  by  sowing  or  by  root  suckers.  The 
maintenance  work  consists  chiefly  of  repairing  the  breeches  made  by  the  sea  or  wind." 

To-day  the  profile  of  these  artificial  dunes  is  being  reversed,  and  the 
slopes  are  gently  inclining  toward  the  sea  and  abrupt  on  the  land  side, 
since  it  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  this  gives  better  results. 

"This  new  profile  is  secured  by  placing  (parallel  to  the  shore)  successive  lines  of  little 
hedges  about  24  inches  in  height  built  of  pine  branches  at  the  foot  of  which  the  sand 
accumulates.  The  skill  consists,  according  to  the  form  of  the  shore  line  and  the  prog- 
ress of  the  sand,  in  placing  these  obstacles  at  the  desired  point  to  assist  the  dune  to 
form  its  ridge  line  at  such  a  distance  from  the  shore  that  the  slope  can  extend  on  the 
most  practical  incline.  These  very  cordons,  coupled  with  the  maram  grass  sowing 
without  a  branch  cover,  can  stop  and  hold  in  check  the  '  whistle-wind '  and  the  ravines 
that  the  wind  bores  in  the  dune.     .     .     . 

"Moreover,  it  is  marvelous  to  see  how  experienced  foresters  know  how  to  use  the 
growth  to  model  the  dune  sand,  something  so  mobile  and  capricious;  where  the  (de- 
sired) profile  has  been  secured  they  use  the  maram  grass  to  fix  these  points,  or  on  the 
contrary,  pull  out  or  thin  the  plant  when  they  wish  the  wind  to  remove  the  piles  of  sand 
or  mounds  which  have  become  useless  or  troublesome.  Frequently  hedges  parallel 
to  the  coast  are  flanked  with  dikes  whose  direction  is  perpendicular  to  them,  when  these 
can  be  further  subdivided  into  crow's  feet  or  reverse  dikes. 

"When  winding  shores  with  sharp  points  are  exposed  to  very  violent  wind,  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  situation  only  can  determine  the  places  where  defense  work  must  be 
established,  and  what  direction  to  give  them.  .  .  .  Finally,  on  points  where  the  sea 
in  eroding  its  shores  and  breaks  into  waves  without  depositing  sand  the  material  be- 
comes scarce  .  .  .  the  force  of  the  waves  is  reduced  by  the  erection  of  a  forest  of  solid 
stakes  driven  into  the  sand  and  called  break-water  (brise-lame) .  The  tamerisk,  with 
its  long  flexible  branches,  renders  the  greatest  service  in  consolidating  all  these  dead 


180  FORESTRY  IN   THE   LANDES 

works  by  a  live  growth.  At  the  same  time  they  try  to  replace  the  former  profile  out- 
lined by  the  caprice  of  the  waves  by  a  suital^le  artificial  beach  with  a  grade  as  low  as 
5  or  6  per  cent,  so  that  the  wave  can  roll  in,  losing  its  power  of  erosion.  Moreover, 
each  point  demands  a  special  solution.  ...  In  fact  the  final  dune  profile  is  not  yet 
discovered;  perhaps  it  will  never  be." 

At  Lacanau  they  began  the  artificial  slope  of  the  protective  dune  at 
33  feet  from  high  tide  and  extended  it  148  feet  to  where  the  palisade 
originally  stood.  The  protective  dune  was  52  feet  high  and  13  feet  wide 
(across  the  top)  with  sand  barriers  at  each  side  of  the  top.  The  dune 
then  sloped  gradually  to  a  bench  164  feet  farther  back;  perhaps  about 
65  feet  farther  on  the  lowest  point  was  reached  and  the  sand  rose  again 
to  another  dune  where  the  protective  pine  zone  began. 

At  Lacanau  there  were  four  kinds  of  barriers  against  sand  erosion: 
(1)  To  prevent  the  erosion  of  the  tops  of  barrier  dunes  upright  stakes 
were  placed  1.6  feet  apart,  1.3  feet  in  height,  with  interwoven  branches 
and  genista  to  prevent  the  sand  from  sifting  through.  Here  the 
ordinary  palisades  had  been  abandoned  because  the  natural  method 
just  described  is  considered  cheaper  to  maintain  when  once  the  protective 
dune  is  raised  to  the  proper  height  by  use  of  the  palisade  method.  Here 
the  artificial  dunes  were  52  feet  in  height.  (2)  To  protect  the  rear  of  the 
protective  dune  rows  of  genista  2.3  feet  high  were  sunk  1.1  to  1.3  feet  in 
the  soil.  This  resulted  in  keeping  the  rear  of  the  protective  dune  to  the 
proper  height.  (3)  To  hold  the  sand  branches  were  laid  on  the  sand  to 
prevent  wind  erosion.  (4)  To  hold  and  build  up  areas  where  the  sand 
had  been  excavated  by  the  wind  near  the  ocean  clumps  of  genista  1.6 
feet  in  circumference  were  planted  in  quincunx.  The  French  specifica- 
tions for  the  "Fixation  and  Maintenance  of  Dunes"  is  given  on  page  429 
of  the  Appendix.  This  gives  a  very  minute  and  accurate  account  of  the 
methods  now  in  use.     According  to  Lafond:^^ 

"The  littoral  dune  is  the  best  defense  in  the  dune  region.  If  it  is  abandoned  or  if 
its  maintenance  is  not  kept  up,  new  natural  dunes  invariably  form  and,  blown  by  the 
wind,  cover  successively  not  only  the  forests  created  at  great  expense  but  afterwards 
additional  country." 

North  of  Bordeaux  the  protective  dune  seems  to  have  assumed  special 
importance.  Parallel  to  the  ocean  and  at  a  distance  of  about  656  feet 
from  high  tide  a  plank^^  palisade,  formed  of  planks  8  inches  wide  and 
spaced  1.2  inches  is  sunk  in  the  sand.  As  soon  as  the  sand  accumulates, 
as  in  other  dune  regions,  the  palisade  is  raised  about  31  inches.  After 
the  dune  has  once  been  formed  it  is  of  course  planted  to  maram  grass. 

1^  Fixation  des  Dunes,  par  M.  A.  Lafond,  Paris,  Imprimerie  Nationale,  1900. 

15  Frequently  ordinary  wattle  work  made  of  sticks  6.5  feet  long  and  2.5  inches  in 
diameter  sunk  1.6  feet  in  the  sand  and  1.6  feet  apart  is  used.  These  pieces  are  then 
woven  with  branches  and  shrubs  to  a  point  1.6  feet  above  the  sand  level. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   COAST   DUNES  181 

The  height  of  the  artificial  dunes  in  this  region  is  usually  33  feet.     Lafond 

says: 

"If  higher,  they  cost  much  more  to  estabUsh  and  are  more  difficult  to  maintain,  and 
they  give  more  of  a  lever  to  the  winds,  moreover,  if  they  are  built  too  high.  Usually 
a  lower  height  is  sufficient." 

From  Point  Arvert  to  Point  Coubre  (Charente  Inferieure  Department) 
the  height  of  the  artificial  dune  is  usually  23  feet.  At  Requin  it  is 
extremely  variable,  being  from  6.5  to  65  feet,  and  at  Volcan  43  feet.  From 
the  Tournegand  Canal  to  Palmyre  it  is  16  feet  in  height  and  from  there 
on  to  the  Grande-Cote  it  is  but  13  feet.  This  shows  how  the  height  of  the 
artificial  dune  must  vary  with  the  local  conditions. 

The  destruction  of  these  littoral  dunes  comes  either  from  the  wind  or 
from  the  sea.  The  wind  is  the  commonest  danger  but  the  sea  the  most 
difficult  to  combat.     According  to  Lafond: 

"  A  littoral  dune  not  too  high  and  bordering  a  permanent  beach  is  on  the  whole 
easy  to  maintain.  It  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  maram  grass  plantation  (executed  at  the 
time  of  construction)  in  good  condition  and  to  maintain  its  original  density  on  the 
different  parts  of  the  dune  surface;  the  beach  sand  blown  by  the  wind  slides  along  the 
dune  where  it  is  scattered  as  nourishment  for  the  clumps  of  maram  grass.  The  ex- 
cess amount  passes  behind  the  dune  and  is  scattered  in  the  littoral  hollows  (ledes). 
It  does  not  cause  any  damage,  however,  because  it  is  only  a  smaU  amount  and  covers 
the  soil  so  slowly  that  the  brush  or  shrubs  can  grow  as  fast  as  the  sand  covers  the  soil 
and  also  keeps  it  fixed." 

It  is  not  nearly  so  easy  to  maintain  a  high  protective  dune  at  Coubre. 
Here  the  sand  accumulates  at  certain  points  and  forms  hummocks  which 
must  be  fixed  immediately.  "  The  formation  of  hummocks  is  avoided 
by  not  allowing  the  maram  grass  bunches  to  grow  too  thick  and  by 
removing  every  obstacle  on  the  dune." 

If  hummocks  of  sand  are  formed  their  summit  has  to  be  broken  so 
as  to  make  the  sand  mobile  and  allow  the  winds  to  blow  it  away.  If 
these  irregularities  can  be  avoided  then,  so  far  as  the  wind  is  concerned, 
the  artificial  dune  can  maintain  itself. 

Lafond  says  a  dune  can  always  be  kept  in  good  condition  by  means  of 
maram  grass  plantations  judiciously  placed  so  as  to  hold  the  sand  in  the 
depressions  and  let  it  blow  over  the  humps  so  as  to  have  nothing  but 
regular  slopes  or  long  undulations. 

When  the  littoral  dune  is  washed  by  the  waves  during  storms  it  usually 
suffices  to  build  barriers  to  retain  the  sand  in  place  and  permit  it  to  re- 
sume its  original  shape. 

"If  the  breech  is  quite  considerable,  to  smooth  it  over  the  sand  is  topped  by  means 
of  fagots  planted  in  quincunx;  often  these  quincunx  are  placed  in  two  barrier  lines, 
the  one  completing  the  action  of  the  other.  Where  the  erosion  by  the  water  is  caused 
by  dangerous  currents  then  it  is  a  very  serious  undertaking  and  masonry  or  expensive 
cement  work  is  often  necessary." 


182  FORESTRY  IN   THE   LANDES 

Lafond  describes  in  great  detail  special  problems  caused  by  the  action 
of  the  ocean  currents. 

Forestation.^^  —  It  has  been  seen  that  the  first  step  is  to  make  sure  that 
the  protection  dunes  are  stable,  and  that  the  first  essential  is  to  sow  or 
plant  maram  grass  on  the  slopes  toward  the  sea  about  60  to  70  feet  from 
high  tide.  It  is  usually  planted  in  November  to  February  since,  if  planted 
later  after  the  rains  have  ceased,  it  is  apt  to  die.  It  is  dug  up  from  maram 
bunches  (which  are  too  thick)  and  usually  six  to  eight  shoots  are  planted 
at  one  place.  It  is  cut  8  inches  below  the  soil  when  collected  and  is 
dibbled  12  inches  deep  in  the  sand;  it  is  spaced  31  inches  apart  near  the 
sea  and  farther  back  20  inches.  This  wider  spacing  near  the  ocean  is 
because  it  needs  plenty  of  fresh  sand  in  order  to  thrive,  yet  inversel}^  if  it 
is  covered  with  too  much  sand  it  dies  out  and  must  be  replanted. 

The  next  step  is  to  sow  the  maritime  pine  coming  back  to  the  barrier 
dune. 

According  to  a  report  published  in  1834  the  method  of  sowing  was  as 
follows : 

"Pine  seed,  mixed  with  genista,  furze,  or  maram  grass  was  used  for  sowing  in  the 
littoral  zone.  It  was  covered  with  branches  of  genista,  furze,  or  pine  according  to  the 
locaUty.  .  .  .  These  branches  were  laid  flat  and  placed  as  if  they  were  ferns.  .  .  . 
They  were  held  in  place  on  the  soil  with  a  httle  sand  (thrown  broadcast)." 

The  methods  have  remained  about  the  same.  According  to  the  in- 
structions of  May  16,  1888,  9  pounds  of  pine  per  acre  with  8  pounds  of 
genista  or  9  pounds  of  maram  grass  pure  were  used;  in  either  case  it 
took  400  fagots  of  44  pounds  each  for  the  covering. 

The  present  method  of  sowing  takes  about  18  pounds  of  seed  ^^  per 
acre  of  maritime  pine,  1.8  of  genista,  and  1.8  of  maram  grass.  The 
tendency  is  to  sow  too  densely.  The  correct  method  of  sowing  means 
scattering  the  seed,  theoretically  about  1  to  2  inches  apart.  The  seed 
is  then  covered  with  branches  held  down  by  sand.  The  cover  is  abso- 
lutely essential  so  that  the  sand  will  not  burn  the  seed  and  so  that  the 
surface  will  not  blow.  A  second  method  is  by  holes  4  inches  deep  and 
20  inches  apart,  covered  with  genista  and  held  down  mth  sand.  A 
third  method  now  used  is  sowing  in  ditches  8  inches  deep  and  8  inches 
wide.  These  are  then  covered  with  sand  and  with  a  light  brush  cover. 
For  dry  localities  the  best  time  to  sow  is  in  October  but  for  wet  localities 
in  March.  When  maritime  pine  is  occasionally  planted  wild  stock  is 
used.     According  to  Boppe  (already  cited) : 

IS  The  land  tax  on  forested  land  on  mountains,  dunes,  or  waste  land  is  exempt  for 
thirty  years;  three-fourths  the  land  tax  is  remitted  on  any  cleared  soil  that  is  afterwards 
planted. 

1'  Maritime  cones  are  collected  from  January  1  to  March  1.  Genista  seed  is  collected 
in  June  and  July  and  thrashed  the  end  of  July;  maram  grass  is  collected  in  August. 


COST  AND   PRICE   DATA  183 

"For  this  purpose,  instead  of  using  pure  maritime  pine  seed,  the  following  mixture 
is  sown  per  acre:  Maritime  pine,  26  pounds;  furze,  2.6  pounds;  genista,  2.6  pounds; 
maram  grass,  2.6  pounds;  miscellaneous  seed  to  attract  birds,  2.6  pounds.  This  for- 
mula is  used  in  the  Coubre  Dune.  In  the  Landes  practice  the  maritime  pine  is  re- 
duced to  9  pounds  per  acre,  while  the  genista  is  increased  to  8  and  the  maram  grass  to 
3.5  pounds. 

"The  pine,  the  genista,  and  the  furze  come  up  simultaneously,  and  it  is  usually 
noted  that  the  pines  are  better  if  the  necessary  seedlings  are  more  numerous,  moreover 
the  cover  rots  where  it  hes  and  gives  the  soil  its  first  supply  of  organic  material.  When 
the  forestation  is  commenced  at  the  very  base  of  the  dune  the  first  stands  established 
for  a  distance  of  660  to  980  feet  damaged  by  the  ocean  winds  usually  remain  stunted 
and  crooked;  but  under  cover  of  this  protective  zone  the  stands  which  follow  it  de- 
velop normally;  it  is  even  stated  that  the  pines  on  a  dune  yield  more  resin  than  those 
growing  on  (ordinary)  ground." 

Special  Betterments  in  the  Landes.  —  Next  to  the  fixation  of  the  sand 
and  the  drainage  work  one  of  the  greatest  problems  in  the  Landes  has 
been  road  construction,  since  paved  roads  have  proved  extremely  expen- 
sive. It  is  for  this  reason  that  narrow-gauge  railroads  are  so  popular 
when  a  large  area  is  to  be  worked.  A  special  kind  of  wagon  road  is 
built  of  wood  blocks  14  by  4  inches  laid  vertically.  The  usual  dune 
road  is  the  so-called  "paillage."  Such  roads  are  8.8  to  6.5  feet  in  width 
and  the  sand  is  dug  out  to  a  depth  of  4|  inches  and  thrown  to  one  side. 
Then  twigs  and  branches  are  placed  in  the  l)ottom  and  a  cover  of  pine 
needles  and  moss  placed  on  top.  Roads  of  this  type  are  confined  largely 
to  the  dunes  or  pure  sand  areas.  All  main  roads  in  the  flat  Landes  are 
macadamized  and  the  others  are  dirt  roads,  sometimes  covered  with 
needles. 

Cost  and  Price  Data.  —  Bremontier's  original  estimate  for  the  dune 
control  and  forestation  was  about  $772,000  (see  p.  170).  The  final  cost^^ 
of  reclaiming  195,212  acres  totaled  $1,854,344  or  $9.50  per  acre.  In 
addition  $656,200  was  spent  on  maintenance  of  roads,  forest  houses,  fire 
lines,  and  barrier  dunes,  making  a  grand  total  of  2^  million  dollars. 
But  just  as  Bremontier  predicted,  the  annual  revenue  from  this  land, 
which  would  otherwise  have  been  worthless,  is  more  than  the  original 
amount  spent.  According  to  Huff  el  ^^  the  total  Dune  and  Landes  pine 
forest  (including  State,  communal,  and  private)  comprised  1,611,121 
acres  which  represents  an  investment  of  $10,331,290  on  the  following 
basis : 

18  Huffel,  Vol.  I,  p.  159. 

13  Huffel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  182-183.  The  average  costs  are  low  because  of  the  partial  use 
of  natural  regeneration  after  the  original  dune  forestation  had  been  completed;  this 
explains  the  difference  between  $9.50,  $10.75  and  $4.25  per  acre. 


184  FORESTRY  IN   THE   LANDES 

Totals 
74,131.3  acres  of  dunes  reforested  by  the  State  at  a  cost  of 

$10.75+  per  acre $926,400 

1,536,989.3  acres  of  private  and  communal  interior  holdings 

forested  at  $4.25-  per  acre 6,602,530 

1,611,121  acres  of  soil  at  a  cost  of  $0.77+  per  acre 1,258,360 

$8,787,290 

Road  betterments 1,544,000 

$10,331,290 

This  is  equal  to  an  average  investment  of  only  $6.41  per  acre.  A  con- 
servative estimate  of  yield,  before  the  war,  was  .$2.22  per  acre  per  year. 
Thus  if  taxation  is  eliminated  the  original  investment  yields  over  30 
per  cent  as  a  national  "speculation,"  but  it  must  be  noted  that  the  real 
soil  value  was  almost  nothing  at  the  time  the  investment  was  made. 
It  is  at  least  significant  that  prior  to  1914  timber  appraisals  of  young 
stands  used  an  interest  rate  of  7  per  cent  for  the  calculations,  which  is 
unique  in  forest  technique  and  is  due  to  the  high  returns  and  to  the  risk 
from  fire. 

Huff  el  estimates  the  average  forest  revenue  in  the  Landes  at  $2,702,000 
net  per  year,  representing  a  new  capitalization  including  timber  of  at 
least  $86,850,000,  or  about  $54  per  acre.  As  a  matter  of  fact  State 
forests  with  growing  stock  have  been  sold  for  around  $60  per  acre  and 
to-day  average  more  than  $93  per  acre  for  land  purchased  at  less  than  a 
dollar!  The  bare  soil  sold  for  $16  to  $32  an  acre  prior  to  1914  — in 
other  words,  it  was  capitahzed  on  the  basis  of  what  it  could  produce  in 
resin  and  timber.'-" 

The  artificial  barrier  dunes  cost  about  $96  per  mile.  The  forestation 
cost  has  been  as  high  as  $38.60  per  acre  in  the  Landes  and  in  the  Coubre 
dunes  only  $14.20.  In  1817  a  large  area  was  sown  at  a  cost  of  $15.05 
per  acre.     In  1827  Dejean  reported  ~^  the  cost  per  acre  had  been  reduced 

20  J.  H.  Ricard  says  that  unpeeled  mine  props  sold  for  15  francs  per  English  ton  in 
1903,  and  up  to  18  francs  in  1908:  ties  of  various  specifications  2  to  3.40  francs;  squared 
timber  22  to  25  francs  per  ton.  Regarding  land  values  Ricard  says  that  the  bare  land 
sold  in  1835  at  8  to  15  francs  per  hectare  as  a  minimum,  with  30  to  40  francs  as  an 
average.  In  1910  the  values  were  40  francs  minimum,  100  francs  ($7.72  per  acre) 
average,  and  up  to  300  francs  maximum  (.$23.16). 

21  The  details  were  as  follows : 

Francs  per  hectare 

Cutting  1,400  fagots  at  0.80  francs  per  100 11 .20 

Working  them  up  at  0.80  francs  per  100 11 .  20 

Transport  1,500  to  2,000  meters  at  4  francs  per  100 56.00 

Drying  at  1  franc  per  100 14.00 

Miscellaneous  fagot  expense  at  0.75  francs  per  100 10.50 

One-half  hectoliter  maritime  pine  seed 10.00 

5  kilograms  genista  seed 2 .  50 

Miscellaneous  expense  and  repairs 4.60 

Total 120.00  (or  $9.26  per  acre). 


COST  AND  PRICE  DATA 


185 


Year 

Civil  War! 

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Fig.  16.  —  Barrel  price,  in  dollars,  of  turpentine  at  Bordeaux. 


186 


FORESTRY   IN   THE  LANDES 


to  $9.26.  To-day  there  would  be  natural  regeneration.  The  cost  per 
acre  for  hoeing  (to  8  inches  deep)  and  clearing  fire  lines  has  been,  accord- 
ing to  Bert,  about  $6.50,  or  for  a  fire  line  33  feet  wide  $26  per  mile. 

The  price  of  turpentine  at  Bordeaux  from  1861  to  1911  is  shown  in 
Fig.  16.  The  extremely  high  price  per  barrel  (340  liters  or  exactly  359 
liquid  quarts)  in  1862  was  because  of  the  American  civil  war. 

According  to  Conservateur  de  Lapasse,  writing  from  Bordeaux  De- 
cember 16,  1919,  the  average  prices  per  liter  (1.05671  hquid  quarts)  of 
resin  (resines  ou  gemmes)  for  the  past  14  years  were  as  follows: 

TABLE  19.—  PRICE  OF  CRUDE  RESIN 


Year 

Price  per  liter, 
dollars 

Year 

Price  per  liter, 
dollars 

1906 

0.050 

1913 

0.048 

1907 

0.052 

1914  « 

0.054 

1914* 

0.025 

1908 

0.052 

1915 

0.046 

1909 

0.058 

1916 

0.093 

1910 

0.071 

1917^ 

0.125 

1911 

0.079 

1918 

0.135 

1912 

0.071 

1919 

0.208 

°  Price  up  to  the  war. 
*  Price  August  1  to  October  1,  1914. 

'^  In  1917  the  franc  ran  5J  to  the  dollar,  in  1918  about  5|  to  5f ,  and  in  1919,  5f  to  11|. 
The  normal  rate  $0,193  to  the  franc  has  been  used  in  conversions. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MARITIME  PINE  FORESTS 

Objects  of  Management  (Protection  Forests).  —  The  objects  of  State 
management  are  to  protect  the  soil  from  drifting  sand  and  to  produce 
resin,  lumber  (short  length),  ties,  mine  props,  paving  blocks,  and  other 
special  wood  products.  The  aim  of  the  Government  has  apparently 
been  greater  volume  production,  disregarding  consideration  of  the 
sizes  in  which  it  is  produced,  while  private  owners  look  to  resin  pro- 
duction and  to  higher  stumpage  values  involved  in  larger  timber.  This 
is  natural,  because  the  poorer  soils  where  State  timber  grows  could  not 
produce  tall,  large  saw  timber.  The  State  is  now  looking  more  to 
receipts  from  resin.     But  according  to  Barrington  Moore: 

"  The  essential  difference  between  Government  and  private  management  is  that 
the  former  aims  to  produce  a  maximum  volume  of  wood,  whereas  the  latter  aims  to 
produce  as  much  turpentine  as  possible  and  considers  the  wood  as  secondary.  As 
might  be  expected,  the  Government  must  care  for  the  needs  of  the  community  as  well 
as  for  revenue.  The  Government  foresters  themselves  admit  that  turpentine  is  more 
profitable  than  wood.  .  .  .  The  silvicultural  difference  is,  briefly,  that  the  Government 
thins  its  forests  hghtly  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  a  complete  canopy  in  order  to  grow 


OBJECTS  OF   MANAGEMENT   (PROTECTION   FORESTS)  187 

the  trees  tall  and  straight  and  keep  a  maximum  number  per  acre,  whereas  private  own- 
ers choose  the  best  trees  to  leave  and  thin  heavily  around  them  to  give  each  tree  full 
sunlight  and  encourage  a  large  crown  development." 

Yet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  best  timber  is  in  private  hands  because 
the  private  forests  usually  occupy  the  richest  soils,  while  the  State 
forests  are  along  the  coast.  In  the  Landes  and  Gironde  most  of  the 
dune  forests  are  in  public  hands  and  they  are  primarily  held  as  a  zone 
of  defence  against  drifting  sand.  Of  necessity  they  are  heavily  thinned 
relatively  to  allow  the  crown  development  so  necessary  to  a  light-demand- 
ing species.  Moreover,  so  far  as  my  own  investigations  show,  even  State 
forests  outside  protection  working  groups  are  now  managed  for  resin  rather 
than  for  lumber.  Private  forests  are  in  less  exposed  situations  and  are 
managed  solely  for  profit,  and  resin  yields  more  than  two-thirds  the  income. 

According  to  an  unpublished  official  note  it  appears  that  protection 
working  groups  must  be  handled  with  great  conservatism: 

" .  .  .  The  protection  ^^  working  group  will  then  be  treated  with  cuttings  having 
a  selection  character;  a  physical  exploitability  will  be  applied,  taking  count,  however, 
in  a  certain  measure,  of  the  special  vegetative  conditions  of  the  maritime  pine.  Tap- 
ping without  killing  will  be  practiced,  but  with  prudence,  the  yield  in  resin  being  first 
sacrificed  in  the  interest  of  keeping  the  stand  as  fully  stocked  as  possible  in  the  essen- 
tial role  of  protection.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  faculty  given  executive  agents 
by  the  special  decisions  governing  exploitation  of  the  coast  working  groups,  of  com- 
mencing the  apphcation  of  tapping  without  killing  pine  measuring  12  inches  and  over 
in  diameter  (instead  of  14  inches  in  the  other  working  groups),  has  had  unfortunate 
results  on  the  increment  and  longevity  of  the  trees  faced.  In  the  last  marking  we  have 
really  been  obliged  to  let  a  considerable  number  of  pine  clearly  over-worked  remain 
idle  in  order  to  allow  them  to  heal  their  scars  which  were  too  numerous  and  too  wide. 

"Being  selected  for  protection  working  groups  the  'production  in  wood  is  only  second- 
ary; on  the  other  hand  the  production  in  resin  can  return  an  important  revenue  from 
these  stands.  But  this  production  will  not  continue  sustained  unless  it  is  not  over- 
whelmed by  a  premature  chipping  of  the  trees  exposed  to  the  ocean  winds,  and  con- 
sequently growing  under  less  favorable  conditions  than  the  stands  in  the  interior. 
Accordingly  we  beheve  that  the  reverse  of  this  has  been  carried  out  and  under  penalty 
of  making  mistakes  it  is  essential  that  the  pine  of  the  coast  working  groups  be  treated 
conservatively  and  only  tapped  without  kiUing  when  they  reach  a  size  which  will  en- 
able them  to  stand  this  operation.  We  are  of  the  opinion  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
exploitation  working  groups,  the  tapping  without  killing  cannot  be  applied  until  the 
trees  measure  at  least  14  inches  in  diameter.  In  the  seventh  working  group  the  fellings 
will  take  place  on  the  basis  of  special  recommendations;  the  work  done  will  follow  the 
principles  which  have  just  been  explained." 

22  Cultural  rules  for  protection  working  groups,  unpublished  note  by  De  Lapasse, 
dated  December  21,  1908:  The  general  forest  conditions  of  the  Landes  and  Gironde 
have  already  been  described  (see  p.  169)  and  also  the  silvical  characteristics  of  the 
maritime  pine  (see  p.  401).  Mature  stands  60  to  70  years  old  average  10,000  to  20,000 
board  feet  to  the  acre;  this  high  yield  from  small  timber  is  because  the  soil  is  fully 
stocked.  On  private  land  mature  timber  runs  60  to  70  trees  per  acre  and  in  State 
forests  100  or  more. 


188  FORESTRY  IN   THE  LANDES 

On  the  Lacanau  (Gironde)  State  Forest  the  dune  protection  strip, 
according  to  the  current  working  plan,  is  2,625  feet  wide  where  only 
the  dead  and  dying  trees  are  cut.  In  the  State  Forest  of  Carcans 
(Gironde)  the  protective  zone  is  classified  into  three  distinct  parts  and 
the  growth  of  the  dune  forests  as  you  approach  the  ocean  (east  to  west) 
is  similar  to  the  decrease  in  growth  as  you  near  the  Hmit  of  tree  growth 
in  the  mountains:  (1)  The  littoral  zone  of  mere  shrubs  which  is  535  to 
1,322  feet  wide.  (2)  A  zone  of  badly  formed  trees  of  no  commercial 
value,  of  slow  growth  and  open  formation.  (3)  A  third  zone  where  the 
stand  is  sufficiently  dense  to  be  tapped  but  which  is  maintained  without 
tapping  as  a  protective  barrier.  It  is  very  significant  that  these  trees 
which  are  exposed  in  part  to  the  rigors  of  the  ocean  winds  are  not  tapped 
at  all  but  are  maintained  exclusively  as  a  protective  zone. 

Silvicultural  Systems.  —  Next  to  the  protection  working  group  (which 
is  in  the  shape  of  a  long  strip  five-eighths  of  a  mile  parallel  to  the  ocean) 
additional  working  groups  (in  strips)  are  laid  out  from  west  to  east. 
These  are  treated  as  high  forests  by  the  shelterwood  compartment 
system  with  the  usual  seed  fellings  and  secondary  felhngs  omitted,  since 
regeneration  is  easy  by  clear  cutting  without  the  necessity  of  seed  trees 
or  the  shelter  of  a  portion  of  the  mature  stand.  The  seed  is  furnished  by 
the  tops  of  the  felled  trees.  The  normal  compartment  is  247  acres 
which  may  be  leased  for  tapping  or  sold  for  cutting  as  a  unit  or  in  as 
many  as  four  sub-units,  especially  if  because  of  dunes  or  previous  fires 
the  character  of  the  timber  differs.  Final  cutting  is  clear  for  the  unit. 
All  tops  are  lopped  out  and  left  or  scattered  to  lie  flat  on  the  ground  to 
assist  reseeding.  Before  felling  all  underbrush  and  seedfings  are  felled 
flat  for  the  same  purpose.  The  cover  of  moss,  needles,  limbs,  and 
brush  prevents  any  movement  of  the  sand  before  the  pine  seed  has  a 
chance  to  sprout.  Under  this  procedure  natural  reseeding  nearly  always 
occurs.  On  areas  in  which  it  fails  solving  is  done.  Because  of  sod,  high- 
water  table,  etc.,  natural  seeding  is  frequently  not  so  successful  in  the 
private  forests.  Sowing  there  may  be  broadcast  or  in  plowed  strips. 
Planting  is  also  done  extensively,  largely  with  seedlings  collected  from 
nearby  stands.  Grazing  is  not  permitted  for  about  four  years  after 
sowing  or  planting  on  private  areas.  Immediately  around  Arcachon 
the  maritime  pine  is  under  the  selection  system  and  is  kept  entirely  cleared 
of  undergrowth,  since  it  is  maintained  as  a  sort  of  pleasure  park  for 
tourists.  In  the  nearby  forest  of  La  Teste  some  clear  cutting  was 
practiced  entirely  too  near  the  sea  and  after  two  years  the  regeneration 
had  only  partially  succeeded.  It  would  have  been  much  better  to  have 
left  a  protective  zone  of  virgin  timber  for  seed,  since  clear  cutting 
close  to  the  sea  is  always  dangerous,  especially  with  the  current  fire 
danger. 


INTERMEDIATE  FELLINGS  189 

Intermediate  Fellings.  —  After  the  stand  has  been  regenerated  the 
sapling  thickets  are  thinned  by  the  so-called  "depressage"  (see  p.  110), 
before  they  reach  merchantable  size,  to  avoid  fungous  damage,  and 
cleanings  are  sometimes  necessary  to  protect  the  pine  against  the 
heather. 

Under  "Improvement  Cutting"  the  Biscarrosse  working  plan  pro- 
vides : 

"Cleanings  and  thinnings  without  tapping.  Commence  the  cleanings  in  the  re- 
generated 'periodic  blocks'  5  years  old;  at  the  same  time  lop  the  lower  whorls  of  the 
vigorous  shoots  and  cut  the  weeds  which  suppress  the  pine.  These  (cultural)  opera- 
tions should  be  made  periodically  every  5  years  and  wiU  become  thinnings  at  10  to  15 
years;  thus  the  stand  will  be  systematically  thinned  and  when  about  20  to  25  years 
old  there  should  be  about  200  stems  per  acre.  Do  not  hesitate  to  cut  back  the  weeds  at 
each  period,  both  broom  and  furze,  with  the  double  object  of  doing  away  with  thickets 
which  promote  conflagrations  and  to  give  the  pine  the  air  and  light  so  necessary  for 
good  growth.  It  is,  in  effect,  absolutely  proven  in  the  Landes  that  the  pineries  on 
cleared  soil  grow  much  better  than  those  with  thick  understory  (of  weeds) .  In  the  older 
stands  the  thinnings  (without  tapping  or  with  the  axe)  have  almost  entirely  the  char- 
acter of  weedings;  the  advance  seedlings  of  no  value  at  the  time  of  regeneration  will  then 
disappear  under  the  cover  of  the  dominant  story." 

Pruning  usually  starts  at  10  years  of  age.  The  typical  3-inch  tree  is 
naturally  pruned  up  to  2  feet  above  the  ground,  while  the  typical  tree 
of  6  inches  is  pruned  artificially  up  to  10  to  12  feet  above  the  ground. 
The  branches,  which  are  left  as  they  fall,  take  about  5  years  to  rot. 
This  pruning  is  done  every  5  years.  In  order  to  protect  stands  from 
fire  at  the  time  of  cleaning  the  genista  is  now  cut.  Stands  artificially 
sown  are  usually  mixed  with  a  dense  stand  of  genista  10  feet  high;  con- 
sequently the  pine  has  to  be  freed.  .  The  first  thinning  or  cleaning  is 
quite  heavy  and  one  stand  was  noted  where  there  were  800  trees  per  acre 
before  the  thinning  that  showed  only  480  per  acre  after  the  thinning. 

Regular  thinnings  ''with  the  axe"  without  tapping  (see  p.  110)  are 
thus  usually  necessary  before  the  trees  are  large  enough  to  stand  a  face. 
At  about  25  years,  depending  on  the  growth,  the  regular  thinnings 
by  tapping  to  death  begin,  often  preceded  by  tapping  to  exhaustion 
(see  quotation  below).  This  merely  means  that  instead  of  at  once  fell- 
ing a  tree,  which  is  superfluous  or  of  poor  quality,  it  is  first  heavily 
tapped  for  a  period  and  then  tapped  to  death  and  cut  after  four  or  more 
years  of  very  intensive  tapping.  This  type  of  thinning  is  continued 
every  5  to  10  years  until  the  stand  is  mature  and  rather  open  (see  p.  192). 

In  the  forest  of  Biscarrosse  (Landes)  thinnings  by  tapping  alive  are 
conducted  as  follows :  -^ 

23  Extract  from  the  revised  working  plan  for  Biscarrosse  (Landes)  forest  containing 
an  inspection  note  from  De  Lapasse  of  December  21,  1908.  Reference  is  made  to  page 
193  where  the  new  4-year  cycle  (for  thinnings  and  tapping)  is  fully  explained. 


190  FORESTRY   IN   THE  LANDES 

"The  thinnings  made  every  5  years  will  aim  to  open  up  the  forest.  This  favors 
both  the  production  of  wood  and  resin  in  maritime  pine.  The  thinnings  will  aim  to 
maintain  the  timber  in  a  good  state  of  growth  by  placing  it  under  the  best  conditions 
for  increment;  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  maritime  pine  is  a  light  demanding  species 
one  should  not  forget  that  in  the  case  of  this  species  the  underwood  as  well  as  the  sup- 
pressed trees  are  valueless  and  that  the  upper  story  alone  is  of  interest.  This  cul- 
tural rule  seems  much  surer  than  that  given  in  the  working-plan  report. 

"In  the  regenerated  stands  the  thinnings  with  tapping  wUl  commence  at  about 
25  years  of  age,  or  as  soon  as  the  timber  shall  have  attained  a  sufficient  size  to  enable 
it  to  stand  a  face.  Except  when  the  removal  of  a  pine  is  more  or  less  urgent  tapping 
to  death  or  'tapping  to  exhaustion'  will  be  followed.  The  'tapping  to  exhaustion' 
will  precede  the  application  of  tapping  to  death  by  at  least  the  length  of  a  period 
(5  years) ;  it  can  then  be  accomphshed  by  one  or  by  two  faces  according  to  the  size  of 
the  trees.  This  method  of  tapping  will  be  apphed  to  the  entire  stand  of  each  periodic 
block  during  the  period  which  precedes  regeneration.  The  tapping  without  killing 
(gemmage  a  vie)  will  continue  to  be  appHed  to  the  pine  14  inches  and  over  at  breast 
height.  Very  vigorous  trees  measuring  at  least  16  inches  in  diameter  can  be  intensively 
tapped  without  killing  and  receive  two  faces.  This  method  of  extracting  the  resin 
can  be  made  general  and  will  be  justified  chiefly  during  the  three  or  four  periods  pre- 
ceding regeneration. 

"The  application  of  'exhaustive  tapping'  and  of  intensive  tapping  without  kiUing 
(without  injury  to  the  stands)  has  been  rendered  possible  by  the  decision  of  the  Direc- 
tor General,  dated  March  23,  1908,  who  has  authorized  the  Mont-de-Marsan  inspection 
to  reduce  the  sizes  of  the  faces  in  height  and  in  diameter." 

It  should  be  particularly  noted  that  so-called  exhaustive  tappings 
which  precede  the  usual  thinnings  by  tapping  to  death  is  a  new  feature 
of  French  practice  aimed  at  the  increase  of  resin  production  in  State 
forests.  This  means  that  there  is  a  good  deal  of  marking  expense. 
In  1905,  in  the  inspection  of  Mont-de-Marsan,  15,180  acres  had  to  be 
marked;  the  work  lasted  practically  continuously  from  February,  1915, 
to  July  8,  and  the  marking  removed  on  an  average  of  almost  exactly  40 
trees  per  acre,  or  612,455  trees.  This  illustrates  the  heavy  thinnings 
followed  in  State  forests  —  so  necessary  for  maritime  pine  to  develop 
good  crowns.  The  first  cleaning  in  private  forests  takes  place  at  4 
years,  and  the  first  tapping  to  death  for  thinning  at  15  years.  By  30 
years  the  stand  is  pretty  well  reduced  to  its  final  number  and  tapping 
of  all  trees  alive  begins.  The  "Landes"  rule  is  that  no  permanent  tree 
should  be  tapped  until  it  is  at  least  13  inches  in  diameter.  All  private 
tapping  is  now  being  done  4  years  to  a  face. 

Rotations.  —  The  State  forest  rotations  adopted  in  the  past  have  been 
70  years  with  fourteen  periods  of  5  years  each,  72  years  with  twelve 
periods  of  6  years  each,  75  years  with  fifteen  periods  of  5  years  each, 
and  80  years  with  sixteen  periods  of  5  years  each.  When  the  length  of 
the  period  is  six  years  the  consecutive  tapping  is  separated  by  one  year 
of  rest.  In  a  large  number  of  forests,  however,  the  final  rotation  is 
preceded  by  a  transitory  rotation  which  usually  differs  for  each  working 


WORKING  GROUPS  191 

group.  Rotations  in  private  forests  are  usually  shorter.  The  average 
is  between  55  and  65  years  and,  where  the  production  of  mine  props  is 
the  chief  objective,  the  rotations  can  be  reduced  to  about  40  to  50  years. 
With  the  new  4-year  thinning  cycle  the  present  rotations  may  be  slightly 
reduced. 

According  to  the  working  plan  for  the  forest  of  Biscarrosse,  revised 
January  7,  1910,  the  maritime  pine  has  a  75-year  rotation.  The  forest 
is  divided  into  fifteen  periodic  blocks.  The  growth  data  available  show 
that  the  maximum  growth  of  the  maritime  pine  is  between  40  and 
50  years;  therefore  a  transitional  rotation  of  60  years  has  been  recom- 
mended. It  is  almost  certain  that  as  the  humus  in  the  different  maritime 
forests  fertilizes  the  soil  the  growth  will  become  more  rapid,  so  that  the 
proverbial  70  to  75  year  rotations  may  be  generally  reduced  to  55  to  65 
years. 

According  to  this  working  plan  "The  yield  is  estabhshed  by  area; 
the  surface  of  each  periodic  block  is  run  over  by  a  clear-cut  regeneration 
felling,  exploited  during  the  period  having  the  same  numerical  order  as 
the  periodic  block. " 

Felling  Cycles.  —  In  the  past  the  felling  cycle  was  almost  invariably  5 
years,  but  sometimes  4  to  6  years.  In  the  future  it  will  usually  be  4  years 
(see  p.  193).  In  the  past  the  trees  were  resined  for  4  years  and  felled  the 
fifth  year.  But  in  the  forest  of  Carcans  a  6-year  period  allowed  5  years 
for  tapping  and  the  usual  1  year  for  felling. 

"Working  Groups.  —  According  to  De  Lapasse  the  past  method  of 
management  was  as  follows: 

"These  forests  are  divided  into  working  groups  whose  number  varies  from  two  to 
six,  according  to  their  importance  and  size;  working  groups  are  estabhshed  in  long  strips 
parallel  to  the  ocean,  bounded  by  parallel  fire  lines,  the  first  working  group  being  placed 
on  the  east  side  of  the  forest.  In  each  working  group  the  periodic  blocks  are  numbered 
in  the  order  in  which  regeneration  is  fixed,  from  the  north  to  the  south.  In  each  forest 
the  working  plans  have  estabhshed  a  group  without  predetermined  treatment,  to  in- 
clude the  dune  and  littoral  zone,  designed  to  form  a  shelter  belt  which  protects  the  re- 
mainder of  the  stand  against  wind  action  and  sand  coming  from  the  west. 

"The  scheme  is  very  simple.  During  each  5-year  period  each  periodic  block  (except 
those  to  be  regenerated  and  those  including  young  growth)  is  run  over  by  a  thinning  with 
turpentine  operations.  The  trees  which  are  to  be  removed  are,  before  they  are  cut, 
tapped  to  death  during  a  period  of  4  years;  simultaneously,  the  pines  which  have 
reached  14  inches  in  diameter  and  above  are  tapped  alive  for  5  years.  The  oldest 
periodic  block  in  turn  is  regenerated  by  clear  cuttings  preceded  by  tapping  to  death 
all  the  trees.  These  are  felled  during  the  fifth  (see  'New  Tapping  Scheme,'  p.  193) 
and  last  year  of  the  period.  The  periodic  blocks  of  young  growth  are  run  over  by  or- 
dinary thinnings  without  tapping.  At  the  beginning  of  each  period  (every  5  years) 
each  working  group  is  completely  marked  (and  valued)  to  compute  the  material  of  the 
clearcut  regeneration  fellings  (to  be  sold  standing)  and  the  trees  to  be  tapped  alive  where 
the  contractor  receives  only  the  resin." 


192 


FORESTRY   IN   THE   LANDES 


With  the  new  4-year  tapping  cycle  a  working  plan  for  a  maritime  pine 
forest  having  a  68-year  rotation  and  17  periods  would  normally  be  worked 
as  follows : 


TABLE  20.—  WORKING  PLAN  FOR  A  MARITIME  PINE  FOREST 


s 

8 

Tapping  periods 

1 

1 

J 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15  1  16 

17 

> 

1921 

1925 

1929 

1933 

1937 

1941 

1945 

1949 

1953 

1957 

1961 

1965 

1969 

1973 

1977 

1981 

1985 

> 

5 

M 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

s 

< 

1924 

1928 

1932 

19S6 

1940 

1944 

1948 

1952 

1956 

1960 

1964 

1968 

1972 

1976 

1980 

1984 

1988 

I 

64 

R 

„ 

g 

g 

g 

g 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

I 

II 

60 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

II 

III 

56 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

III 

IV 

52 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

IV 

V 

48 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

V 

VI 

44 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

VI 

VII 

40 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

VII 

VIII 

36 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

VIII 

IX 

32 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

IX 

X 

28 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

X 

XI 

24 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

XI 

XII 

20 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

e 

XII 

XIII 

16 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

e 

XIII 

XIV 

12 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

e 

XIV 

XV 

8 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

e 

XV 

XVI 

4 

e 

e 

e 

e 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

" 

XVI 

XVII 

0 

" 

e 

® 

e 

^ 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

ge 

G3 

G2 

Gg 

R 

XVII 

Data  furnished  by  Conservateur  de  Lapasse,  April  7,  1920.  Key  to  abbreviations 
used  in  above  table : 

R  —  Regeneration  fellings,  by  clear  cutting  after  tapping  to  death  during  4  years. 
The  felling  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  (winter  up  to  January)  of  the  period 
and  during  the  first  year  (winter  after  January)  of  the  next  period. 

Gg  —  1.  Exhaustive  general  tapping  (gemmage-epuisement  general)  during  the  period 
that  precedes  regeneration.  All  trees  receive  at  least  one  face.  2.  Continued  tapping 
ahve. 

G2  —  1.  Exhaustive  tapping  during  the  period  which  precedes  Gg.  All  trees  10 
inches  and  over  in  diameter  are  given  one  face.     2.   Continued  tapping  alive. 

G3  —  1.  Moderate  exhaustive  tapping  during  the  period  which  precedes  G2.  All 
trees  11  inches  and  over  in  diameter  are  given  one  face.     2.    Continued  tapping  alive. 

ge  —  1.  Rapid  exhaustive  tapping  or  tapping  to  death  of  all  excess  trees  which  must 
be  quickly  removed  by  thinnings.  2.  Slow  exhaustive  tapping  of  trees  which  will  be 
gradually  removed  in  thinnings.  3.  Tapping  alive  with  one  face  of  all  trees  at  least 
12  inches  in  diameter.  Also  the  felling  of  damaged  trees  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year 
of  the  period  and  during  the  first  part  of  the  first  year  of  the  next  period. 

"  —  No  cultural  operations. 

e  —  Cultural  operations  without  tapping.  1.  In  the  young  stands  beginning  with 
about  5  years:  freeing  of  seedlings  and  clearing  of  brush  heather.  2.  In  stands  10  to 
20  years  old:  "  depressages,"  and  thinnings  with  gradual  pruning  of  lower  branches  up 
to  a  height  of  11.5  feet  on  the  bole.  The  foregoing  system  (which  slightly  modifies  the 
past  procedure  in  state  forests  as  can  be  seen  from  the  text)  is  now  (1920)  to  be  standard 
for  all  forests  under  public  forest  management. 


NEW  TAPPING  SCHEME 


193 


New  Tapping  Scheme.  —  The  French  have  abandoned  the  fifth  year 
of  tapping  (see  Fig.  17,  a  and  b)  because  of  the  following  objections:  (1) 
Difficulty  of  chipping  the  face  when  it  is  over  9.8  feet  in  height;  (2)  this 
high  face,  which  is  often  too  deep  because  of  the  difficulty  of  accurate 
chipping,  heals  poorly  or  at  least  very  slowly;  (3)  an  important  part  of 
the  bole  is  damaged  by  a  high  face.  For  these  reasons  the  tapping  period 
has  been  changed  from  5  to  4  years.  The  dimensions  for  the  faces  now 
are: 

TABLE  21.— WIDTH  AND  HEIGHT  OF  FACES 


Year 

Width 

Height 

Centimeters 

Inches 

Centimeters 

Inches 

1 

2 
3 

4 
Total 

9 
9 

8 
7  to  6 

3.5 
3.5 
3.1 

2.75  to  2.36 

60 
60 
75 
95 
2.90  meters 

23.6 
23.6 
29.5 
37.4 
9.5  feet 

With  the  former  fifth  year  system  in  vogue  the  total  height  was  3.70 
meters  (12.1  feet)  before  1904;  3.40  meters  (11.1  feet)  from  1904  to  1909; 
and  3.20  meters  (10.4  feet)  since  1910.  A  translation  of  the  official  tap- 
ping rules  is  given  in  the  Appendix,  p.  429. 

According  to  Cattin  and  Saint- J  ours  a  period  of  rest  of  1  or  2  years  is 
not  always  necessary  with  strong,  thrifty  trees,  although  the  annual 
growth  is  unquestionably  increased  if  the  rest  is  given.  On  the  Florida 
National  Forest  in  the  United  States  there  are  6  years  of  tapping  followed 
by  3  years  of  rest ;  with  the  French  system  of  tapping  such  a  period  of  rest 
is  generally  considered  unnecessary. 

In  the  forest  of  La  Teste  trees  but  7,  10,  and  12  inches  in  diameter  each 
(being  tapped  to  death)  had  three  faces  the  first  year  and  later  four  to  five. 
The  trees  tapped  alive  had  one  face  only.  Formerly,  the  faces  began  on 
the  south  side  and  went  to  the  north,  then  to  the  west,  and  then  to  the 
east.  Now  the  first  face  is  placed  on  the  east  side  of  the  tree  (away  from 
the  ocean)  where  the  growth  is  best,  then  to  the  west;  the  third  and  fourth 
faces  being  regulated  by  the  contour  of  the  tree.  The  best  growth  in  this 
locality  is  always  opposite  the  ocean  and  the  prevailing  winds. 

This  reduction  in  the  length  of  the  tapping  period,  when  applied  to 
forests  being  worked  on  5-year  cycles,  will  mean  the  revision  of  working 
plans.  The  regeneration  by  clear  cutting  will  be  every  4  years  instead  of 
5  years  as  formerly,  and  the  cycle  for  thinnings  will  also  be  reduced  from  5 
to  4  years.     In  the  future  the  cleanings  will  be  made  earfier  after  re- 


194 


FORESTRY  IN  THE   LANDES 


generation,  since  experience  has  shown  the  inconvenience  of  waiting  for 
5,  6,  or  7  years  as  was  formerly  done. 


Fig.  17  (o). — -Maritime  pine  57  years  old  during  improvement  felling.     The  face 
on  the  first  tree,  which  is  being  tapped  aUve,  has  been  worked  only  one  week. 
(&).  —  Small  tree  being  tapped  to  death  prior  to  utihzation  for  mine  props. 


Tapping  Other  Species.  —  According  to  unpubHshed  notes  loaned  the 
writer  by  Cuif  in  1912,  he  has  concluded  finally  that  the  tapping  of 
Austrian  or  Scotch  pine  will  never  be  commercially  practicable  without  a 
decided  increase  in  present  turpentine  and  rosin  prices.^^  This  agrees 
with  the  results  in  other  forests  which  are  not  usually  tapped  for  resin. 
For  example,  in  Corsica,  during  the  extremely  high  prices  caused  by  the 
American  Civil  War,  Corsican  pine  had  been  tapped  for  awhile  and  then 
abandoned ;  the  same  was  true  of  California  yellow  pine. 

2^  Le  Gemmage  du  pin  nou-  d'Autriche  et  du  pin  sylvestre  en  Meurthe-et-Moselle, 
par  Cuif,  1912  (unpublished  notes). 


RESIN   SALES  •  195 

Resin  Sales.  —  According  to  a  digest  of  resin  sales  made  at  Mont-de- 
Marsan,  October  5,  1909,  for  the  period  1910  to  1914,  inclusive,  the  policy 
of  favoring  the  small  operator  is  just  as  much  in  evidence  as  with  ordinary 
timber  sales  in  other  parts  of  France.  The  payments  which  are  made 
annually  vary  between  $400  and  $2,000  and,  ordinarily  are  less  than 
$1,500.  If  a  large  company,  for  example,  desired  to  secure  a  considerable 
area  for  resin  operations,  it  would  be  necessary  for  it  to  bid  in  a  number 
of  contiguous  or  nearly  contiguous  resin  sales,  some  of  which  might  be 
advantageously  located  for  a  small  local  operator.  This  clearly  results  in 
a  better  price  and  gives  the  small  operator  an  excellent  chance  to  secure 
areas  convenient  to  his  home.  Each  bidder  is  supplied  with  detailed 
data  as  to  the  stand  and  estimated  products,  boundaries,  methods  of 
removal,  and  charges,  as  in  the  case  of  ordinary  timber  sales.  An 
example  follows: 

"Article  1.  —  Forest  of  Biscarrosse  —  Fifth  series.  —  Affectation  1  (p)  Canton  dune 
de  Jaongue-Soule.     First  lot,  area  91  acres. 

Clear-cut  regeneration  felling,  with  privileges  of  tapping  to  death  for  4  years  from 
1910  to  1913,  comprising  the  exploitation  of  15,379  pines,  to  wit: 

D.  B.  H.  inches  =  Poles       8        9       10      11       12     13     14    15    16  17  18  19 
15,379  pines  =  235     3248  3938  3857  1898  841  707  486  118  30  13    6    2 

Estimated  products:  Lumber  3,164  cubic  meters;  firewood,  1,186  stares;  resin  1,762 
hectoUters. 

Boundaries:  N.  fire  hne  boundary  of  the  Gironde;  E.  fire  line  parallel  No.  2;  S.  second 
lot;  W.  communal  water  hollow  of  Jaongue-Soule. 

Removal:  By  the  Cugnes  and  Brofond  roads. 

Accessory  exploitation:  Lopping  understory.     Products  may  be  left  as  they  lie. 

Charges:  Repair  of  roads,  $173.70. 

Fire  tool  box:  The  contractor  shall  install,  either  in  a  tapper's  cabin  or  in  a  special 
locked  box,  in  a  place  to  be  designated  by  the  local  forest  officer,  the  following  tools  — 
2  axes,  2  sickles,  2  shovels,  and  2  rakes.  The  kind  of  tools  will  be  selected  by  the  head 
ranger;  they  will  remain  the  property  of  the  contractor  who  will  keep  them  intact  and 
in  good  condition;  the  depot  will  be  ready  by  January  31  following  the  sale." 

The  following  special  clauses  were  specified : 

"The  extracting  of  resin  will  take  place  in  the  following  manner  instead  of  as  specified 
in  Art.  19  of  the  specifications  (see  Appendix,  p.  429) : 

Of  the  trees  to  be  tapped  alive  those  so  designated  by  the  Forest  Service  may  re- 
ceive two  faces. 

If  the  period  of  tapping  is  5  years,  the  face  may  be  raised  23.6  inches  during  the 
first  two  years;  25.6  inches  during  the  third  and  fourth  years,  and  27.5  inches  during 
the  fifth,  provided  the  total  height  of  the  face  does  not  exceed  10.5  feet.  If  this  period 
is  four  years,  the  face  may  be  raised  25.6  inches  the  first  year,  27.5  inches  during  the 
second  and  third  years,  and  29.5  inches  during  the  fourth,  provided  the  total  height 
of  the  face  does  not  exceed  9.2  feet.  In  all  cases  the  width  of  the  face  must  not  exceed 
the  following  dimensions:  During  the  first  year  3.5  inches,  during  the  second  3.1  inches, 
during  the  third  2.8  inches,  during  the  fourth  2.4  inches,  during  the  fifth  2  inches. 


196  FORESTRY   IN   THE   LANDES 

The  decrease  in  the  width  wUl  be  made  gradually  in  such  manner  that  the  width  at 
the  end  of  each  year  will  equal  that  of  the  next  year. 

The  faces  will  be  made  .  .  .  so  as  to  divide  the  circumference  of  the  tree  in  three 
practically  equal  parts,  the  second  face  to  be  opened  at  the  right  (facing  it)  of  the  first. 
The  faces  shall  be  raised  by  following  the  grain  of  the  wood.  The  other  non-conflicting 
stipulation  of  Article  19  shall  remain  in  force." 

The  regular  French  specifications  covering  resin  operations  are  given 
in  full,  as  are  those  for  the  United  States  and  for  British  India,  in  the 
Appendix. 

Each  operator  is  informed  that  payment  must  be  made  annually  for 
a  period  of  five  years,  that  in  the  thinnings  the  pines  to  be  tapped  to 
death  are  marked  with  two  imprints  of  the  State  marking  hatchets,  one 
on  the  bole  and  one  on  the  roots,  while  trees  to  be  tapped  permanently 
(gemmage  a  vie)  with  one  face  are  stamped  once  on  the  bole;  if  two  faces, 
two  stamps  on  the  bole,  one  below  the  other.  Contractors  who  do  not 
furnish  the  fire  fighting  tools  (prescribed  under  "charges")  must  under- 
stand that  they  will  be  bought  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  and 
charged  to  their  account.  Foreign  workmen  can  be  hired  only  up  to 
10  per  cent  of  the  total  number  employed.  A  fixed  price  for  the  trans- 
portation of  products  from  Federal  forests  is  agreed  upon  with  the  local 
railways  and  the  rates  furnished  the  contractor.  In  some  instances 
the  Forest  Service  has  built  both  narrow  and  broad  gauge  railways  on 
State  forests  which  are  leased  to  the  operator  or  to  connecting  lines. 

French  Tools  for  Tapping  and  Their  Use.  —  Fig.  18  ^^  shows  the  principal 
French  tools  used  in  tapping  maritime  pine  to  secure  the  resin  for  the 
manufacture  of  turpentine.  The  letters  following  correspond  to  those  in 
the  figure. 

(a)  Barrasquit  d'Espourga.  —  This  tool  is  used  to  shave  off  the  bark 
of  trees  to  be  tapped.  This  is  a  preliminary  operation  made  at  the 
beginning  of  each  year;  the  workman  shaves  the  bark  vertically  from 
top  to  bottom  to  remove  the  dry  and  hard  superficial  bark,  so  as  to  make 
the  tapping  easier.  The  area  cleaned  is  11.8  to  13.7  inches  wider  and 
3.9  to  5.9  inches  higher  than  the  dimensions  of  the  proposed  face.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  shaving  is  usually  done  with  an 
ordinary  axe  for  the  first  year  of  tapping,  because  the  face  is  low  and 
easily  reached;  for  the  second  year  of  tapping  it  is  sometimes  done  with 
an  axe  or  with  the  short-handled  barrasquit.  Before  the  third  or  fourth 
year,  the  cleaning  is  always  done  with  the  instrument  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  "barrasquit  de  barrasque,"  a  similar  tool,  is  used  to  scrape 
the  dry,  solidified  resin  from  the  face  at  the  end  of  the  season.     This 

25  Adapted  from  Plate  IX,  Bulletin  229,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  The  names  of 
the  instruments  have  been  added  in  the  legend  under  the  figure  and  the  description  of 
use  materially  changed  and  corrected. 


FRENCH  TOOLS   FOR  TAPPING  AND  THEIR  USE  197 


SCALE  OF  INCHES 


Fig  18.  —  French  Turpentine  Tools,  (a)  Barrasquit  d'espourga;  (6)  Palette  (or 
palinette);  (c)  Hapchot  (new  model  is  called  bridon) ;  (d)  Rasclet;  (e)  Place-crampon 
(or  pousse-crampon). 


198  FORESTRY   IN   THE   LANDES 

so-called  scrape  is  collected  in  a  bucket  at  each  tree,  or  is  allowed  to  fall 
on  a  piece  of  cloth  spread  around  the  base  of  the  tree. 

(6)  Palette  (or  Palinette).  —  A  flat  trowel,  or  scrape,  for  transferring 
the  soft  resin  from  the  pots  (attached  to  the  trees)  to  the  collection 
bucket.  The  short  handle  shown  in  the  figure  (6)  is  of  wood,  usually 
reinforced  with  an  iron  band.  The  wooden  bucket,  or  "I'escouarte," 
usually  holds  5.2  gallons.  When  the  bucket  is  full  the  resin  is  trans- 
ferred to  a  barrel,  used  for  transport  to  the  turpentine  still,  or  is  stored 
temporarily  in  a  "bare,"  a  wooden  tank  sunk  in  the  sand  and  protected 
with  a  wooden  cover.     A  bare  holds  60.7  to  92.4  gallons. 

(c)  Hapchot  {new  model  is  called  Bridon).  —  This  is  the  special  axe 
for  clipping  the  face.  The  successive  shavings  are  made  from  right  to 
left,  or  from  the  top  downward;  the  left  hand  is  placed  on  top,  resting 
against  the  iron  of  the  axe;  the  right  hand  underneath  grips  the  wooden 
handle  (see  Fig.  17b).  Each  shaving  is  cut  clean  and  thin  and  starts 
the  resin  canals  flowing  again  after  they  have  become  clogged  up.  The 
length  of  handle  depends  on  the  height  of  the  incision  above  the  ground; 
it  is  used  for  clipping  faces  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  year  periods. 
If  used  for  the  fourth  and  fifth  years  (fifth  year  now  generally  abandoned) 
the  workman  must  use  a  ladder,  usually  simply  a  notched  pole. 

(d)  Rasclet.  —  The  curved  cutting  edge  (at  the  right)  is  used  for 
clipping  the  high  faces  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  years  of  tapping.  The  tool 
has  a  long  handle  and  is  used  like  the  hapchot,  described  above.  The 
straight  cutting  edge  (at  the  left)  is  used  for  making  incisions  to  hold  thin, 
flat  pieces  of  wood  which  prevent  the  gum  from  dripping  on  the  gi-ound 
and  guide  it  into  the  pot. 

(e)  Place-Crampon  (or  Pousse-Crampon) .  —  The  place-crampon  is 
used  for  inserting  at  the  base  of  the  face  the  zinc  blade,  or  crampon, 
which  finally  guides  the  resin  into  the  pot  without  any  waste.  The 
workman  holds  the  place-crampon  in  his  left  hand  with  convex  face 
(shown  in  Fig.  18)  toward  the  soil,  the  edge  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
face  where  he  wishes  to  insert  the  gutter.  It  is  then  tapped  with  a  wooden 
mallet,  held  in  the  right  hand,  and  an  incision  made  about  one-fifth  of 
an  inch  into  the  wood  of  the  tree.  The  place-crampon  is  then  pulled 
out,  the  gutter  tapped  into  place,  and  the  pot  is  then  hung  below  the 
gutter.  The  tin  trays  which  hold  the  resin  (in  use  at  La  Teste)  were  2.3 
by  6  inches;  but  usually  earthenware  pots  are  used  of  the  same  capacity.-^ 

26  In  1836  (according  to  J.  H.  Ricard)  H.  Serres  suggested  terra  cotta  troughs  in- 
stead of  the  wasteful  "box"  cut  in  the  base  of  the  tree.  Hughes,  in  1841,  suggested  a 
small  earthenware  pot  but  the  improved  methods  were  not  adopted  until  about  1855 
or  later.  Galvanized  sheet-iron  "cups"  have  been  tried  because  they  are  lighter 
than  the  earthenware  pots.  The  nail  to  hold  the  cup  is  a  bad  feature,  since  it  might 
be  left  in  the  butt  log  and  cause  damage  to  saws  at  the  mill.     Probably  the  ideal  "cup" 


TECHNIQUE  OF  TAPPING  199 

French  and  American  Methods  Contrasted.  —  The  main  difference 
between  tapping  methods  in  France  and  the  United  States  on  National 
Forests  seems  to  be  in  the  width  of  the  face  and  the  annual  rate  of  in- 
crease in  its  height,  and  the  number  of  faces  per  tree.  In  the  United 
States  the  first  streak  cannot  begin  higher  than  10  inches  above  the 
ground.  In  France  it  can  be  anywhere  above  the  root  swelling.  In 
the  United  States  the  maximum  depth  of  streak  is  0.5  inch;  in  France 
it  is  approximately  0.4  inch.  In  the  United  States  in  Federal  tapping 
operations  ^^  no  tree  less  than  10  inches  can  be  tapped,  and  trees  16 
inches  and  over  can  have  two  faces,  while  trees  10  to  16  inches  can 
have  but  one  face.  In  France  the  minimum  diameter  of  trees  tapped 
alive  on  State  forests  (trees  to  be  removed  in  thinnings  can  be  tapped 
to  death  no  matter  how  small)  is  13  inches  and  the  number  of  faces  is 
specially  designated  by  the  local  forest  officer.  In  the  United  States  the 
face  can  be  12  to  14  inches  wide  with  no  specified  decrease  in  width  as 
the  face  proceeds  up  the  tree.  In  France  it  is  3.5  to  2.4  inches,  decreasing 
each  year  as  the  distance  above  the  ground  increases.  The  maximum 
height  increase  per  year  in  the  United  States  is  16  inches,  while  in  France 
the  face  can  be  lengthened  24  to  26  inches,  and  even  up  to  39  inches 
in  case  of  4-year  tappings.  Without  exhaustive  experiments  the  best 
methods  to  follow  cannot  be  stated,  but  tentative  results  from  the  Florida 
Forest  in  the  United  States  show  the  French  method  is  not  applicable 
to  mature,  large  timber  and  that  the  yield  in  resin  per  square  inch  of  face 
is  slightly  greater  with  the  American  (Government)  method  of  wide  faces. 

Technique  of  Tapping.  —  The  trees  (on  State  forests)  for  tapping  alive 
are  blazed  on  the  bark  and  stamped  "  AF  "  at  the  base  and  at  breast  height. 

It  is  necessary  ^^  for  a  good  worker  to  be  able  to  cut  a  thin,  even  slice 
of  wood  to  increase  face  and  to  continue  the  face  vertically  following  the 
grain  of  the  wood.  The  sHver  is  about  3  inches  wide,  5  to  7  inches  long, 
and  usually  less  than  0.4  inch  deep.  The  first  step  is  always  to  smooth 
the  outer  bark  with  the  axe.  The  tendency  is  to  bark  too  large  rather 
than  too  small  an  area.  In  placing  the  gutters  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  cut  into  the  tree  with  the  place-crampon  more  than  0.2  inch;  this 
is  a  sufficient  depth,  inasmuch  as  the  gutter  is  glued  by  the  sap  as  soon  as 
it  flows,  and  besides  if  the  gutters  are  set  too  deep  it  is  very  difficult  to 
remove  them  in  the  autumn.  The  gutter  should,  of  course,  be  sHghtly 
inclined  toward  the  ground  so  that  the  sap  will  run  off  into  the  cup. 
has  not  yet  been  invented.  It  must  be  easy  to  place,  secure,  easy  to  remove,  and  must 
not  damage  the  tree. 

Ricard  states  that  the  yield  of  resin  is  greatest  near  the  ocean,  with  thrifty,  rapidly 
growing  trees,  with  thin  chipping  at  frequent  intervals,  and  with  hot  weather. 

-''  It  would  be  unwise  to  attempt  to  pass  legislation  limiting  the  size  of  trees  that 
should  be  tapped.     This  is  a  technical  problem  to  be  solved  for  each  forest. 

28  Le  Pin  Maritime  (Manuel  Pratique)  par  R.  Cattin  et  J.  J.  Saint-Jours. 


200  FORESTRY  IN  THE  LANDES 

There  seems  to  be  a  good  deal  of  variation  in  the  frequency  of  tapping. 
Some  chip  once  a  week  during  the  entire  season,  others  every  5  days, 
while  still  others  will  only  chip  once  every  12  to  15  days;  this  latter 
method  decreases  the  resin  flow.  On  the  whole,  it  is  better  to  chip  at 
regular  intervals,  with  the  rule  that  the  chipping  would  be  more  frequent 
during  the  hot  weather  in  the  summer  than  during  the  spring  or  autumn. 
A  common  rule  followed  in  the  Landes  is  to  "chip  once  every  5  days  from 
May  15  to  September  15  and  once  a  week  during  the  remainder  of  the 
period." 

The  cups  are  usually  cleaned  seven  times  a  year  and  the  rain  is  poured 
out  after  chipping.  The  trees  are  scraped  once  sometime  between 
October  and  December.  It  is  usually  recommended  to  begin  the  first 
of  March  and  continue  until  the  end  of  October.-^ 

It  is  not  only  necessary  to  secure  a  quantity'^"  of  gum  but  also  to  secure 
a  good  quality.  Therefore,  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  deteriorate  in  the 
cups.  Yet  to  collect  too  frequently  means  unnecessary  expense.  To  dip 
ten  times  per  season  is  hardly  necessary,  while  seven  or  eight  times  is  a 
good  average.  Five  [collections  a  year,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  often 
enough.  The  difference  between  good,  clean  resin  and  that  which  is  full 
of  chips  and  other  debris  may  be  as  much  as  a  dollar  per  barrel. 

Effect  of  Tapping.  —  There  is  no  question  but  that  the  turpentine 
operation  decreases  the  rate  of  growth  of  maritime  pine,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  makes  the  wood  harder  and  more  durable  and  the  im- 
pregnation even  extends  to  the  heartwood.  The  general  opinion  is 
that  tapped  trees  are  better  for  flooring,  boards,  ties,  and  planks,  while 
untapped  pine  is  better  for  telegraph  poles,  mine  props,  and  box  boards. 
Unquestionably  the  quality  of  the  wood  diminishes  after  25  to  30  years 
of  tapping  alive,  and  is  inferior  to  wood  cut  from  trees  tapped  to  death  for 
only  3  to  4  years. 

29  J.  H.  Ricard,  writing  in  1910,  made  the  following  conclusions:  Tapping  opera- 
tions are  from  March  to  October.  The  face  should  be  chipped  every  8  days  in  spring 
and  fall  and  every  4  to  5  days  in  summer.  The  pot  should  be  emptied  every  2  to  3 
weeks  and  there  should  be  one  barrel  for  storage  per  1,000  trees  tapped.  There  are 
about  40  chippings  per  season  and  the  cut  should  be  less  rather  than  more  than  0.3 
inch;  wide  faces  are  unnecessary  because  the  resin  comes  from  the  sides  of  the  cut  and 
"the  return  in  resin  has  not  been  proportional  to  the  surface  of  the  face."  After  4 
years  of  tapping.trees  should  be  given  a  rest  of  2  to  3  years.  Trees  under  8  inches  in 
diameter  are  rarely  tapped  unless  they  are  to  be  removed  in  thinnings.  A  workman 
can  chip  1,000  to  2,000  pine  per  day,  according  to  the  ground,  and  often  tends  about 
4,000  trees. 

30  The  workmen  received,  before  the  war,  one-half  the  resm  for  their  pay  and  the 
operator  or  owner  furnished  the  cups  and  gutters.  The  smoothing  off  of  the  bark 
begins  the  last  of  February  and  the  scraping  off  of  dried  pitch  is  usually  finished  in 
early  December.  In  the  interim  the  resin  tappers  work  at  clearing  underbrush  and 
pruning  young  stands. 


UTILIZATION,  LOGGING,   AND  LOCAL  SPECIFICATIONS         201 

Utilization,  Logging,  and  Local  Specifications.  —  The  trees  from  early 
thinnings  which  range  from  about  6.5  to  12  feet  in  length  and  from  3  to  4 
inches  in  diameter  up  are  utilized  for  mine  props.  They  are  peeled  when 
intended  for  use  in  the  coal  mines  of  France,  and  left  with  bark  on  for 
export  to  England.  Props  are  also  taken  from  the  tops  of  mature  trees 
cut  for  lumber. 

Later  thinnings  are  utilized  for  props  or  sawlogs  and  so  far  as  possible 
for  telegraph  poles.  These  poles  range  from  26  to  49  feet  in  length;  first- 
class  poles  must  have  a  diameter  inside  bark  of  6  inches  at  3.3  feet  from 
the  butt  and  4.5  inches  at  the  top;  and  the  second-class  poles,  10.5  inches 
3.3  feet  from  the  butt  and  4.5  inches  at  the  tops.  All  poles  are  peeled  in 
the  woods. 

In  cutting  saw  timber  the  felling  is  done  with  saws,  and  the  logs  are 
immediately  bucked  into  lengths  of  6.5  to  13  feet;  9  feet  is  the  usual 
length.  These  short  lengths  are  to  eliminate  crooks  and  to  make  hand- 
ling easier.  The  logs  are  then  peeled,  since  after  seasoning  they  are  far 
easier  to  handle.  The  bark  left  on  the  ground  also  serves  to  build  up 
the  soil.  Logging  is  done  with  two-wheeled  mule  carts,  the  logs  being 
lifted  by  hand  into  the  carts,  the  tires  of  the  wheels  are  wide  enough  to 
permit  their  use  on  sandy  roads. 

Many  of  the  sawmills  are  stationary  and  are  located  on  the  railroads. 
Logs  are  hauled  to  these  sawmills  for  considerable  distances  on  the  met- 
alled roads  with  the  same  conveyances.  However,  because  the  coupes 
are  usually  small,  the  bulk  of  the  lumber  cut  in  the  Landes  is  produced 
by  small  portable  band  mills  that  are  set  in  the  middle  of  the  tract  to 
be  cut.  The  lumber  is  then  hauled  to  the  station  in  mule  carts.  These 
small  band  mills  are  quickly  moved  from  one  site  to  another,  and  their 
adaptation  for  use  under  similar  conditions  in  America  seems  desirable. 
A  large  part  of  the  production  of  such  mills  consists  of  sawed  railroad 
ties. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  specifications  of  wood  products  cut 
from  maritime  pine: 

Telegraph  poles.  —  23  to  39  feet  in  length  and  up  to  39  inches  in  diameter  inside 
bark,  4  inches. 

Piling.  —  All  lengths  minimum  diameter  at  the  small  end,  13  inches. 

Box  boards.  —  6.5  to  7.7  feet  in  length  and  8  to  12  inches  in  width,  0.4  to  0.8  of  an 
inch  thick. 

Flooring.  —  Length  variable,  width  3.1  to  5.9  inches,  and  thickness  1.1  inches. 

Beams  (Grosse  Charpente).  —  Length  from  13  feet  up  by  9.8  to  12.6  by  7.1  to  7.8 
inches. 

Joists.  —  Length  from  9.8  feet  up  and  7.1  to  7.8  inches  by  3.9  to  4.3  square. 

Charcoal.  —  Usually  sold  in  lO-barrel  lots  (barrel  of  300  quarts). 

Ordinary  fire  wood.  —  Length  3.3  feet  with  sale  unit  a  stack  3.3  feet  long  on  the  base 
by  4.4  high. 

Lath,  etc.  —  Miscellaneous  dimensions. 


202  FORESTRY   IN   THE   LANDES 

Bert  is  authority  for  the  following  data: 

"Two  culjic  meters  (about  550  board  feet)  of  maritime  pine  will  furnish  1  ton  of 
boards.  For  rough  calculations  the  average  volume  of  mine  props  is  ...  20  mine 
props  to' the  ton.  A  cubic  meter  of  fuel  wood  weighs  0.7  ton,  expanding  to  1|  steres. 
The  weight  of  a  stere  (0.227  cord)  is  0.467  of  a  ton.  A  barrel  of  resin  (Gironde)  of 
235  quarts  weighs  0.2415  of  a  ton  with  a  density  of  1.05.  A  barrel  of  resin  (Landes) 
of  340  quarts  weighs  0.357  of  a  ton." 

A  235-quart  barrel  produces  110  pounds  of  turpentine  and  352  pounds  of  dry 
material,  chiefly  resin. 

Yield  of  Maritime  Pine.  —  In  1892  there  were  105,763  acres  of  conifer 
State  high  forests  in  the  Landes,  and  in  addition,  22,625  acres,  or  between 
one-fourth  and  one-fifth  as  much  as  the  productive  area,  had  to  be  given 
up  to  protection.  The  production  amounted  to  30,072  cubic  meters  of 
timber  (about  8,360,000  feet  board  measure  or  80  feet  per  acre)  and  4,161,- 
960  pounds  of  resin. 

The  yield  of  maritime  pine  stands  ^^  in  the  Mont-de-Marsan  Inspection 
for  the  year  1905  showed  a  total  of  47.6  cubic  meters  per  acre  (on  an  area 
of  22.2  acres)  for  pine  40  to  50  years  old.     According  to  Lapasse: 

"The  resinous  products  represent  approximately  one-fifteenth  the  total  weight 
or  7  per  cent  of  the  yield  in  weight  of  a  maritime  pine  felling;  the  proportion  of  the 
product  realized  then,  in  weight,  is  wood  product  fourteen-fifteenths  or  93  per  cent, 
resinous  products  one-fifteenth  or  7  per  cent.  The  production  of  resin  is  variable; 
it  depends  on  the  density  of  the  stand,  on  the  underwood,  on  the  state  of  growth,  the 
size  of  the  trees,  the  age  of  the  face,  the  distance  from  the  ocean,  and  on  the  skill  of 
the  workman.  The  yield  attains  its  maximum  in  open  stands  completely  cleared  of 
undergrowth,  situated  near  the  sea  and  during  the  second  or  third  year  of  tapping. 
A  humid  and  hot  atmosphere  favors  the  secretion  of  gum.  The  yield  in  resin  is,  on  an 
average  for  1,000  trees  tapped  alive,  640  quarts  .  .  .  per  year,  and  in  5  years,  the  dura- 
tion of  the  tapping  alive,  10,200  quarts.  One  might  say  that  .  .  .  166  pines  can  yield 
annually  a  barrel  of  resin,  but  in  order  to  collect  100  quarts  it  is  necessary  to  have  50 
pines  tapped  alive,  each  tree  producing  an  average  of  two  quarts.  In  the  thinnings 
1,000  trees  tapped  to  death  may  yield  (according  to  the  size  of  the  trees)  from  four  to 
six  barrels  of  340  quarts  each  or  an  average  of  five  barrels  or  1,700  quarts  per  year 
and  in  the  4  years'  duration  of  the  tapping  to  death,  6,800  quarts.  In  this  case,  200 
pines  .  .  .  produce  annually  a  barrel  or  59  pines  tapped  to  death  are  necessary  to 
obtain  100  quarts  of  resin.  In  the  regeneration  fellings  with  pine  65  to  70  years  old 
with  four  faces  each,  each  face  can  produce  1^  quarts  or  6  quarts  per  tree  per  year. 
One  thousand  pines  tapped  to  death  should  produce  6,000  quarts  or  about  18  barrels 
per  year,  and  24,000  quarts  in  4  years.  An  acre  stocked  on  an  average  with  80  trees 
will  yield  about  480  quarts  of  resin  per  year  and  1,920  in  4  years.  To  collect  100  quarts 
of  resin  it  is  necessary  to  have  seventeen  pines  tapped  to  death  per  year." 

These  figures  are  below  rather  than  above  the  average.  In  the  thin- 
nings marked  during  1900  to  1905  on  a  total  area  of  57,847  acres  in  the 

31  Rendement  des  Forets  Domaniales  de  pin  maritime  dans  les  dunes  landaises.  Revue 
des  Eaux  et  Forets,  June  1906.  To  simplify  the  calculations  the  author  has  taken  a 
liter  as  equal  to  1  Uquid  quart,  whereas  a  liter  is  really  1.05671  quarts  (liquid). 


PROTECTION  203 

Inspection  of  Mont-de-Mars  an,  with  the  trees  averaging  40  years  in 
age,  the  average  yields  per  acre  were  as  follows:  (1)  Timber  products, 
22  pines  removed,  with  a  volume  excluding  branches  of  3.6  cubic  meters, 
about  1|  cords  (or  roughly  750  board  feet).  (2)  Resin  products,  total 
yield  for  the  5  years  of  tapping,  including  the  pine  tapped  alive,  340  quarts. 

The  average  return  per  acre  from  the  timber  was  $3.42  (average  price 
95  cents  per  cubic  meter  on  the  stump).  During  this  period  the  value 
of  resin  varied  from  $10.61  to  $17.37  a  barrel  (of  340  quarts).  Exclud- 
ing 50  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  resin  as  the  labor  cost  the  net  value 
of  resin  rights  was  $1.98  per  100  quarts,  and  the  total  average  yield  from 
thinnings  was  $10.15  per  acre  ($2.03  per  year).  Thus  the  yield  from 
resin  is  twice  that  of  timber. 

During  the  same  period  the  clear-cut  regeneration  fellings  yielded 
an  average  of  131  trees  per  acre  (80  to  84  trees  per  acre  is  a  fairer  average), 
and  the  yield  per  acre  was  48  cubic  meters  —  6,500  quarts  of  resin  (about 
10.9  thousand  feet  board  measure)  at  a  total  net  price  of  $116.76  per 
acre  ^^  for  land  which,  had  it  not  been  forested,  would  not  only  have 
been  worthless  to-day  hut  would  even  have  constituted  a  menace. 

For  the  year  1905  the  gross  receipts  from  all  the  State  forests  in  the 
Landes  Department  amounted  to  $111,788,  with  an  expense  for  adminis- 
tration of  $15,976,  making  a  net  revenue  of  $91,941  for  56,762  acres, 
or  a  net  yield  per  acre  per  year  of  $1.67.  In  1889  there  was  a  deficit  of 
$7,008  in  the  Landes.  Eight  years  later,  1897,  there  was  a  net  surplus 
of  $5,793  while,  after  eight  years  more,  the  revenue  had  increased  to 
almost  $96,500.  This  increase  in  revenue  was  partly  in  producing 
capacity  and  partly  in  the  increased  value  of  the  product. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  yield  in  cubic  meters,  steres,  and 
hectoliters  (100  quarts)  with  the  annual  charge.^^  According  to  data 
furnished  by  De  Lapasse  in  one  locality  62,840  trees  furnished  a  total  of 
14,640  cubic  meters,  5,489  steres,  and  7,900  hectoliters  at  a  total  annual 
charge  of  $9,090. 

On  a  unit  basis  per  tree  the  yield  is  0.28  cubic  meter,  0.08  stere, 
0.12  hectoliter  at  an  annual  cost  to  the  operator  of  13  cents.  The  rela- 
tive yield  from  thinnings  is  naturally  very  much  less,  since  the  trees 
are  that  much  smaller. 

Protection.  —  When  the  dune  reclamation  work  began,  the  commission 
(see  p.  173)  found  it  very  necessary  to  have  a  permanent  local  force  to 
prevent  grazing  trespass.  This  trespass  was  considered  forest  trespass 
and  therefore  forest  guards  were  placed  in  charge,  and  as  early  as  1809 
the  Prefect  of  the  Gironde  decreed  that  "  burning  can  under  no  circum- 

^'  Huff  el  cites  the  average  net  yield  as  $2.22  per  acre  per  year,  which  agrees  closely 
with  Bert's  estimate  of  $2.16. 
33  Huffel,  Vol.  I,  p.  183. 


204  FORESTRY  IN  THE   LANDES 

stances  extend  over  more  than  one-sixth  the  land  owned  by  each  com- 
mune," and  the  local  forest  officer  must  be  consulted.  It  is  interesting 
that,  dating  from  1741,  there  was  a  law  that  there  could  be  no  grazing 
for  5  years  following  the  burning  of  forest  land.  A  similar  law  is  now 
in  force  in  Tunisia  and  Algeria  to  punish  the  natives  for  burning  over 
grazing  ground. 

Even  when  the  tendency  to  set  fire  decreased,  accidents  tended  to 
increase  the  fire  danger  in  a  region  where  the  hazard  was  already  very 
great.  Notwithstanding  the  strict  rules  and  fines  against  setting  fire 
within  328  feet  of  forest,  heather,  or  wood,  fires  have  always  done  con- 
siderable damage  in  the  maritime  pine  belt  due  to  inflammable  under- 
brush and  regeneration,  high  winds,  and  drought.  During  the  10-year 
period,  1883-1892,  only  254  acres  were  burned  or  0.0002  of  the  area 
(protected  by  the  State  service)  per  year  and  0.002  per  year  of  the 
communal  forest  area.  In  the  area  not  under  Federal  control  the 
relationship  between  the  area  burned  each  year  and  the  area  not  burned 
was  as  0.78  is  to  100.  In  other  words,  11,621  acres  were  burned  over 
each  year  out  of  a  total  area  of  about  1,482,626  acres. 

In  the  Landes  the  regulations  are  extremely  strict  against  trespass 
and  against  the  use  of  fire  by  contractors.     The  following  is  an  example: 

"It  is  strictly  forbidden: 

"1.  To  smoke,  to  light  matches,  or  to  carry  a  fire  of  any  kind  whatsoever  in  the 
forest  or  on  forest  soil. 

"2.  To  damage,  move,  or  tear  up  any  stakes,  signs,  poles,  boundary  notices,  or 
notices  of  any  kind  whatsoever  erected  by  administrative  authority. 

"3.  To  remove  sand,  dry  pine  needles,  sod,  or  any  other  product  of  the  forest  soil. 
Violations  will  be  followed  by  prosecution." 

According  to  Bert: 

"The  protection  measures  include;  (1)  Installation  of  tool  caches  in  forest  houses 
and  in  the  cutting  areas;  (2)  the  establishment  of  telephone  lines  connecting  certain 
forest  houses  with  the  nearest  telegraph  office;  (3)  the  construction  of  watch  towers 
in  the  Inspection  of  Mont-de-Marsan." 

Additional  protective  measures  are:  The  establishment  of  charcoal 
pits  is  not  allowed  in  the  interior  of  pine  forests  (except  in  cleared  open- 
ings at  least  33  feet  from  the  nearest  tree);  charcoal  burning  cannot 
be  done  before  the  first  of  October  or  after  the  first  of  April  of  each 
year  (that  is,  during  the  fire  season),  and  the  charcoal  could  not  be 
removed  until  nine  days  after  the  burning  was  finished;  stacks  of  saw- 
mills had  to  be  covered  with  spark  arresters  and  the  ground  cleared. 
The  conclusion  was  finally  reached  that  fire  fines  were  indispensable. 
Accordingly  main  fire  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
about  3,280  feet  apart  and  33  feet  wide,  were  constructed;  in  addition 


PROTECTION  205 

each  forest  was  divided  into  compartments  of  247  acres,  separated  by 
fire  lines  of  33  feet  in  width.  The  weeds,  grass,  and  vegetable  debris 
were  all  removed  from  the  lines.  As  a  rule  these  lines  were  used  to  back- 
fire fro7n,  since  they  alone  would  not  stop  the  average  fire.^^ 

Another  important  item  of  protection  in  the  State  forests  is  against 
a  root  fungus,  which  greatly  decreases  growth  and  ultimately  kills  the 
trees.  It  is  transmitted  through  the  roots  and  is  controlled  by  digging 
a  trench  about  2\  feet  deep  around  infected  areas.  Such  areas  are 
detected  by  the  fact  that  the  reproduction  within  them  starts  to  die. 
Owners  claim  that  this  disease  usually  appears  where  the  roots  of  living 
trees  are  injured  by  fire.  That  is  one  reason  for  not  permitting  burning 
of  charcoal  among  standing  timber.  A  preventive  measure  is  to  thin 
the  timber  before  it  reaches  the  sapling  stage.^^  There  is  some  damage 
from  caterpillars,  and  there  was  some  good-sized  areas  in  the  State 
forests  (near  Lacanau)  that  appeared  materially  damaged  in  1918. 

^<  See  p.  275  for  additional  data  on  intensive  fire  protection. 
55  See  p.  110  for  the  details  of  early  thinnings  (depressage). 


CHAPTER  IX 
GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING  PLANS 

Mensuration  in  Working  Plans  (p.  206).  Summary,  Units  of  Measure,  Volume 
Tables,  Rule-of-Thumb  Methods,  Ocular  Estimating,  Calipering;  Stands,  Stand  Graphics. 

Regulation  of  Cutting  (p.  215).  Broad  Aims  of  French  Regulation  Policy, 
Application  to  United  States,  Abuses  Led  to  Legislation,  The  Policy  of  "Reserves," 
Summary  of  Principles  and  Methods,  Management  Subdivisions,  Rotations  and  Cutting 
Cycles,  The  Normal  Forest,  Regulation  of  Cut,  Pure  Area,  Diameter  Limit  by  Single 
Trees,  Area  and  Age,  Method  of  1883,  Area  (Volume)  Allotment  by  Periods,  The 
Gurnaud  Method. 

Working  Plans  (p.  243).  General,  The  Working  Plan  Report,  Chamonix  Working 
Plan. 

MENSURATION  IN  WORKING  PLANS 

Summary.  —  The  greatest  achievements  of  French  mensuration  are: 
(1)  The  recognition  that  mathematics  and  formulae  are  distinctly  second- 
ary to  silviculture  and  that  exactness  in  forest  mensuration,  especially 
in  yield  data,  is  relatively  unimportant  if  there  is  frequent  stocktaking 
and  good  silviculture.  (2)  The  use  of  graphics  in  depicting  the  stand 
instead  of  cumbrous,  unintehigible  tables.  (3)  The  development  of 
empirical  data  for  selection  forests.  (4)  Simple  and  workable  methods 
unfettered  by  the  application  of  theory.  ''.  .  .  it^  heads  straight 
for  the  desired  goal." 

Broilliard,  a  leader  in  French  silviculture,  said,  in  the  preface  to  the 
second  edition  of  his  "Le  Traitment  des  Bois  en  France" 

" .  .  .  fearing  to  give  too  many  figures  to  readers,  persuaded,  as  I  still  am  to-day, 
that  mathematics  leads  silviculture  into  errors  and  that  equations  .  .  .  never  dis- 
close the  secret  of  the  living  forest.  The  increasing  weight  of  mathematics  in  forest 
studies  is  full  of  dangers,  notably  in  Germany  (where  the  experiment  stations  engage  in 
calculations  without  end).  Too  often  mathematics  works  on  a  false  base;  it  leads  to 
the  idea  of  absolute  conclusions,  always  different  with  the  phenomena  of  nature;  mathe- 
matics does  not  give,  moreover,  the  solution  of  this  simple  problem:  What  is  the  future 
of  a  tree,  of  a  stand?     .     .     ." 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  weaknesses:  (1)  Confusion  and  variation 
in  the  use  of  the  cubic  meter  and  in  squared  log  content  formulae,  and  in 
the  use  of  diameters  or  circumferences.  There  is  a  distinct  lack  of 
standardization.     (2)  The  excessive  use  of  short-cut  methods.     (3)  The 

1  Mensuration  in  France,  by  Donald  Bruce,  pp.  686-690,  Journal  of  Forestry,  No.  6, 
Vol.  XVII.    Donald  Bruce  and  H.  H.  Chapman  kindly  reviewed  Chapter  IX. 

206 


UNITS  OF   MEASURE  207 

lack  of  more  accurate  local  volume  tables  which  could  have  been  easily 
and  cheaply  obtained.  (4)  Failure,  through  lack  of  funds,  to  keep 
abreast  of  scientific  investigations  and  to  contribute  more  to  forest 
science. 

But  the  French  viewpoint  is  of  great  value  to  the  American  forester 
even  if  the  details  of  mensuration  practice  can  rarely  be  used  without 
modification. 

Units  of  Measure.  —  The  unit  of  measure  for  logs,  piling,  poles,  and 
props  is  the  solid  cubic  meter-  which  contains  35.3  cubic  feet  or  approxi- 
mately 285  board  feet  log  scale. 

Contrary  to  the  general  belief  in  the  United  States  it  is  agreed  in 
France  that  there  is  much  confusion  because  the  cubic  meter  is  not 
used  in  a  uniform  manner,  and  one  writer  said :  ^ 

"I  defy  two  Frenchmon,  living  12.5  miles  apart,  to  understand  each  other  when  they 
speak  of  cubic  meters  according  to  the  usage  of  their  locality  even  if  they  use  the  same 
tariff." 

This  confusion,  due  largely  to  different  methods  of  measurement  and 
calculation,  has  led  to  the  demand  for  a  ''legal  cubic  meter"  which 
a  committee  defined  as  follows: 

"The  volume  of  a  log  shall  be  equal  to  the  volume  of  a  cylinder  having  the  circum- 
ference of  the  log  measured  at  its  middle  point  to  the  nearest  2  centimeters  (0.8  inch) 
and  its  length  measured  to  the  nearest  20  centimeters  (8  inches).  The  measurement 
of  the  circumference  shall  be  made  with  a  melastic  tape  at  right  angles  to  the  axes  of 
the  log.     .     .     .     The  volume  (thus  obtained)  shall  be  called  a  legal  ^  cubic  meter." 

But  to  be  complete  there  must  be  standard  rules  for  reductions  on 
account  of  defect  or  irregularities.  The  following  were  proposed:  (1) 
Measure  between  knots  or  swellings.  (2)  Where  a  log  becomes  irregular 
the  purchaser  can  cut  it  off  and  remeasure.  (3)  Defect  deductions  to 
be  made  by  joint  scale.  (4)  Logs  with  checks  or  lightning  marks  clear 
to  the  heart  can  be  rejected.     (5)   Logs  must  be  at  least  6.5  feet  in  length, 

Cordwood^  is  measured  by  the  stere,  a  stacked  cubic  meter,  and 
is  usually  cut  in  1  meter  (3.3  foot)  lengths,  and  in  statistical  work  it  is 
sufficiently  accurate  to  count  1  solid  cubic  meter  as  yielding  1|  steres  of 

2  For  a  discussion  of  converting  factors  see  the  Introduction.  Those  who  have  much 
converting  to  do  should  draw  a  converting-graph  based  on  the  best  data  obtainable  for 
the  conversion  problem  in  hand. 

3  Solide  et  Metre  Cube,  B.,  S  .  F  .  de  F  —  C.  et  B.,  Sept.  7,  1908,  J.  Banchereau. 

■*  An  interesting  comparison  between  the  new  and  old  French  measures  is  given  on 
pages  14-19  of  Carnet  —  Agenda  du  Forestier.  Besangon,  1902.  Paul  Jacquin,  Im- 
primeur.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  France  logs  are  measured  ovtside  bark,  while  in 
the  United  States  log  scaling  is  always  wisw/e  bark. 

^  See  also  classes  of  cordwood  and  saw  timber  given  under  "Sale  of  Timber,"  page 
307. 


208  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION   AND  WORKING   PLANS 

piled  fuel.  Cordwood  is  frequently  sold  by  the  ton;  this  is  an  excellent 
system.  It  compensates  at  once  for  species  and  for  seasoning.  For 
the  measurements  of  log  lengths  the  French  prefer  a  melastic  tape,  and 
for  diameter®  an  accurate  adjustable  caliper  to  take  maximum  and  mini- 
mum diameters,  or  a  diameter  tape  if  only  one  measurement  can  be 
taken.  The  French  policy  is  clearly  to  avoid  unnecessary  and  costly  ac- 
curacy when  something  less  exact  will  serve  just  as  well. 

Volume  Tables.  —  Volume  tables  for  estimating  the  cubic  (metric) 
contents  of  standing  timber  are  simpler  and  more  standardized  in  France 
than  in  the  United  States.  There  are  no  volume  tables  in  use  which  give 
the  contents  of  trees  in  terms  of  the  manufactured  product.  The  fol- 
lowing classes  of  volume  tables  are  used : 

(1)  A  "universal"  table,  based  on  diameter,  total  height,  and  taper 
of  a  tree  (there  are  also  tables  giving  contents  of  cylinders  of  given 
diameter  and  length  which  must  be  reduced  by  a  form  factor). 

(2)  Merchantable  log  length  table,  especially  designed  for  standards 
or  for  high  forest  trees,  based  on  diameter  and  the  merchantable  length 
of  the  bole  (to  a  top  limit  of  9.8  inches)  classified  by  2  or  4  meter  lengths 
(6.5  to  13.1  feet). 

(3)  Cordwood  tables,  based  on  the  diameter  of  standards  and  whether 
(a)  very  branchy,  (6)  average,  (c)  mediocre,  or  (d)  few  branches. 

(4)  Local  volume  tables  for  (a)  total  or  (6)  merchantable  contents  in 
cubic  meters  based  on  diameter  alone  are  common  and  are  usually  based 
on  the  type  (1)  table  and  on  local  diameter  and  height  measurements. 
It  is  customary  to  give  the  name  of  forest,  working  group,  year  table  was 
made,  author,  soil,  part  of  tree  included,  silvicultural  system,  species, 
altitude,  and  general  quality. 

Cordwood  from  the  top  or  from  branches  is  estimated  by  using  a  ratio 
of  the  bole;  this  varies  with  the  species,  height  of  the  tree,  age,  top  cutting 
limit  for  saw  timber,  and  silvicultural  system.  The  results  are  naturally 
subject  to  wide  variations.  An  average  figure  for  oak  high  forest  is 
60  per  cent  to  75  per  cent  saw  timber  with  25  per  cent  to  40  per  cent  fuel 
(of  this  fuel  one-third  is  fagots) ;  for  beech  the  figures  for  saw  timber 
would  be  10  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  less;  for  fir  or  spruce  80  per  cent  to 
90  per  cent  saw  timber  and  20  per  cent  to  10  per  cent  fuel.  But  in  statis- 
tical computations  the  French  usually  figure  that  100  cubic  meters  gross 
yield  of  standing  timber  will  give  in  (a)  hardwoods,  80  cubic  meters  of 
timber  and  20  cubic  meters  (equal  to  30  stacked  steres)  of  fuel;  in  (6) 
softwood,  90  cubic  meters  of  timber  and  10  cubic  meters  (15  steres)  of 
fuel. 

6  Huff  el  thinks  there  may  be  a  5  to  10  per  cent  difference  between  the  measurements 
and  vohime  computation  of  a  lot  of  large  irregular  logs  even  if  great  care  is  taken. 
Much  of  the  data'  which  follows  is  from  Huff  el,  Vol.  II. 


VOLUME   TABLES  209 

It  is  clearly  established  that  trees  of  the  same  (a)  species,  (6)  diameter, 
(c)  silvicultural  system,  and  (d)  height  yield  a  greater  volume  as  they 
increase  in  age  but  the  variation  is  usually  disregarded  in  ordinary  valua- 
tion surveys,  except  so  far  as  it  is  represented  in  local  volume  tables. 
The  wide  variation  between  local  volume  tables  for  the  same  species  and 
diameter  is  merely  a  repetition  of  experience  in  all  countries.  But  an- 
other complication  arises  in  working  plan  revisions.  It  is  desired  to  esti- 
mate the  present  stand  accurately  yet  to-day's  stand  must  be  compared 
with  the  stand  at  the  last  revision  because  the  original  stand  plus  the  cut, 
minus  or  plus  the  difference  between  the  original  stand  and  the  present 
stand,  gives  an  accurate  line  on  growth.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to 
compute  the  volumes  to  be  compared  by  the  same  volume  tables.  In 
fact,  with  hundred  per  cent  estimates,  each  compartment  or  working 
group  is  in  reality  a  permanent  sample  plot  which  at  each  working  plan 
revision  gives  fairly  exact  data  on  growth  and  yield. 

The  sample  volume  table  which  follows  is  for  spruce  and  fir  in  the  Jura. 
To  the  figures  given  10  per  cent  must  be  added  if  branches  are  included. 
The  volume  tables  supplied  the  local  officers  also  give  the  volume  by  cir- 
cumference and  heights  for  one  to  nineteen  trees  (omitting  the  volumes 
for  ten  and  twenty  trees)  to  facilitate  multiplication  when  figuring  results 
of  valuation  surveys: 


210 


GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING  PLANS 


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CALIPERING  STANDS  211 

Rule-of-Thumb  Methods.  —  There  are  various  rule-of-thumb  methods^ 
ah  based  on  the  metric  system.  They  are  chiefly  of  value  in  stimu- 
lating local  forest  officers  to  study  the  laws  of  diameter,  height,  and 
volume. 

(1)  Bouvard  formula:  F  =  |  D'^H  which  is  somewhat  conservative,  though  used  for 
coppice-under-standards . 

(2)  d'Auverne  formula:  V  =  7/10  volume  of  cjdinder  of  size  of  middle  girth,  for 
oak  cut  to  top  limit  of  11. 8  inches. 

(3)  Villers-Cotterets  formula:  V  in  steres  =  circumference  in  centimeters  minus  one 
meter  {i.e.,  1.70  —  1.0  or  0.7  steres)  used  for  beech  locally. 

(4)  Algan  formula:  V  =  0.33  D-H.  Used  for  spruce  5.9  in  diameter  at  small  end; 
or  V  =  0.42  D'-H. 

(5)  Plank  formula:  P  =  h  ND^. 

In  the  Vosges  it  is  customary  to  estimate  in  "board  feet"  or  planks  4  M  long  X  0.25 
wide  X  0.025  thick  or  1/40  plus  or  minus  of  a  cubic  meter. 

Ocular  Estimating.  —  In  regular  fully  stocked  stands  of  coppice  or 
young  high  forest  ocular  ^  estimating  is  exceedingly  accurate,  and  coppice 
is  rarely  estimated  by  any  other  method  since  the  number  of  steres  per 
hectare  can  be  gauged  if  the  age  and  soil  quality  are  known.  Then  too 
it  must  be  remembered  that  each  compartment  has  been  cut  over  for 
generations  and  where  the  rotation  or  treatment  has  not  been  modified 
there  are  usually  the  records  of  past  cuts  to  base  estimates  upon.  Such 
ocular  estimates  for  coppice  can  be  made  within  90  per  cent  of  the  actual 
cut  or  even  closer  so  that  they  answer  for  sale  purposes  and  the  price  is 
usually  a  lump  sum  per  hectare.  High  forest  timber,  except  when  in 
the  sapling  stage,  is  never  estimated  ocularly. 

Calipering  Stands.  —  The  French  measure  the  diameter  or  circum- 
ference of  standing  timber  at  1.50  meters  (4.92  feet)  or  1.30  (4.26  feet) 
above  the  ground  and  on  hillsides  they  measure  the  breast-height  point 
from  the  uphill  side  of  the  tree.  They  often  take  into  account  the  fact 
that  the  largest  diameters  are  parallel  with  the  wind  or  the  crown  or 
root  development;  this  would  apply  especially  to  an  intolerant  species 
Hke  the  maritime  pine  in  the  Landes  where  there  are  strong  winds  from 
the  ocean.  But  generally  these  points  are  waived  since  the  errors  in 
calculating  volumes  are  even  greater.  In  accurate  estimating  the  mer- 
chantable sawlog  length  is  almost  invariably  measured  or  approximated 
in  the  field;  this  is  especially  important  with  standards.  In  growth 
studies  in  coppice-under-standards  the  length  of  the  merchantable  bole 

7  V  =  Volume  in  cu.  m.;  D  =  d.  b.  h.;  L  =  length  of  merchantable  bole;  H  =  total 
height,  d  =  middle  diameter  of  .standing  tree;  P  =  plank;  N  =  number  of  trees. 

8  A  rule-of-th>imb  method  given  by  Huffel  (p.  120,  Vol.  II)  for  estimating  mature 
(a)  fir  or  (6)  oak  stands  is  to  multiply  the  average  merchantable  length  by  from  (a)  25 
to  (b)  30  the  answer  being  cubic  meters  per  hectare.  This  illustrates  the  bearing  of 
height  on  volume  in  fully  stocked  stands. 


PRonnrr  ubhaki 

212  GOVERNMENT   REGULATION  AND  WORKING   PLANS 

is  often  periodically  measured  by  hand,  through  the  use  of  ladders  or  by 
dimbing  the  tree. 

When  stands  must  be  cahpered,  the  following  principles  govern  the 
valuation  survey: 

(1)  Diameter  classes  are  5  centimeters  (or  1.97  inches).^ 

(2)  It  is  not  customary  to  note  the  height  classes  of  all  trees  calipered 
except  in  very  large  valuable  timber;  instead,  the  merchantable  height 
of  a  few  normal  trees  of  varying  size  is  secured  from  felled  trees  or  by 
measurement.  The  results  are  averaged  graphically  and  a  local  volume 
table  made  for  the  compartment,  cutting  area,  or  working  group.  The 
height  classes  are  usually  2  to  4  meters  (6.5  to  13.1  feet). 

(3)  In  merchantable  stands  100  per  cent  estimates  are  almost  uniform; 
with  cheap  labor  this  is  fully  warranted. 

(4)  In  timber  sales  estimating  is  always  done  when  trees  are  marked 
for  cutting.  The  usual  and  necessary  errors  in  estimating  are  considered 
6  per  cent  of  the  true  volume  even  under  favorable  conditions;  in  virgin 
or  mature  stands  they  count  for  possible  errors  up  to  10  per  cent  to  13 
per  cent.  But  the  French  defend  the  volume  table  method  of  obtaining 
volume,  even  in  experimental  work,  against  the  German  and  Swiss 
sample  tree  methods.  In  other  words,  they  prefer  volumes  based  on  a 
local  table  of  40  to  50  trees  rather  than  on  5  to  10  sample  trees  chosen  by 
mathematical  averages^"  but  selected  on  the  basis  of  judgment. 

9  The  1-inch  diameter  classes  used  by  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  for  its  early  working 
plans  was  an  absurdity.  The  writer  used  3-inch  diameter  classes  for  estimates  in  western 
yellow  pine  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  Captain  Kittredge  reported  that  20  cm.  cir- 
cumference classes  (2J  inch  d.  b.  h.  classes)  were  used  in  the  Cote  d'Or.  In  practice 
the  French  usually  measure  regular  trees  once;  and  irregular  trees  twice  in  order  to 
secure  the  average  diameter. 

10  The  valuation  surveys  in  private  forests  bought  by  the  A.  E.  F.  were  made  as 
follows,  according  to  a  report  by  Dunning: 

Estimators  are  equipped  with  calipers  and  scribes  or  marking  hammers.  They 
proceed  through  the  timber  in  parallel  strips,  mark  each  tree  to  be  cut,  taking  the  cir- 
cumference at  lm30  from  the  ground,  or  in  the  fir  of  the  Jura  at  lm50.  The  tally- 
man repeats  each  circumference  announced  to  avoid  mistakes.  Trees  from  20  to  30 
cm.  in  circumference  are  recorded  as  poles.  In  hardwoods  trees  below  50  cm.  are  not 
usually  marked. 

The  estimators  rate  the  height  of  each  hardwood  tree  in  meters  usually  to  a  top 
circumference  of  60  cm.;  if  serious  crooks,  forks,  or  large  hmbs  occur  the  height  is  taken 
as  far  as  a  reasonably  straight  log  can  be  obtained. 

In  uniform  stands  of  pine  the  chief  of  detachment  or  tally-man  estimates  the  average 
height  for  each  circumference  class,  the  trees  being  tallied  by  10  or  20  cm.  classes,  and 
the  estimators  announce  onlj^  the  circumferences.  In  open  stands  of  old  pine  the 
height  of  each  tree  is  taken. 

In  the  fir  of  the  Vosges  the  circumference  only  is  taken,  heights  being  given  by 
circumference  classes  in  volume  tables,  to  a  top  diameter  of  20  cm. 

When  the  average  height  method  is  used  allowance  is  made  for  exceptionally  short 


CALIPERING   STANDS  213 

border  trees  or  broken  trees  by  diminishing  the  circumference. 

Average  heights  are  obtained  by  eye  estimates,  by  measuring  sample  felled  trees, 
or  by  some  simple  method  such  as  the  use  of  two  sticks  of  equal  length. 

The  chief  of  detachment  or  tally-man  also  determines  for  each  stand  the  average 
middle  circumference  for  each  breast-height  circumference  class.  This  is  usually  done 
by  eye  or  by  determining  the  average  taper  per  meter  of  length  by  measuring  sample 
felled  trees.  In  the  large  fir  of  the  Jura  it  is  impracticable  to  estimate  the  middle  cir- 
cumference, and  volume  is  taken  from  tables  based  on  circumference  at  ImSO  and 
curved  heights. 

For  felled  trees  the  length  and  middle  circumference  outside  bark  is  taken. 

Maritime,  Scotch,  and  Austrian  pine  are  talHed  separately.  In  hardwoods,  where 
occasional  individuals  of  several  species  occur,  these  are  tallied  with  the  more  numerous 
species  which  they  most  closely  resemble,  for  example,  poplars  as  birch,  locust  as  oak, 
and  hornbeam  as  beech.     Sometimes  larch  is  thus  tallied  as  Scotch  pine. 

Small  trees  which  would  be  broken  during  felling  operations  are  sometimes  marked. 

Standing  dead  trees  are  tallied  if  sound. 

Cordwood.  —  In  stands  of  pine  the  amount  of  fire-wood  in  steres  is  roughly  taken  as 
one-fifth  of  the  number  of  cubic  meters  of  saw  timber,  unless  the  chief  of  detachment 
considers  the  conditions  unusual,  when  he  estimates  the  variation  accordingly.  In 
the  silver  fir  forest  of  Levier,  Doubs,  the  number  of  steres  of  fire-wood  was  taken  as 
one-tenth  of  the  number  of  cubic  meters  of  saw  timber. 

For  hardwoods  the  chief  of  detachment  estimates  for  each  stand  according  to  condi- 
tions whether  the  number  of  steres  of  fire-wood  is  1,  I5,  or  2  steres  to  the  cubic  meter  of 
saw  timber. 

Estimates  of  coppice  are  made  in  steres  per  hectare,  according  to  species,  age,  density, 
etc.,  and  depend  much  on  the  experience  of  the  estimator. 

Reports  on  private  forests  consist  of  the  tally  (kept  much  the  same  as  in  America), 
the  estimates  of  fire-wood  and  other  products,  and  a  description  of  the  various  factors 
of  location  which  affect  the  value  of  the  timber. 

Computation.  —  Using  the  middle  circumference  and  height  to  a  top  circumference 
of  60  cm.,  the  volume  is  taken  from  a  table  of  contents  of  cyhnders.  The  same  method 
is  used  for  all  species,  except  in  the  large  fir  timber  of  Doubs  State  Forests  where  the 
tally-man  records  the  cubic  contents  of  each  tree  directly  in  the  field  from  a  volume 
table.  Although  volume  tables  exist  for  the  pines  of  the  Landes,  men  of  the  C.  F.  E. 
say  that  no  tree  tables  are  used  in  that  office. 

Accuracy.  —  The  methods  used  are  probably  as  nearly  accurate  as  any  in  common 
use.  For  saw  timber  the  principal  factor  affecting  the  estimate  is  height.  Pine  stands 
are  usually  uniform  and  the  average  height  by  circumference  classes  can  be  estimated 
closely. 

In  the  large  fir  timber  in  the  selection  forests  of  Doubs  and  Jura,  separate  volume 
tables  are  used  for  distinct  site  classes  where  the  height  growth  varies  greatly. 

For  hardwoods  the  height  of  each  tree  is  estimated  and  French  foresters  vary  greatly 
in  their  height  estimates.  One  chief  of  detachment  may  instruct  the  men  to  take  heights 
only  to  the  first  large  branch,  fork,  or  serious  crook,  while  another  may  insist  that 
heights  be  taken  to  the  top  circumference  limit  as  long  as  the  trunk  can  be  divided  into 
straight  log  lengths  to  eliminate  the  effect  of  crook,  etc.  In  hardwoods  the  height  factor 
greatly  affects  the  accuracy  of  the  estimate. 

Cordwood  estimates  depend  much  on  the  experience  of  the  estimator,  and  can  be 
only  approximate.  Wherever  possible  measurement  of  the  piled  wood  after  cutting 
should  be  made. 

For  saw  timber  under  American  methods  of  exploitation,  check  scales  of  logs  after 


214  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING  PLANS 

Stand  Graphics. —  Under  the  leadership  of  Schaeffer,"  now  conservator 
at  Vesoul,  the  routine  descriptions  of  selection  forest  stands  (which  "had 
to  be  done,  were  a  great  bore,  and  were  never  looked  at")  have  been 
largely  replaced  by  graphics  based  on  the  stock  sheet  for  each  compart- 
ment and  for  the  forest.  The  objective  is  to  picture  the  size  classes  of  the 
stand  so  the  marking  will  be  guided  accordingly.  This,  perhaps,  is  the 
feature  of  French  mensuration  and  can  be  applied  in  the  United  States 
under  intensive  conditions.  This  method  and  its  interpretation  is 
illustrated  by  Figs.  19  (o)  and  19  (6)  (after  Schaeffer)  which  depict  the 
number  of  trees  per  hectare  per  (5  centimeter)  two-inch  diameter  class  at 
breast  height  in  fir-spruce  selection  forests.  Certainly  these  graphics 
would  disclose  inaccurate  and  untrustworthy  valuation  surveys. 

No.  1  represents  a  pure  high  forest  of  ten  acres,  where  there  is  not  a 
single  tree  less  than  35  centimeters  in  diameter.  It  shows  at  once  past 
regeneration  has  been  a  failure. 

No.  2  is  for  a  younger  stand,  similar  in  character  and  where  no  trees  less 
than  20  centimeters  in  diameter,  breast-high,  have  been  calipered. 

No.  3  represents  a  selection  high  forest,  where  the  number  of  trees  is 
approximately  inversely  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  diameters. 
Consequently  the  curve  approaches  an  hyperbola  and  the  stand  is  more 
satisfactory  to  the  forester. 

No.  4  shows  at  once  that  the  stocktaking  was  carelessly  done,  for  evi- 
dently those  who  were  supposed  to  caliper  did  not  scrupulously  measure 
all  trees,  but  estimated  a  good  many  with  the  eye.  This  accounts  for 
the  evident  error  in  classifying  more  trees  20,  30,  and  40  centimeters  in 
diameter  than  trees  25  or  35.  In  any  compartment,  of  course,  certain 
diameter  classes  may  predominate,  but  there  would  be  no  such  irregu- 
larity like  the  teeth  of  a  saw  as  is  shown  in  No.  4. 

No.  5  represents  a  forest  of  10,000  acres  and  consequently  unevennesses 
have  been  eliminated  but  it  is  clear  there  are  too  few  trees  per  acre, 
especially  in  the  larger  age-size  classes. 

No.  6  is  a  young  pole  stand  where  the  large  number  of  stems  less  than 
20  centimeters  in  diameter  are  coming  into  the  merchantable  class.     The 

removal  from  the  woods  will  nearly  always  fall  short  of  the  French  estimates,  especially 
in  the  large  fir  timber  of  the  Jura,  owing  to  defect  and  a  certain  amount  of  unavoidable 
breakage. 

Conclusions.  —  Methods  used  are  as  nearly  accurate  as  practicable,  when  properly 
applied,  for  standing  saw  timber,  felled  trees,  and  counted  material.  Cordwood  esti- 
mates are  only  approximate,  depending  on  the  experience  of  the  estimator. 

The  men  are  usually  capable  and  experienced  enough  to  apply  the  methods  to 
advantage. 

"  Interpretation  des  Graphiques  de  Peuplements.  A.  Schaeffer,  B.  S.  F.  de  F.-C.  et 
N.,  No.  6,  1912.  Since  the  figures  are  merely  to  illustrate  methods,  no  conversions  to 
American  units  were  made. 


BROAD  AIMS  OF  FRENCH  REGULATION  POLICY  215 

evolution  of  a  regular  stand  from  the  pole  stage  to  maturity  is  shown  in 
graphic  No.  10. 

No.  7  shows  the  progress  of  a  forest  toward  the  normal  state.  It  is  a 
forest  which  was  formerly  poor  but  which  is  becoming  more  valuable, 
owing  to  the  conservative  fellings.  The  curves  show  that  presently  it 
will  be  more  nearly  normal.  At  the  first  stocktaking  the  stand  was  open; 
trees  of  all  diameters  developed  freely,  but  now  the  stand  is  well  stocked 
and  the  young  trees  have  ceased  to  increase  in  number,  either  (a)  being 
eliminated  or  (6)  after  a  successful  struggle  for  existence  have  reached 
higher  diameter  classes.  The  curve  of  the  third  stocktaking  is  approach- 
ing the  normal  by  a  sort  of  wave  movement  very  characteristic  in  a 
forest  conservatively  managed. 

No.  8  represents  a  forest  in  poor  condition  and  where  the  yield  is  low. 
The  old  trees  continue  to  accumulate  and  the  density  of  this  old  excess 
growing  stock  is  damaging  the  young  growth,  which  is  very  deficient. 

No.  9  shows  a  compartment  where,  despite  the  conservative  treatment 
and  contrary  to  all  prearranged  plans,  the  volume  has  decreased  from 
AtoB. 

REGULATION  OF  CUTTING 

Broad  Aims  of  French  Regulation  Policy.  —  The  aim  and  objective 
of  practically  all  forest  legislation  during  two  or  three  centuries  culmina- 
ting in  the  revised  forest  code  of  1827  was  to  prevent  the  destruction, 
diminution,  and  impoverishment  of  French  public  forests  in  quantity  and 
in  quality.  The  success  of  this  legislation  depended  largely  on  the  press- 
ure for  timber  or  for  the  capital  it  represented.  The  demand  was  natur- 
ally greatest  (1)  near  the  large  towns,  Hke  Paris,  which  were  the  commercial 
timber  centers,  and  (2)  during  times  of  stress,  when  families  and  govern- 
ments needed  the  raw  product  or  money. 

Working  plans,^^  or  management  plans  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  to 
enforce  a  wise  use  of  forests,  were  finally  required  by  law  simply  because 
it  was  found  that  systematic  forest  production  with  a  sustained  yield 
could  not  be  obtained  without  them.  Forest  history  has  proved  that 
even  the  trained  forester  cannot  be  trusted  not  to  overcut  unless  he  is 
systematically  guided  and  controlled  by  a  working  plan  that  prescribes 
the  maximum  amount  to  be  cut.  And  after  centuries  of  practice  the 
French  consider  a  sustained  yield  for  each  forest  and  working  group 
essential  for  the  following  reasons: 

'2  Huffel  says  (in  a  footnote,  p.  L5,  Vol.  Ill):  "Out  of  504  forests  or  working  groups 
.  .  .  in  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  there  are  230  .  .  .  antedating  the  forest  code 
of  1827,  187  ..  .  prior  to  1789,  and  15  .  .  .  prior  to  1860,  the  oldest  dating 
from  1726." 


216  GOVERNMENT   REGULATION  AND  WORKING   PLANS 


\  No.  2 


SO      25      30      35      10      45     50     55      GO 


10   15   20   25 


20  25  30  35   10  15   50   55   GO 


20   25   30  35   10   15   50   55   GO 


Inventory. 

Normal  Material. 


No.  6 

\ 

„. 

—  BMret  Inventory. 

\ 

— 

Second  Inventory 

Normal  Material. 

\ 

\ 
\ 

\ 

-^ 

^^irinr- 

35      10      15      50     55     GO    65  20      25      30      35     10      15      50      55 

Fig.  19  (a).  —  Examples  of  Stand  Graphics. 


BROAD  AIMS  OF  FRENCH  REGULATION   POLICY  217 


No.  7 


I  First  Inventory. 
Second  Inventory. 

Third  Inventory. 

Normal  Material. 


20     25      30     35     10     45     50      55     60 


No.  8 

\  /- 

""\ 

— 1 — 1 — 

■-;-- 

20     25      30     35     40      45     50      55      60 


\ 

No. 

9 

\ 

sX<9 

\           N 

\\ 

^ 

:::?:;;;: 

- 

20      25      30     35      40     45      50      55      00 


r\ 


15  20  25 


35  40  45  50  55  60 


Fig.  19  (6).  —Examples  of  Stand  Graphics. 


218  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING   PLANS 

1.  Local  wood  markets  must  be  stabilized;  and  local  needs,  which  can 
only  be  supplied  from  certain  forests,  must  be  met. 

2.  Lumberjacks,  and  other  forest  workmen  who  Hve  in  local  villages, 
must  be  suppHed  with  work. 

3.  An  annual  revenue  is  necessary  for  the  communes  since  it  takes  the 
place  of  income  from  taxes;  it  is  not  so  necessary  for  the  State  owning 
forests  all  over  France,  but  is  considered  a  convenience. 

Working  plans  are  necessary  because  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  capital  or  growing  stock,  which  is  "property  held  in  trust "^^ 
and  the  annual  income  or  growth  which  constitutes  the  owner's  returns. 

The  main  trouble  with  forest  crops  is  that  they  become  merchantable 
only  after  a  long  time.  The  yield  is  essentially  periodic.  There  is  a 
final  yield  at  the  end  of  the  rotation,  and  only  if  thinnings  are  profitable 
or  practicable  is  there  in  addition  an  intermediate  yield.  After  a  forest 
is  once  established,  this  disadvantage  of  deferred  yield  is  obviated  by  hav- 
ing part  of  the  crop  mature  every  year  and  thus  give  a  sustained  annual 
yield,  which,  if  necessary,  may  be  periodic  instead  of  annual. 

The  longer  the  rotation  the  larger  the  growing  stock  and  usually  with 
long  rotations  the  per  cent  earned  by  the  capital  invested  is  less  than 
with  short  rotations.  For  example,  a  coppice  on  a  rotation  of  20  years, 
in  theory  at  least,  has  less  than  one-fifth  the  growing  stock  when  ripe  of 
a  high  forest  with  a  100-year  rotation.  In  practice,  since  the  high  forest 
soil  yields  more  heavily,  this  disparity  is  even  more  marked.  Due  to  the 
small  interest  returns  from  long  rotations  private  owners  frequently 
favor  coppice  with  a  short  rotation,  notwithstanding  the  consequent 
damage  to  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  French  State  policy  has 
been  to  grow  the  kind  of  wood  most  needed  rather  than  that  which 
would  be  most  profitable. 

The  beginnings  of  forest  regulation  in  France  make  interesting  reading 
because  often  we  see  conditions  depicted  which  bear  some  resemblance 
to  the  conditions  during  the  past  decade  in  the  western  United  States. 
The  beginning  of  systematic  cutting  in  the  great  Vosges^^  fir-spruce  forests 
is  of  particular  interest: 

"At  the  commencement  of  our  era  the  Sylva  Vosagus  belonged  to  the  imperial 
treasury.  Later  the  great  abbeys  such  as  Remiremont,  Senones,  and  Moyenmoutier 
divided  the  ownership  of  this  immense  domain  with  the  Lorraine  dukes,  who  inherited 
from  the  emperors.  The  Vosges  fir  stands  thus  belonged  to  a  few  very  rich  and  power- 
ful owners  who  began  a  systematic  improvement  (of  the  stands)  at  an  early  date,  an 
improvement  not  only  of  grazing  and  of  wood  usage  but  also  of  fellings  for  the  supply 
of  the  trade.  The  method  adopted  by  the  Vosges  foresters  for  this  objective  was  the 
construction  of  sawmills.     Set  up  on  small  streams  which  supplied  the  power     .     .     . 


"  d'Amenagement.     Puton,  pp.  1-18. 
"  Huff  el,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  108-110. 


APPLICATION  TO   UNITED  STATES  219 

they  were  pretty  well  over  the  whole  region  at  the  end  of  the  15th  century.  .  .  « 
The  sawmills,  which  belonged  to  the  dukes  and  abbeys  who  had  built  them,  were  leased 
with  the  stipulation  that  the  number  of  trees  that  could  be  sawed  would  be  furnished 
each  year.  These  trees  were  cut  in  the  watershed  where  the  sawmill  was  located  .  .  . 
or  here  and  there.  Thus  there  was  a  real  selection  felling,  with  the  yield  in  number 
of  trees,  fixed  not  by  the  productive  capacity  of  the  forest,  but  according  to  the  out- 
put of  the  sawmill  .  .  .  about  200  fir  of  average  size  per  year.  When  the  country 
tributary  to  a  sawmill  was  exhausted  the  forest  was  closed  and  the  felling  was  transferred 
to  another  area.  Thus  the  Lorraine  foresters  obtained  an  exact  idea  of  the  relation 
between  the  area  of  the  forest  and  the  number  of  trees  which  it  could  annually  yield 
without  being  depleted." 

Application. to  United  States.  —  The  theoretical  need  of  working  plans 
has  been  recognized  by  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  for  the  last  ten  years 
but  no  systematic  recording  of  management  plans  has  yet  been  done 
except  on  a  very  few  Forests.  As  a  result,  a  number  of  National  Forest 
divisions  or  working  groups  have  possibly  been  overcut;  later  on  this 
may  mean  hardship  to  the  local  interests.  Obligatory  working  plans  are 
needed  to-day  for  all  National  Forest  areas  which  are  being  intensively 
logged.  It  is  not  enough  to  refuse  to  make  sales  because  of  fear  of  over- 
cutting  —  there  must  be  a  definite  scheme  planned  in  advance.  Other- 
wise the  Forests  will  unquestionably  suffer.  Such  is  the  lesson  from 
France.  And  it  is  equally  important  to  provide  transportation  to  tap 
virgin  timber  where  literally  millions  of  dollars  of  raw  product  is  going  to 
waste  every  year,  notwithstanding  the  timber  famine  which  has  been 
predicted. 

We  must,  of  course,  recognize  that  we  are  in  a  transition  period,  and 
when  regulating  virgin  stands  the  excess  growing  stock  must  be  reduced. 
Moreover  the  practical  conditions  often  make  it  appear  advisable  to 
make  very  large  sales  so  as  to  compete  with  offerings  of  private  owners. 
There  are  forests,  like  the  Plumas,  where  some  over-cutting  is  probably 
necessary  because  the  Forest  Service  owns  but  a  small  proportion  of 
the  timber,  the  bulk  being  in  private  hands.  In  such  case  the  choice 
may  be  between  (a)  leaving  islands  of  inaccessible  uncut  timber  or 
(b)  overcutting.  In  such  case  (b)  may  be  the  lesser  evil.  But  even  ad- 
mitting that  our  present  rotations,  cutting  cycles  (and  even  our  silvicul- 
tural  practice)  are  transitory,  yet,  even  then,  obligatory  regulation  is 
necessary  for  our  public  forests,  for  even  the  forester  cannot  be  trusted  to 
cut  by  rule-of-thumb.  This  is  doubly  true  where  many  of  our  officers 
are  not  technically  trained.  Broad-gauge  regulation  does  not  signify 
at  once  tying  to  a  mean  annual  growth  nor  a  strict  academic  sustained 
annual  yield  —  concessions  must  often  be  made  to  meet  practical  demands 
—  but  let  us  have  our  regulation  down  in  "black  and  white,"  in  orderly 
and  systematic  working  plans.  Such  detailed  plans  are  generally  non- 
existant,  and  yet  are  needed.     It  is  open  to  argument  whether  even  large 


220  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING  PLANS 

virgin  areas  of  timber,  distant  from  transportation,  should  be  heavily  cut 
(as  they  may  be)  without  first  having  a  working  plan  to  show  how  the 
removal  of  the  over-mature  timber  will  merge  into  the  desired  forest 
management. 

There  is  a  striking  analogy  between  the  early  crude  regulation  in 
the  Vosges  and  the  1905-1918  "regulation"  on  some  of  our  National 
Forests  where  the  yield  area  unit  or  working  group  may  correspond  to 
the  area  required  to  supply  one  or  more  sawmills.  In  the  Vosges  "how- 
ever numerous  were  the  sawmills,  they  touched  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  immense  stand."  The  excess  of  supply  over  demand  unquestion- 
ably saved  these  Vosges  forests  just  as  our  early  logging  of  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  stand  on  private  forests,  because  the  rest  was  unmerchant- 
able, saved  large  areas  from  total  destruction.  But  with  a  more  in- 
tensive market  these  conditions  have  changed ;  everything  —  even  small 
trees  —  are  merchantable,  so  we  must  look  to  the  future.  Until  1919 
on  our  National  Forests  the  great  danger  was  that  real  mandatory 
(obligatory)  regulation  ^^  was  not  generally  in  effect.  From  1905  until 
about  1918  the  administrator  has  been  more  powerful  than  the  working 
plan  expert,  because  the  expert  has  not  formulated  a  practical  plan  — 
something  exceedingly  cUfficult  because  of  changing  conditions,  unstabil- 
ized  and  unforeseen  local  demands,  and  economic  factors  which  dictate 
the  export  of  all  good  grades  of  lumber  to  far  distant  regions.  Even 
with  obligatory  regulation  recognized  as  a  necessity  there  is  danger 
in  making  sales  for  8  to  10  years.  With  long-term  sales  and  sales  for 
enormous  amounts  to  one  company,  as  have  been  planned  and  made  in 
a  few  instances,  the  tendency  is  to  sell  immense  tracts  and  thus  to  bind 
the  local  forester  to  an  economic  lumberman's  policy  for  years  to  come. 
Because  of  the  frailty  of  human  foresight,  these  contracts  which  bind 
the  Forest  Service  to  a  long  continued  economic  exploitation  are  prob- 
ably unwise.  This  means  that  an  administration  in  1910  may  blindly 
bind  the  administration  in  1930  to  a  policy  of  overcutting  a  locality 
in  the  West.  The  administrator  of  1925  may  want  to  build  a  privately- 
owned  railroad  as  a  separate  enterprise  and  sell  in  small  amounts. 
This  he  could  not  do  because  perhaps  ten  or  fifteen  townships  in  ques- 
tion had  been  sold  to  a  great  lumber  corporation  on  a  20-year  sale; 
once  the  investment  is  made  can  further  sales  be  refused  without  hard- 
ship on  the  operator  even  if  his  plant  has  been  amortised  in  the  mean- 
time? Shall  a  local  forest  industry  be  wiped  out?  I  believe  such  a 
situation  is  almost  unique  in  the  history  of  our  Government.  These 
big  sales  are  justified  by  the  necessity  of  selling  overmature  timber  which 

15  Since  this  was  written  it  is  understood  that  the  Forest  Service  has  begun  the  study 
of  regulation  in  earnest  and  that  long-term  sales  are  to  be  largely  confined  to  Alaska. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  change  in  policy  will  be  effective  —  but  the  lesson  holds  good. 


ABUSES  LED   TO   LEGISLATION  221 

is  wasting  —  something  commendable  in  itself  —  but  they  bind  the 
future  administrations  of  our  Government  to  a  policy  which  may  not  be 
wise  at  that  time.  Suppose  the  timber  were  required  for  local  use  by 
small  isolated  communities  whose  development  was  not  foreseen  when 
the  long-term  sale  was  made.  The  lumber  company  could  not  store  the 
timber  until  needed.  It  must  be  exported  where  the  demand  for  a 
large  output  is  keen.  It  would  be  better  to  develop  Government  or 
private  transportation  as  a  separate  business  and  then  sell  to  small  mills 
for  short  periods.  The  details  of  long-term  sales  have  been  wisely  worked 
out  but  the  broad-gauge  policy  is  at  fault.  Would  the  present  Forest 
Service  administrator  wilHngly  sell  the  Kaibab  Forest  to  one  company 
to  secure  development?  I  believe  not,  because  the  sentiment  has  changed 
within  the  past  year.  How  do  large  sales  affect  regulation?  It  means 
that  to  justify  the  very  large  cut,  required  for  big  sales,  which  removes 
one-half  to  two-thirds  or  more  of  the  stand,  the  working  groups  are  ex- 
tended to  take  in  as  much  growing  stock  as  is  needed  to  yield  the  annual 
cut  of  the  large  sale.  Under  such  conditions  the  real  regulation  for  the 
benefit  of  the  future  local  community  may  be  impossible.  There  must  be 
smaller  working  groups,  smaller  sales,  and  permanent  road  and  railroad 
transportation,  because  the  long-term  sales  such  as  have  been  sanctioned 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  are  merely  compromises  between  destruc- 
tive lumbering  and  forestry.  There  is  no  need  to  make  such  compro- 
mises, and  these  sales  should  be  abandoned.  The  intensive,  energetic, 
and  serious  campaign  for  real  regulation,  which  began  in  the  fall  of  1919 
on  all  National  Forests,  based  on  silviculture,  local  economic  require- 
ments, and  yield  should  result  in  excellent  management  plans  —  needed 
but  not  7jet  in  effect. 

Abuses  Led  to  Legislation.  —  Anyone  who  doubts  the  folly  of  the 
present  forest  destruction  in  the  United  States,  by  the  private  owner 
who  treats  his  forest  as  a  mine  instead  of  an  annual  crop,  should  read 
and  study  the  forest  history  of  overcutting  in  France.  The  campaigns 
against  the  use  of  forest  capital  for  income  did  not  always  succeed;  it 
took  a  national  need  for  timber  to  make  regulation  possible  and  to  stop 
abuse  and  overcutting.  It  was  a  succession  of  ups  and  downs  for  forest 
conservation,  and  much  of  the  overcutting  was  in  royal  forests  under 
trained  foresters.  The  great  conservationist  Colbert  showed  clearly  by 
his  appointment  of  a  special  forest  commission  that  he  did  not  trust 
the  foresters  in  charge  because  he  had  found  that  the  tendency  had  been 
to  overcut.  Let  us  examine  a  few  instances  of  the  early  vicissitudes  of 
forest  control.  In  1596  an  attempt  was  made  to  prescribe  the  amount 
of  timber  to  be  sold  annually  in  royal  forests.  The  plan  was  never 
followed  and  in  1612  was  formally  suppressed.  In  1614  new  restrictive 
rules  were  made  especially  for  the  Normandy  forests  but  abuse  and 


222  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND   WORKING  PLANS 

overcutting  continued.  In  1661  royal  forests  were  closed  to  cutting  as 
a  "reformation  against  forest  abuse"  and  in  1662  Colbert  started  a 
reconnaissance  and  stocktaking.  Colbert's^^  code  of  1669,  which  above 
all  was  "  an  organic  law  and  one  of  policing,"  was  the  first  step  that  really 
counted  because  it  became  part  of  the  recognized  law  of  the  country, 
and  though  it  was  evaded  and  was  modified  from  time  to  time,  it  re- 
mained a  bulwark  against  forest  profligacy.  In  1668  definite  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  working  plans,  which  included  a  check  and  a  map 
of  the  boundaries,  estimates  of  timber,  descriptions  of  the  soil,  species, 
merchantable  sizes,  local  needs,  rotations,  and  special  data  on  timber 
suitable  for  ships.  But  certain  abuses  continued  even  after  1669;  poor 
location  of  sales,  high  stumps,  waste  and  failure  to  reserve  sufficient 
standards. 

The  Policy  of  "Reserves".  —  In  French  forest  management  the  "re- 
serve" refers  to  the  growing  stock  or  timber  capital  held  in  excess  of  the 
stock  which  would  normally  be  provided  by  the  working  plan.  The  need 
of  reserving  a  nest  egg  of  timber  in  communal  forests  (in  excess  of  the 
normal  growing  stock),  a  policy  continued  to  the  present  day,  is  clear 
when  we  look  back  at  past  improvidence.  It  was  natural  to  "lean  over 
backwards"  and  to  retain  excess  growing  stocks.  And  during  the  war 
it  was  fortunate  for  the  allies  that  these  reserves  existed,  for  without 
them  the  war  shortage  would  have  been  more  acute. 

HuffeP^  thus  summarizes  the  history  of  "reserves":  "Commenced  in 
the  16th  century  they  then  aimed  solely  at  the  general  welfare,"  at  the 
expense  of  the  clergy  and  communes  and  were  therefore  ineffective. 
Reestablished  in  the  17th  century,  they  aimed  at  the  private  and  public 
interest.  But  during  the  18th  century,  because  of  poor  execution,  the 
so-called  reserves  impoverished  more  forests  than  they  enriched.  In  the 
19th  century  the  reserves  were  maintained  for  the  communes  and  espe- 
cially for  their  finances.     They  were  more  effective  as  the  administrative 

1^  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  wood  famine  predicted  by  Colbert  never  arrived  because  he 
based  his  prediction  on  an  increased  demand  for  cord-wood  whereas  fuel  wood  has  been 
replaced  by  coal,  oil  and  electricity.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  a  real  world  timher  famine 
will  never  arrive  because  an  acute  shortage  will  bring  pressure  and  lead  to  substitutes. 
But  from  the  viewpoint  of  national  efficiency  and  health  forests  will  become  more  neces- 
sary as  our  civilization  and  settlement  intensifies.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  the 
gross  and  net  revenue  (cited  by  Huffel,  p.  256,  Vol.  Ill)  before  and  after  the  Colbert 
reforms.  In  1682  the  area  of  the  royal  forests  was  1,303,8.34  arpents  (about  1.3  million 
acres).  In  the  years  1660-69,  the  average  gross  revenue  was  447,623  livres,  the  aver- 
age net  revenue  was  325,699  livres;  1680-89  the  average  gross  revenue  was  1,557,363 
livres,  the  average  net  revenue  was  1,110,773  livres. 

1'  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  84-85.  The  history  of  "fonds  de  reserve"  is  from  Huffel  w^ho  is  the 
best  author  on  French  forest  economics.  The  French  reserve  to-day  is  usually  separate 
from  the  working  group  being  systematically  cut  over;  it  is  held  for  emergencies  and 
cut  when  required. 


THE   POLICY  OF   "RESERVES"  223 

control  became  firmer.  The  next  development  in  the  objective  of  the 
reserves  was  to  stabilize  revenue  in  case  of  an  act  of  Providence  or  errors 
in  management.  Contrary  to  ordinary  German  usage,  the  French  insist 
on  carrying  more  than  a  "normal "  growing  stock.  This,  they  argue,  will 
stand  them  in  good  stead  if  there  are  windfalls,  insect  attacks,  or  wars. 
This  question  of  a  reserve  in  publicly  owned  forests  is  important,  because 
we  are  about  to  begin  the  regulation  of  our  National  Forests.  It  is 
therefore  of  interest  to  examine  how  and  why  the  policy  of  reserves  was 
estabhshed  in  France.  As  early  as  1549  it  was  ordered  "that  a  third  of 
the  forests  belonging  to  the  communal  citizens  shall  be  reserved  for  growth 
in  high  forest."  In  1561  this  was  extended  to  include  royal  forests  but 
the  reserve  was  reduced  from  one-third  to  one-fourth.  In  1580  the 
order  was  cancelled  by  Henry  III,  but  17  years  later,  because  of  con- 
tinued forest  destruction,  the  order  of  1561  was  reestablished  and  Col- 
bert's code  of  1669  provided  that  one-fourth  the  communal  and  clerical^^ 
forests  over  25  acres  in  area,  conifers  excepted,  should  be  thrown  into  a 
reserve.  From  1706  to  1730  the  policy  of  reserves  was  suppressed  in 
portions  of  France,  but  the  principle  was  firmly  established  and  was  em- 
bodied in  the  working  plans  for  communal  broadleaf  forests  which  were 
almost  all  completed  by  1750.  It  was  found  best  to  have  this  "quarter 
in  reserve"  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  forest  so  that  an  inspector 
could  determine  on  the  ground  whether  a  bona  fide  reserve  had  actually 
been  made.  And  to-day  these  reserves  are  still  considered  advisable  in 
communal  forests,  as  provided  by  the  revised  code  of  1827,  because  if  the 
cutting  in  the  regular  working  groups,  for  example,  is  stopped  by  having 
to  clean  up  heavy  windfall,  then  the  reserved  portion  can  be  worked  dur- 
ing the  crisis.  This  furnishes  employment  for  local  laborers  and  safe- 
guards the  continuance  of  a  revenue  from  special  fellings  in  the  reserve. 
Where,  as  in  some  instances,  the  reserve  was  not  separated  out  on  the 
ground  but  merely  banked  by  having  an  excess  growing  stock  through 
cutting  only  three-fourths  the  estimated  yield  called  "fonds  de  reserve 
a  assiette  mobile,"  the  silvicultural  results  were  less  satisfactory,  but  the 
reserve  supply  of  fine,  large  timber  strengthened  the  special  industries 
which  depended  on  a  local  supply  of  high-class  logs.  Before  the  war  the 
long  rotations  so  prevalent  in  State  forests  constituted  a  strong  reserve 
which  war  requirements  largely  reduced.  As  much  as  15  to  18  annual 
yields  were  cut  in  1917  1918  in  some  fir  (Jura)  forests.  Judging  by  the 
experience  of  France,  our  public  forests  in  the  United  States  should  not 
be  cut  up  to  their  full  capacity  unless  it  is  locally  essential  from  the  view- 
point of  sound  silvics.     Under  American  conditions  perhaps  the  best 

18  The  A.  E.  F.  bought  a  part  of  the  forest  of  Citeaux  (Loire-et-Cher)  so  it  is  interest- 
ing to  know  that  the  Citeaux  monks  protested  for  over  50  years  against  the  reserve  re- 
quired by  the  law  of  1669. 


224  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING   PLANS 

way  to  obtain  a  reserve  is  to  use  rotations  somewhat  longer  than  is 
indicated  by  the  culmination  of  mean  annual  growth,  or  frankly  to  adopt 
a  physical  rotation  and  grow  the  large  timber  that  the  private  owner  can 
never  afford  to  produce  because  of  the  lower  financial  returns. 

Summary  of  Principles  and  Methods.  —  French  Government  regula- 
tion ^^  of  cuttmg  shows  "for  a  given  period  ^^  when,  how,  where,  and 
how  much  should  be  cut  in  the  forest." 

With  more  complicated  silviculture,  where  the  number  of  fellings 
must  be  increased  to  secure  natural  regulation,  or  with  windfall  or  other 
accidents,  regulation  is  naturally  more  difficult  and  requires  modifica- 
tion oftener  than  with  clear  cutting.  With  simple  coppice,  regulation, 
once  wisely  established,  will  last  indefinitely,  provided  the  rotation 
remains  unchanged. 

The  management  of  a  forest  includes  the  (a)  prehminary  work  upon 
which  the  working  plan  is  based  and  (6)  the  regulation  of  felling  which 
is  based  on  the  fundamental  statistics  collected  under  (a) .  French  writers 
recognize  only  four  essential  kinds  of  yield  regulation : 

(1)  By  area,  which  is  simple  but  entails  sacrifices  if  parts  of  the  forest 
are  irregular  and  if  too  rigidly  applied  to  secure  an  orderly  sequence  of 
age  classes. 

(2)  By  number  of  trees,  usually  with  a  diameter  limit  system.^^ 
This  gives  a  variable  volume  yield  and  has  been  abandoned,  except  for 
experimental  purposes,  with  the  exception  of  selection  beech  coppice 
(tallis  furete).  In  India  this  method,  really  a  crude  volume  method, 
is  still  extensively  used  possibly  partly  because  of  the  fact  that  coolie 
labor  is  used  to  collect  working  plan  valuation  survey  data. 

15  The  following  management  terms  (French  terms  and  American  equivalents)  are 
used  by  French  writers:  Reglement  d'exploitation  (cutting  plan).  Proces-verbal 
d'amenagement  (working  plan  report).  Possibilite  (yield,  amount  forests  can  furnish 
without  diminishing  revenue).  Serie  (working  group  which  forms  a  distinct  economic 
unit).  Rotation  (cutting  cycle).  Revolution  (rotation).  Affectation  periodique 
(periodic  block,  cut  over  during  the  period).  Produits  normaux  (product  or  yield  pre- 
scribed by  permanent  working  plan).  Produits  normaux  prevus  (abnormal  regenera- 
tion fellings).  Produits  extraordinaires  (cutting  of  reserve,  in  communal  forest). 
Produits  principeaux  (yield  of  mature  timber,  final  regeneration  fellings).  Produits 
intermediares  (thinnings). 

20  Huff  el,  already  cited. 

2'  Where  all  trees  over  a  fixed  diameter  are  cut  by  the  so-called  diameter  limit  method 
brought  to  the  United  States  by  Gifford  Pinchot  and  first  described  by  Lorenz  in  France 
in  1867,  there  is  great  danger  of  irregular  yields  and  of  overcutting  virgin  stands  where 
age  class  normality  is  rarely  found.  Huff  el  says,  "such  a  system  can  evidently  be  applied 
only  to  forests  very  nearly  normal.  In  a  fir  stand  rich  in  large  trees,  seedlings,  and 
saplings,  but  poor  in  average  sized  trees,  it  would  result  in  a  rapid  and  ill-considered 
cutting  of  all  the  old  timber  in  a  short  period  of  superabundance,  which  would  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  period  of  largely  reduced  fellings  or  even  by  a  complete  suspension  of  income." 


MANAGEMENT  SUBDIVISIONS  225 

(3)  By  volume,  which  is  supple,  difficult  to  calculate,  requires  short 
periods  between  working  plan  revisions  and  frequent  inventories  and  is 
somewhat  dangerous,  since  it  is  apt  to  lead  to  overcutting  if  the  growth 
is  largely  overestimated. 

(4)  By  area  and  volume,  a  combination  of  (1)  and  (3).  This  is  the 
modern  method  of  regulation  except  for  coppice  stands  which  can  usually 
be  regulated  correctly  by  area  after  making  suitable  allowances  for  soil 
quality  (see  page  232). 

Management  Subdivisions.  —  The  great  lesson  in  a  study  of  the 
details  of  European  forest  management  is  that  in  dealing  with  nature 
perfection  is  impossible.  Regeneration  is  usually  not  complete;  there 
are  windfall  and  insect  attacks  to  throw  out  yield  calculations  and  create 
disorder  silvically  and  financially.  Until  the  forester  learns  this  lesson 
he  cannot  create  proper  pictures  of  the  future  forest,  especially  if  he 
follows  the  ideal  of  natural  regeneration,  which  will  usually  be  the  rule 
in  the  United  States  for  some  years  to  come. 

In  systematizing  the  cut  or  in  regulating  a  forest  there  are  two  kinds 
of  management  work:  (1)  ''Preliminary  work  .  .  .  the  study  of 
physical  conditions,  growth,  and  the  economics  of  exploitation.  (2) 
Essential  work     .     .     .     the  regulation  of  felhng." 

After  deciding  on  the  classes  of  product  desired,  based  on  the  local 
or  general  industrial  requirements  (see  "Rotation,"  page  226),  and  the 
system '-^2  ^f  silviculture  necessary  to  the  objects  of  the  State  (see  Chapter 
V)  the  first  important  step  in  the  systematic  management  of  a  forest  is 
to  form  so-called  management  ^^  subdivisions,  for  without  these  no 
yield  regulation  is  possible.  Management  divisions  rest  fundamentally 
on  two  bases:  (a)  silvicultural  systems  and  (b)  economic  units.  A  priori, 
simple  coppice  is  not  mixed  with  high  forest  but  forms  separate  sections; 
these  sections  are  then  formed  into  working  groups  "destined  to  form 
distinct  economic  units  with  distinct  cutting  cycles  and  a  sustained 
yield."  Whether  a  section  is  divided  into  one  or  more  working  groups 
or  whether  the  working  group  may  comprise  one  or  more  sections  de- 
pends on  the  size  of  the  section  and  the  economic  conditions.  Usually 
in  France  the  section  of  high  forest  in  State  forests  forms  more  than  one 
working  group  and  the  section  of  coppice  only  one.  This  is  immaterial 
to  our  consideration  of  the  subject  of  French  pubHc  forest  regulation. 

22  In  France  there  is  always  a  presumption  in  favor  of  the  former  method  of  treat- 
ment which  is  the  result  of  centuries  of  evolution.  A  change  in  treatment  involves 
financial  sacrifices  and  has  usually  been  brought  about  by  a  change  in  market,  which 
would  justify  a  conversion  from  coppice  to  high  forest,  or  an  error  in  the  original  choice 
of  treatment  through  failure  to  secure  natural  regeneration. 

23  French  administrative  subdivisions  built  up  from  the  beat,  the  forest,  the  canton, 
the  inspection  and  the  conservation  are  not  treated  in  detail  (see  Chapter  X,  p.  273). 


226  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND   WORKING  PLANS 

From  the  American  viewpoint  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  areas 
covered  by  each  working  group  in  France  are  usually  small  —  1,000  to 
1,300  acres  —  but  it  should  be  emphasized  that  this  is  due  to  the  in- 
tensive economic  conditions.  In  France  a  small  valley  may  supply  a 
lumber-jack  village  in  the  mountains  with  its  sale  of  logs  essential  to 
the  continuance  of  its  waterpower  sawmill.  If  this  valley  is  15  to  20 
miles  from  a  railroad,  up  a  steep  grade,  the  cost  of  obtaining  the  neces- 
sary local  supply  of  lumber  from  a  large  producing  center  would  be  pro- 
hibitive. Without  steady  work  during  the  winter  months,  when  farm- 
ing is  impossible,  the  laborers  would  have  to  migrate  or  give  up  their 
home  life.  These  conditions  often  explain  the  small  working  groups, 
which  cost  more  trouble  and  money  to  establish,  but  which  hold  the 
local  population.  For  parts  of  New  England  it  is  the  ideal  which  public 
forests  should  strive  to  imitate,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  more 
working  groups  there  are,  the  more  difficult  and  complicated  is  the  log- 
ging, since  the  sales  must  be  smaller. 

According  to  the  teaching  at  Nancy  "the  solid  base  of  the  whole 
management  structure,  the  indispensable  criterion  of  its  precision,  the 
incessant  guide  of  administration,  the  necessary  means  of  the  control  of 
operations  and  of  the  results  obtained"  is  the  compartment  sub-division. 
Under  intensive  conditions  this  is  usually  between  15  and  40  acres  in 
area  and,  unless  soil  quality  varies  greatly,  the  compartments  in  one 
forest  do  not  vary  greatly  in  area.  An  important  exception  is  where 
the  regulation  is  by  area  and  where  to  obtain  a  nearly  equal  annual  cut 
it  is  necessary  to  increase  the  size  of  compartments,  where  the  poorer 
soil  gives  a  smaller  yield  per  acre.  The  main  criticism  of  compart- 
ment boundaries,  as  found  in  French  State  forests,  is  that  they  are  some- 
times too  artificial.  The  soil,  exposure,  logging  roads,  ridges,  valleys, 
canals,  and  railroads  should  all  govern  the  shape  and  boundary  of  the 
compartment,  but  usually  the  boundaries  in  hilly  country  should  be  per- 
pendicular to  the  logging  road  to  facilitate  logging.  The  so-called 
"etoile,"  so  common  in  level  forest  subdivisions,  is  more  important  from 
the  scenic  or  shooting  viewpoint  than  from  the  standpoint  of  logging. 

Rotations  and  Cutting  Cycles.  —  The  rotations  are  based  on  the  object 
of  the  owner  and  are  determined  by  technical,  silvicultural,  economic, 
or  financial  considerations  as  limited  by  silvicultural  possibilities.  Ac- 
cording to  Fernow  a  rotation  is  "the  time  through  which  the  crop  is 
allowed  to  grow  normally  until  cut  and  reproduced." 

The  viewpoint  in  India  as  expressed  by  D'Arcy  ^^  is  contrary  to  the 
European  conception  of  rotation,  except  in  selection  forests  in  France: 
"the  exploitable  age  of  a  forest  crop  is  the  age  at  which  the  individual 

2«  D'Arcy,  W.  E.     Preparation  of  Forest  Plans  in  India.     Calcutta,  1898,  3d  edition. 


ROTATIONS   AND   CUTTING   CYCLES  227 

trees  furnish  the  kind  of  produce  most  wanted."  Endres  says  '^  that 
"by  rotation  period  or  rotation  is  meant  that  time  which  elapses  under 
normal  conditions  between  the  planting  and  the  utilization  of  a  stand. 
In  the  case  of  the  working  group  the  rotation  is  the  average  time  of  grow- 
ing merchantable  material  which  is  the  fundamental  consideration  in 
working  plan  calculations."  Variations  from  the  normal  may  be  due 
to  unusual  silvicultural,  financial,  or  economic  conditions.  Rotation 
is  not  to  be  confused  with  cutting-cycles  ^^  in  selection  forests,  which 
is  the  period  elapsing  between  cuts  on  the  same  area.  Obviously  in 
selection  forests  the  length  of  the  cutting  cycle  has  an  important  in- 
fluence on  the  amount  removed,  and  the  frequency  of  cut  also  has  a 

25  Endres,  pp.  220-221. 

26  There  are  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  a  long  cutting  period.  The  longer  the 
time  between  cuts  the  more  time  will  be  allowed  for  eradicating  damage  caused  by  log- 
ging. When  it  is  necessary  to  cut  a  amall  amount  per  acre  over  a  large  area  it  neces- 
sarily increases  the  cost  of  logging.  Some  argue  that  the  cutting  cycle  should  not  be 
less  than  the  time  which  it  will  take  the  tree  to  pass  from  one  diameter  class  to  the  follow- 
ing. On  the  other  hand  well-known  writers,  like  M.  Gazin,  argue  that  the  cutting  cycle 
should  be  very  short  —  5  or  6  years  —  in  order  to  secure  the  yield  without  opening  up 
the  stand  too  much  and  without  the  necessity  for  heavy  cuttings.  If,  for  example,  the 
growth  per  cent  is  4,  a  cutting  cycle  of  5  years  means  removing  an  amount  equal  to  20 
per  cent  of  the  original  volume;  with  a  10-year  cutting  cycle  40  per  cent  must  be  re- 
moved; and  with  15  years,  60  per  cent,  which  is  certainly  too  much  from  a  cultural 
point  of  view.  A  short  cutting  cycle,  moreover,  enables  the  removal  of  dead  and 
dying  trees  which  otherwise  would  lose  a  great  deal  in  value.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
more  intensive  the  treatment  the  shorter  the  cutting  cycle.  With  the  recognized 
tendency  to  coniferous  forests,  intensive  treatment  becomes  more  and  more  necessary 
if  the  spruce,  fir,  or  pine  is  to  be  favored  in  the  cutting.  Moreover,  recent  yield  in- 
vestigations show  that  the  growth  of  coniferous  stands  is  much  more  than  had  been 
supposed.  Schaeffer,  a  specialist  in  fir  forests,  advocates  neither  the  very  short  nor 
the  very  long  cutting  cycle,  but  has  called  attention  to  the  possibility  of  cutting  over 
the  same  ground  twice  during  one  cycle.  This  double  cut  idea  is  only  advocated,  how- 
ever, for  the  rich  compartments,  since  one  cut  per  cycle  would  be  sufficient  for  the 
areas  where  conditions  of  growth  are  less  favorable.  He  says:  "The  cutting  cycle  of 
16  years,  usually  followed  under  average  conditions  in  the  Savoie  Alps,  can  be  con- 
tinued with  8  years  between  the  cut.  In  calculating  the  yield  with  conservatism  it 
will  result  in  certain  compartments  realizing  every  16  years  30  per  cent  or  more  of  the 
stand.  This  volume  cannot  be  secured  at  one  time  without  endangering  the  future  of 
the  stand."  Two  cuts,  therefore,  would  be  justified  during  the  course  of  the  formal 
felling  cycle.  However,  it  should  be  recognized  that  in  exceptionally  rich  forests  it 
would  be  possible  to  reduce  the  cutting  cycle  to  12  years  and  the  interval  between  the 
two  cuts  to  6  years.  On  the  other  hand,  in  certain  stands  where  the  time  necessary  for 
trees  to  pass  from  one  diameter  class  to  another  is  40  years,  20  years  would  be  a 
better  felling  cycle,  but  instead  of  fixing  the  length  of  the  cutting  cycle  arbitrarily 
Schaeffer  advocates  the  determination  of  the  number  of  years  which  it  takes  a  tree  to 
pass  from  one  diameter  class  to  another,  and  adopts  this  figure,  provided  during  this 
cutting  cycle  each  compartment  will  be  cut  over  twice,  but  after  the  first  cutting  no 
new  stocktaking  need  be  made.  (De  la  Duree  de  la  Rotation  dans  les  Futaies  Jar- 
dinees.     A.  Schaeffer,  1907.     B.  de  S.  F.  de  F.  —  C.  et  B.) 


228  GOVERNMENT   REGULATION   AND   WORKING   PLANS 

direct  l^earing  on  the  amount  that  is  lost  through  decay;  consequently 
there  is  a  tendency  with  intensive  management  to  short  cutting  cycles  of 
from  5  to  10  years.  With  extensive  management  longer  cutting  cycles 
are  unavoidable.  In  Oregon  (western  yellow  pine)  a  cutting  cycle  of 
50  to  60  years  has  been  tentatively  adopted,  obviously  far  too  long  when 
the  market  is  established.  In  France,  under  most  intensive  conditions, 
the  cutting  cycle  is  5  to  8  years;  under  less  intensive  conditions  9  to  18 
years,  and  rarely  more  than  this.  The  cutting  cycle  is  usually  a  sub- 
multiple  of  the  rotation;  with  a  cutting  cycle  of  5  years  it  is  presumed 
that  5  per  cent  of  the  stand  will  be  cut  every  5  years,  with  a  cutting 
cycle  of  10  years  10  per  cent  would  be  cut  every  10  years,  and  with  a 
cutting  cycle  of  20  years  20  per  cent  must  be  cut  every  20  years.  This 
has  an  important  effect  on  practical  logging,  especially  in  the  United 
States  where  a  considerable  cut  is  usually  essential  to  justify  logging 
investments.  Short  cutting  cycles  which  are  best  for  the  cultural  needs 
of  the  stand  are  only  possible  under  intensive  conditions. 

The  tendency  is  to  have  too  narrow  an  idea  of  what  length  of  rotation 
means.  For  example,  if  5-year-old  transplants  are  used  in  a  plantation, 
after  clear  cutting,  which  is  allowed  to  grow  100  years,  the  rotation  in 
this  case  would  be  100  years  rather  than  105  years,  since  the  age  of  the 
transplants  at  the  time  used  would  be  omitted  in  the  calculation.  On 
the  other  hand  it  is  recognized  that  the  length  of  the  rotation  is  shortened 
by  the  use  of  well-formed  transplants  simply  because  the  stand  matures 
sooner.  Frequent  and  early  thinnings  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in 
affecting  the  length  of  a  rotation.  With  thinnings  the  stand  will  become 
mature  earlier  than  if  left  unthinned.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
while  the  forest  as  a  whole  may  be  managed  according  to  specified  rota- 
tions yet  individual  stands  may  be  cut  before  or  after  the  age  fixed  by 
the  rotation  because  of  accidents,  market  conditions,  or  numerous  other 
considerations.  Still  another  point  worthy  of  emphasis  is  that  it  is 
usually  sufficient  if  the  rotation  can  be  established  to  the  nearest  decade ; 
it  is  splitting  hairs  to  figure  to  the  exact  year  when  computing  the 
rotation. 

According  to  one  writer:  ^^  "It  has  often  not  been  appreciated  that  the 
rotation  actually  employed  is  not  that  corresponding  to  the  age  of  the 
smallest  trees  felled,  but  of  the  number  of  years  in  the  felling  cycles  in 
excess  of  this."  In  India  economic  conditions  necessitate  an  annual 
felling  area,  an  average  tree  best  suited  to  the  objects  of  the  manage- 
ment, sufficiently  heavy  fellings  to  insure  regeneration,  and,  of  less 
importance,  a  felling  cycle  which  shall  be  a  sub-multiple  of  the  rota- 
tion. 

27  Blascheck,  A.  D.  "The  True  Selection  System."  Indian  Forester,  1913,  pp. 
427-430. 


ROTATIONS   AND   CUTTING   CYCLES  229 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  computing  rotations,  and  especially 
financial  rotations,  is  that  the  forester  must  use  present  statistics  or  the 
trend  of  present  statistics  for  calculations  which  pretend  to  answer 
management  problems  on  the  basis  of  unknown  or  roughly  approxi- 
mated conditions  a  half  century  or  a  century  hence  —  obviously  im- 
possible to  fathom.  But  the  proper  regulation  viewpoint  is  that  the 
problem  should  be  solved  for  the  present  on  the  basis  of  the  best  avail- 
able data  on  the  assumption  that  when  the  working  plan  is  systemati- 
cally revised  these  calculations  will  be  recomputed  and  brought  up  to 
date.  The  fact  that  a  revised  and  altered  answer  to  the  rotation  prob- 
lem will  be  certain  is  no  reason  for  not  doing  our  best  with  available 
statistics.  As  a  matter  of  policy  it  is  safe  to  estimate  future  conditions 
based  on  the  trend  of  economic  conditions,  rather  than  to  follow  blindly 
present  stumpage  prices,  present  cost  values,  present  current  interest 
rates,  and  market  requirements  for  forest  products.  The  best  regulation 
imphes  some  attempt  to  fathom  the  future.  We  know  from  past  history 
that  forest  conditions  change;  therefore  to  follow  blindly  present  condi- 
tions we  arrive  at  the  least  accurate  predictions.  There  is  a  middle 
ground  between  following  to-day's  data  on  the  one  hand  and  on  the 
other  of  making  unwarranted  guesses  at  the  future.  Moreover,  we  must 
realize  that  our  calculations  are  at  best  approximations  and  therefore 
the  minutia  may  often  be  omitted  with  profit  and  propriety. 

Efficient  thinnings  not  only  enable  the  forest  to  grow  timber  of  a 
specified  size  in  fewer  years,  but  they  increase  seed  production  and 
promote  earher  seed  crops,  they  decrease  the  date  of  the  culmination 
of  mean  annual  growth,  and,  as  Endres  puts  it,  "The  greatest  benefit 
is  felt  where  the  highest  soil  rent  is  maintained.  It  is  recalled  that 
large,  early  yields  produce  large  soil  rent  and  vice  versa  ...  a  stand 
that  has  been  thinned  up  to  the  nth.  year  will  have  higher  value  than 
one  that  has  not  been  thinned." 

In  intensive  regulation,  as  for  example  in  parts  of  New  England,  the 
forester  must,  in  theory,  distinguish  between  the  rotation  for  a  particular 
stand  and  the  rotation  for  a  working  group  which  is  composed  of  a  number 
of  stands  of  varying  quality,  but  in  the  West,  in  northern  Arizona  for 
example,  a  rough  general  average  rotation  for  even  an  entire  region 
will  usually  be  a  sufficiently  close  approximation  for  conditions  preva- 
lent while  National  Forests  are  being  organized.  Even  in  a  selection 
forest  such  as  Chamonix  (see  p.  252)  the  French  prescribe  one  technical 
rotation  for  Norway  spruce  and  larch  based  on  a  rough  proportion  of 
the  length  of  time  it  takes  to  grow  the  two  species  weighted  according 
to  the  aggregate  volume  present.  This  rightly  emphasized  the  futility 
of  minute  mathematical  calculations  for  the  solution  of  a  problem  which 
demands  only  an  approximate  answer. 


230  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND   WORKING   PLANS 

No  strictly  financial  rotations  -^  have  been  established  on  public 
forests  in  France.  The  nearest  approach  to  a  high  forest  financial 
rotation  is  with  maritime  pine  and  Scotch  pine,  but  even  here  the  usual 
pubHc  forest  rotations  are  10  to  30  years  more  than  would  probably  be 
indicated  by  soil  rent  calculations.  Even  coppice  rotations  are  usually 
10  to  20  years  longer  than  soil  rent  rotation,  but  are  sometimes  calcu- 
lated on  the  best  gross  money  returns. 

Technical  rotations  in  the  United  States  are  of  more  than  mere  histori- 
cal interest.  Here  a  technical  rotation,  especially  under  conditions 
existing  in  the  West,  might  be  the  final  rotation  chosen.  Take  the  case 
of  a  watershed  which  is  most  suitable  for  producing  railroad  ties,  because 
railroad  ties  alone  could  be  floated  down  a  drivable  stream  as  on  the 
Carson  National  Forest,  Arizona.  Here  a  technical  rotation  based  on  the 
length  of  time  it  took  to  grow  ties  of  given  dimensions  is  clearly  indicated. 
The  exact  length,  in  this  instance,  would  depend  on  the  most  suitable 
period  for  growing  the  quality  of  tie  which  yielded  the  largest  net  return 
on  the  investment,  not  taking  into  consideration  compound  interest 
charges  (according  to  C.  F.  Korstian)  unless  the  data  for  financial  calcu- 
lations were  available. 

In  French  Government  selection  forests  technical  rotations  are  usually 
chosen  which  will  produce  the  kind  of  material  most  in  demand  by  the 
public,  so  as  to  support  local  industries  of  value  to  the  economic  life  of 
the  locality.  This  kind  of  rotation,  under  the  economic  conditions 
existing  in  the  Vosges,  Jura,  or  Alps  has  been  severely  criticized  by 
German  foresters  because  of  the  financial  losses  usually  involved.  The 
German  viewpoint  as  expressed  by  Endres  -^  is: 

"Were  we  to  apply  the  technical  rotations  to  even  aged  high  forests,  producing 
mainly  large  timber,  great  financial  losses  would  take  place.  However,  the  policy  of 
bringing  about  a  mixture  of  species  in  order  to  meet  market  requirements  or  demands 
is  apparently  correct  .  .  .  it  is  in  keeping  with  sound  forestry  because  it  also 
maintains  soil  fertihty.  .  .  .  The  technical  rotation  may  also  be  used  by  the  State 
for  social  and  political  reasons  .  .  .  but  the  technical  rotation  can  only  be  recog- 
nized when  production  costs     .     .     .     are  of  no  consequence  to  the  owner." 

Undoubtedly  there  are  some  economic  rotations  on  French  State 
coppice  forests  where  the  objective  is  to  get  the  maximum  quantity  of 
wood.  The  silvicultural  rotation  idea,  based  on  the  limitation  of  the 
species  to  reproduce  or  to  resist  decay,  is  always  present  but  is  never 
the  chief  factor  —  which  is  always  physical  —  namely,  the  product 
most  necessary  for  local  or  general  French  industry.^"     Rotations  may 

2^  No  references  have  been  found  in  French  working  plans  based  on  maximum  soil 
rent  or  maximum  forest  rent.     For  statistical  data  on  rotations  see  page  54. 

29  Endres,  pp.  243-244. 

^  The  rotation  in  France  is  ordinarily  based  on  the  length  of  time  it  takes  a  tree  to 
grow  to  exploitable  size;  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  purely  a  technical  rotation.     For 


REGULATION  OF  CUT  231 

be  temporary  where  it  is  clearly  recognized  that  the  rotation  adopted 
is  a  temporary  expedient  (see  p.  191). 

The  Normal  Forest.  —  The  normal  forest  with  its  normal  distribution 
of  age  classes,  normal  increment,  and  normal  growing  stock  is  not  used 
by  the  French  Government  in  its  regulation.  Where  the  normal  forest 
is  used  in  working  plans  it  is  the  empirically  normal  stand  based  on 
selected  average  local  stand  tables  which  show  the  volume  in  cubic 
meters  and  the  number  of  trees  by  age  classes.  Schaeffer,  in  his  de- 
velopment of  working  plans  for  selection  fir  stands  in  Savoie  and  Haute- 
Savoie,  used  this  empirical  normal  stand  as  a  basis  of  comparison, 
especially  for  marking  the  fellings  prescribed  by  the  working  plan  (see 
p.  256). 

Regulation  of  Cut.  —  The  regulation  of  the  cut  comprises  two  dis- 
tinct operations:  (1)  The  final  fellings,  regulated  by  area  or  volume  or 
both,  which  naturally  constitute  the  chief  return.  These  are  regulated 
by  the  working  plan  in  general  terms  while  much  depends  on  the  progress 
of  regulation  and  accidents:  "A  more  complete  regulation  is  necessary 
for  administration;  year  by  year  there  must  be  prescribed  the  place, 
the  kind,  and  the  quantity  of  the  fellings  to  make."  (2)  Intermediate 
fellings  or  thinnings,  which  are  not  regulated  by  volume  but  by  area. 
This  form  of  regulation  is  also  applied  to  the  cork-oak  bark  collections 
and  to  the  resin  crops  from  maritime  pine. 

The  essential  regulation  of  French  public  forests  may  be  classified  as 
follows :  ^^ 

example,  in  a  slow  growing  forest,  like  Risoul,  the  rotation  is  180  years,  while  in  La 
Grande  Cote,  where  the  growth  is  much  better,  the  rotation  is  reduced  30  years  to  L50 
years.  In  the  forest  of  La  Joux,  notwithstanding  the  rapid  growth,  the  rotation  is  150 
years,  because  in  this  State  forest  very  large  wood  was  desired  (Bois  de  Marines). 
The  low  returns  from  long  technical  rotations  may  be  somewhat  increased  by  the 
higher  prices  secured  from  large-sized  timber. 

31  Masson's  method,  like  Von  Mantel's,  which  consists  in  di\'iding  the  total  growing 
stock  of  the  forest  by  half  the  length  of  the  rotation,  is  well  known.  In  appljang  this 
method  there  is  realized  each  year  a  fraction  of  the  stand  represented  by  2/R.  This  per 
cent  of  realization  is  not  a  function  of  the  rotation.  It  will  be  2  per  cent  for  a  rotation 
of  100  years,  1.43  per  cent  for  140  years,  1.12  per  cent  for  180  years,  and  1  per  cent  for 
200  years.  It  is  necessary  to  have  a  normal  stand  or  the  cut  is  too  high  for  an  im- 
poverished forest  and  too  low  for  a  rich,  well-stocked  forest.  In  order  to  obviate  this 
error  Schaeffer  worked  out  a  correction  figure  based  on  a  knowledge  of  the  stand  per  acre. 
(No.  3,  1905,  B.  de  S.  F.  de  F.  —  C.  et  B.) 

The  Masson  formula  was  used  extensively  in  the  Vosges  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  and  gave  fairly  accurate  results,  simply  because  the  fir  rotation  was  usually 
140  years,  and  by  the  formula  the  yield  was  thus  1 .4  per  cent  which  happened  to  agree 
exactly  with  the  average  site  of  the  Baden  yield  tables  for  silver  fir.  This  method  is 
no  longer  in  use  (see  Appendix  K  (2)),  because  the  fundamental  assumptions,  on 
which  the  formula  is  based,  are  in  error. 


232 


GOVERNMENT   REGULATION  AND  WORKING   PLANS 


Method  of  regulating  the  cut 


System  of  cutting 


Pure  area 

Pure  area 

Pure  area 

Pure  area 

Diameter  limit  by  single  trees 

Area  and  thickness  of  bark 

Area  and  age 

Method  of  1883 

Area  —  volume  allotment  by  periods 


(rt)  Coppice  (clear  cut)  page  232. 
(b)  Resin  crops,  page  232. 
((■)   Intermediate  fellings,  page  233. 
(f/)  Selection  high  forest  (solely  for  pro- 
tection), page  233. 
(e)  Coppice  (selection),  page  233. 
(J)   Cork  bark,  page  233. 
ig)  Coppice-under-standards,  page  234. 
(h)  Selection  high  forest,  page  234. 
(i)    Even-aged  high  forest,  page  239. 


Pure  Area.  —  The  underlying  principle  is  to  divide  the  area  to  be  cut 
over  into  a  number  of  equal  cutting  areas  corresponding  to  the  number 
of  years  in  the  rotation. 

(a)  Coppice  {clear  cut).  —  If  there  are  wide  variations  in  soil  quality, 
which  would  necessarily  mean  a  variation  in  yield  per  acre,  then  the 
fixed  area  to  be  cut  over  each  year  can  be  increased  or  decreased  so  as 
to  equahze  the  cut. 

Illustration.  —  If  a  coppice  forest  of  250  acres  had  a  20-year  rotation 
with  three-fifths  the  area  producing  10  cords  at  the  end  of  20  years  and 
two-fifths  the  area  only  producing  5  cords,  then  the  area  cut  over  would 
be  10  acres  per  year  for  15  years,  and  20  acres  per  year  for  5  years  when 
the  poorer  soil  came  to  be  logged.  Certain  principles  govern  the  designa- 
tion of  the  cutting  areas  on  the  ground.  If  the  forest  is  small,  say  30 
acres,  it  is  better  with  a  30-year  rotation  to  divide  into  fifteen  or  ten 
cutting  areas,  making  a  cut  of  2  acres  every  other  year,  or  3  acres  every 
three  years.  If  possible  similar  types  should  be  grouped  into  one  cutting 
unit  unless  this  interferes  with  the  logging  plan.  Obviously  it  is  poor 
policy  to  divide  the  coppice  without  seeing  to  its  practicability  as  a 
logging  unit.  Broilliard  favors  rectangular  cutting  areas,  say  1,500  by 
600  feet.  It  is  better  to  follow  contours  or  logging  roads  in  establishing 
coupe  boundaries  on  hilly  ground  than  to  adhere  rigidly  to  rectangles. 
The  coppice  cutting  order  should  be  against  the  prevailing  storm  direc- 
tion and  it  should  be  numbered  in  the  order  of  cutting.  When  coppice 
rotations  are  lengthened  or  shortened  the  redivision  of  the  cutting  areas 
is  usually  an  interesting  puzzle  which  can  be  solved  only  after  careful 
study  on  the  ground. 

(6)  Resin  crops.  —  Both  the  final  and  intermediate  yields  are  regu- 
lated by  working  over  equal  areas  each  year.  No  attempt  is  made 
to  get  a  more  exact  yield  by  taking  into  account  the  soil  productivity. 
For  a  detailed  description  of  the  system  of  working  and  an  illustration 
of  yield  regulation  see  pages  191  and  192,  Chapter  VIII.  The  final 
yield  of  these  maritime  pine  forests  is  also  regulated  by  cutting  equal 


DIAMETER  LIMIT   BY  SINGLE   TREES  233 

areas  each  year.     This  is  simple  and  works  well,  because  regeneration 
immediately  after  clear  cutting  is  practically  certain. 

(c)  Intermediate  fellings.  —  These  are  regulated  by  cleaning,  freeing, 
or  thinning  an  equal  area  each  year.  It  was  found  that  where  the 
volume  to  be  removed  by  intermediate  fellings,  especially  thinnings, 
was  limited  the  forest  suffered  silviculturally,  consequently  no  limitation 
of  volume  is  considered  advisable. 

(d)  Selection  high  forests,  usually  maintained  in  the  high  mountains 
solely  for  protection  purposes,  are,  however,  cut  over  periodically  on  a 
cutting  cycle  of  12  to  20  years  so  as  to  remove  the  dead  and  dying  trees 
which  would  otherwise  be  lost.  With  a  protection  working  group  of 
120  years  and  a  12-year  cutting  cycle  10  acres  would  be  cut  over  each 
year.  At  high  altitudes  where  logging  is  difficult  and  expensive  it  is 
often  considered  more  practicable  to  combine  several  years'  operations, 
so  under  the  conditions  enumerated  it  would  probably  be  better  to  cut 
30  to  50  acres  every  3  to  5  years  rather  than  to  log  10  acres,  for  the  few 
trees  it  would  yield,  each  year.  There  is  no  Hmitation  of  volume  since 
the  restriction  of  cut  is  secured  by  the  silvicultural  rule  of  cutting  only 
dead,  dying,  and  deteriorating  trees. 

Diameter  Limit  by  Single  Trees.  —  The  basis  for  this  method  is  to  cut 
all  trees  which  have  attained  a  certain  diameter.  This  system,  now 
largely  abandoned,  was  first  used  in  the  Vosges  in  the  middle  ages  where 
there  was  an  excess  of  raw  material  and  where  only  trees  of  a  certain  size 
and  number  were  wanted  at  the  local  sawmills. 

(e)  Coppice  (selection).  —  The  selection  coppice  forests  of  beech  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  Pyrenees.  When  applied  to  high  forest  virgin  stands 
where  age  class  normality  is  rarely  found,  there  would  be  grave  danger 
of  overcutting,  for  as  Huffel  says,  ''Such  a  system  can  evidently  only 
be  applied  to  forests  very  nearly  normal."  No  illustration  of  the  method 
is  necessary. 

(/)  Cork  bark.  —  The  cork-oak  bark  yield  ^^  is  regulated  by  computing 
the  number  of  trees  which  bear  bark  thick  enough  to  be  merchantable. 
In  other  words,  there  is  the  diameter  limit  idea  applied  to  single  trees 
but  it  is  gauged  by  the  thickness  of  the  bark  (not  by  the  total  diameter 
of  the  tree),  and  by  the  area  to  be  harvested.  (See  also  page  396.) 

Illustration.  —  The  forest  of  I'Esterel  is  divided  into  two  divisions 
each  with  three  working  groups.  It  takes  12  years  for  the  cork  to  reach 
a  thickness  of  0.9  inch,  the  merchantable  size,  and  it  is  collected  on 
a  cutting  cycle  of  2  years.  The  yield  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  number 
of  trees  (with  salable  bark  on  a  working  group)  by  2  and  multiplying  by 
the  average  yield  per  tree. 

^  For  further  details  see  Chapter  III,  French  Forests  and  Forestry,  by  T.  S.  Woolsey, 
Jr.  ■  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  1917. 


234  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION   AND   WORKING   PLANS 

Area  and  Age.  —  The  regulation  of  (g)  coppice-under-standards  is 
based  on  clear  cutting  the  coppice  and  felling  the  ripe  or  deteriorating 
standards  (and  thinning  the  IR  standards  where  necessary)  each  time 
the  coppice  is  clear  cut.  Therefore  the  cutting  cycle  is  equal  to  the 
coppice  rotation.  The  coppice  cut  is  regulated  by  felling  an  equal  area 
each  year  (see  (a)  page  232);  the  standards  are  cut  when  they  reach 
maturity  —  say  four  coppice  rotations  —  and  sooner  if  they  show  signs 
of  disease.  In  addition  some  of  the  immature  standards  are  also  re- 
moved at  the  time  of  the  coppice  felHng.  An  approximately  equal 
annual  cut  in  standards  is  obtained,  since  an  approximately  equal 
number  of  fresh  standards  are  reserved  when  the  coppice  is  cut.  The 
natural  loss  of  standards  while  they  are  growing  to  maturity  is  fairly 
uniform.  Great  freedom  is  allowed  in  leaving  thrifty  trees  for  added 
growth  and  in  removing  those  at  a  standstill.  Occasionally  the  amount 
of  the  cut  in  standards  is  gauged  by  applying  an  empirical  growth  per 
cent  to  the  growing  stock  represented  by  the  overwood  or  standards 
and  then  cutting  just  the  amount  of  the  growth.  Since  the  standards 
are  selected  and  reserved  from  the  coppice  stand  the  number  secured  is 
in  theory  fairly  uniform  and  there  is  no  danger  in  cutting  on  a  growth 
per  cent  basis  unless  the  new  supply  of  IR  standards  falls  short  (see 
pp.  94-98). 

Method  of  1883.  —  This  method  originated  in  France  and  will  therefore 
be  discussed  in  considerable  detail,  especially  as  Schaeffer  has  developed 
several  refinements  which  have  never  been  understood  in  the  United 
States,  and  since  this  method  could  be  applied  to  selection  forests  of 
spruce  and  fir  in  New  England  and  elsewhere.  This  so-called  method  ^^ 
of  1883  as  applied  to  (h)  selection  forests  of  tolerant   species  is  as  follows: 

After  the  inventory,  by  diameter  classes,  determine  the  rotation  and 
the  corresponding  size  of  tree,  then  classify  the  stock  in  three  classes: 

(1)  Old   wood,   trees  more  than  two-thirds   the   exploitable   diameter; 

(2)  average  wood,  less  than  two-thirds  and  more  than  one-third;  (3) 
young  wood,  less  than  one-third  (usually  not  calipered).  Where  there 
is  a  normal,  or  nearly  normal,  proportion  of  old  and  average  wood  the 
cut  ^^  equals  the  volume  of  the  old  wood  divided  by  a  third  of  the  rotation 

33  Based  on  the  original  official  instructions  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  and 
on  the  Chamonix  Working  Plan,  by  A.  S.  Schaeffer. 

34  The  student  should  compare  this  method  with  the  Hufnagl  "diameter  class  method" 
described  by  Recknagle,  pp.  100-105.     The  Hufnagl  method  (Variation  1)  is:  "Annual 

cut  =  Volume  of  trees  or  of  diameter  classes  -  years  and  over,  plus  increment  thereof 

•    r  „ 

m  -  years.     .     .     . 

Recknagle  gives  an  interesting  example  of  (Variation  2)  where  the  trees  have  been 
grouped  by  3-inch  classes  with  the  basis  data  (for  each  class)  of  volume  per  tree,  average 
number  of  trees  per  acre,  and  years  required  to  grow  from  one  class  to  the  next  (and 


METHOD  OF   1883  235 

plus  the  growth  on  the  old  wood  class  while  it  is  being  cut.  But  in  many 
former  working  plans  the  growth  of  the  old  wood  class  was  not  com- 
puted ;  the  result  was  therefore  a  slightly  more  conservative  yield. 

The  method  was  designated  for  selection  high  forests  of  tolerant 
species,  where  the  regeneration  could  be  secured  in  at  least  one-third 
the  rotation,  and  where  a  sustained  yield  was  important.  It  is  based 
on  the  conception  that  a  selection  forest,  normally  constituted,  is  just 
like  an  even-aged  forest  (where,  on  equal  areas,  stands  of  all  ages,  up 
to  the  rotation  age,  are  found),  except  that  the  various  aged  trees  are 
intermingled.  In  the  latter  case  an  equal  cut  is  secured  by  cutting  each 
year  areas  of  the  same  size  and  productivity.  But  in  the  selection 
forest  the  cutting  must  remove  only  ripe  trees  here  and  there  over  the 
entire  area  without  any  comparison  of  surface.  Therefore  in  this  case 
volume  must  be  substituted  for  surface. 

The  method  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  volume  of  the  old 
wood  is  five-eighths  and  the  volume  of  the  average  wood  three-eighths 
the  total  merchantable  volume,  presuming  that  the  young  wood  is  un- 
merchantable. According  to  the  French  Secretary  of  Agriculture  the 
data  furnished  by  research  on  the  mean  annual  rate  of  growth  of  high 
forests  shows  that  this  relationship  is  approximately  as  5  is  to  3.  There- 
fore, whenever  in  a  selection  forest  the  volume  of  the  old  wood  and  the 
average  wood  is  as  5  is  to  3  it  can  be  taken  for  granted  that  these  two 
groups  are  similar  to  the  first  two  periodic  blocks  of  a  high  forest.  To 
demonstrate  that  the  volume  covering  the  first  two  periodic  blocks  of  a 
regular  high  forest  (divided  into  three  periodic  blocks)  is  about  as 
5  is  to  3,  which  represents  their  average  age  respectively,  it  suffices  to 
note  that  the  trees  of  the  second  periodic  block  are  the  average  wood, 
which  has  arrived  at  a  state  where  the  annual  growth  is  very  uniform 
and  just  about  equal  to  the  average  of  the  stand  and  at  a  period  when 
it  is  safe  to  figure  the  future  growth  as  equal  to  the  past  average.  Sup- 
pose a  high  forest  with  a  150-year  rotation  were  divided  into  three 
periods  of  50  years  each.  The  average  age  of  the  first  (old  wood)  and 
second  (average  wood)  periodic  blocks  will  be  125  and  75  years  and 
will  be  separated  by  a  length  of  time  equal  to  a  period  of  50  years. 
In  admitting  that  the  future  growth  will  be  equal  to  the  average  growth, 
the  volume  of  the  125-year  wood  will  be  equal  to  that  of  the  75-year 
old  wood  increased  by  an  amount  equal  to  50  times  the  annual  growth. 

"average  age  of  the  average  tree  in  each  diameter  class")-     For  each  class  the  cut 

,,.  ,  .   ,       ^,    Number  of  trees  per  acre       „,  ,.        ^  , ,       •  i  i  *       n 

IS  =  Volume  of  class  X  ^ : 7 —     ^    , The  summation  of  the  yield  for  all 

Years  to  grow  to  next  class 

classes  is  the  cut  per  acre  which  can  then  be  increased  or  decreased  according  to  the 

surplus  or  deficit  in  the  growing  stock.     According  to  Recknagle's  example  the  surplus 

is  reduced  in  one  cutting  cycle  (which  is  made  equal  to  the  number  of  years  to  grow  to 

the  highest  diameter  class  for  the  preceding  class). 


236  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND   WORKING  PLANS 

Then  if  we  designate  the  volume  of  the  75-year-old  wood  as  3  the  125- 
year-old  volume  will  be 

3 
S  -\-  yzX  50  =  3  +  2  or  5.     This  assumption  of  an  equal  mean  annual 

growth  of  course  is  not  exact,  but  according  to  French  reasoning  it  is 
sufficiently  accurate  for  an  approximate  formula  which  is  being  continu- 
ally revised  at  working  plan  revisions,  when  the  standing  timber  is  re- 
calipered.     According  to  the  original  circular: 

"One  can  object  to  this  method  of  classification  (see  definition,  page  234)  because 
the  diameters  are  not  exactly  proportional  to  the  ages,  that  they  are  not  equal  for  the 
same  species,  or  same  age,  inasmuch  as  the  trees  of  a  selection  forest  are  very  far  from 
growing  under  the  same  conditions.  But  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  with  a  large  number 
of  trees  ...  a  sufficient  compensation  will  take  place  in  order  to  even  off  the 
inaccuracies  and  render  them  negligible.  Moreover,  it  is  not  essential,  nor  possible, 
to  arrive  at  exact  mathematical  results.     .     .     ." 

The  language  and  the  argument  of  the  original  French  instructions  are 
instructive  in  considering  the  method  and  in  applying  it.  As  originally 
promulgated,  so  as  to  be  conservative,  no  increase  was  made  in  the  cut 
for  the  growth  which  took  place  on  the  old  wood  while  it  was  being 
harvested.     But  within  recent  years  it  is  customary  to  figure  growth. 

The  method  is  simple  when  the  proportion  of  the  old  wood  to  the 
young  wood  is  as  5  to  3  or  nearly  so  (see  definition  of  method,  page  234) 
but  this  normal  ratio  is  not  usually  found.  Instead  there  is  (1)  an 
excess  of  old  wood,  (2)  an  excess  of  average  wood.  In  either  (1)  or 
(2)  an  approximately  normal  ratio  is  secured  by  transferring  diameter 
classes  from  the  old  wood  to  the  average  wood  or  vice  versa  if  it  is  safe 
silviculturally  to  hold  over  some  of  the  older  trees  or  if,  where  the  average 
wood  is  too  great,  the  large  average  wood  sizes  can  be  cut  without  too 
great  a  sacrifice. 

An  important  feature  of  the  application  of  this  method  by  the  best 
French  working  plan  officers  is  that  they  compare  the  actual  growing 
stock,  on  the  basis  of  number  of  trees  per  acre  of  different  sizes,  with 
an  empirical  "normal"  stand  (an  adjusted  average  for  the  region). 
This  is  an  essential  and  important  part  of  the  method  as  best  applied 
but  is  not  mentioned  in  the  official  instructions.  Fig.  19  illustrates 
the  method  used,  where  the  actual  forest  is  progressing  toward  an  em- 
pirically normal  state.  At  the  first  stocktaking  the  stand  was  open; 
there  was  an  improvement  of  the  stand  at  the  second  measurement, 
and  the  curve  of  the  third  stocktaking  is  approaching  the  normal  by 
a  wave  movement  already  referred  to  on  page  215, 

A  rough  area  check  can  be  applied,  if  desired,  by  considering  that 
the  area  cut  over  should  be  proportional  to  the  volume  removed.  The 
original  instructions  stipulated  that  (1)  the  length  of  the  felling  period 


METHOD  OF   1883  237 

be  a  submultiple  of  a  third  of  the  rotation;  (2)  the  number  of  compart- 
ments be  about  equal  to  the  years  in  the  period;  (3)  the  local  forester 
be  free  to  allot  the  amount  of  the  cut  in  each  compartment  according 
to  local  requirements  at  the  time  of  cutting;  (4)  the  yield  be  revised  at 
the  end  of  each  felling  period. 

Disadvantages.  —  (1)  To  be  exact  the  number  of  years  in  each  class 
should  be  varied  in  accordance  with  the  number  of  years  of  growth 
actually  consumed.  (2)  Unless  there  is  some  other  check  on  the  nor- 
mality of  the  old  wood  and  average  wood  besides  the  proportion  of  5 
to  3  it  is  insufficient  because  an  acre  might  contain  5  board  feet  of  old 
wood  and  3  board  feet  of  average  wood  without  being  normally  consti- 
tuted. There  must  be  some  conception  of  total  volume.  (3)  Trees 
must  be  taUied  down  to  one-third  the  rotation  (exploitable  size). 

The  advantages  are:  (1)  The  yield  is  in  accordance  with  the  condition 
of  the  stand.  (2)  The  tendency  is  to  work  toward  normal  diameter 
classes.  (3)  A  sustained  yield  is  secured  and  the  growing  stock  is  being 
continually  built  up.     (4)  The  method  has  worked  fairly  well  in  practice. 

Illustration.^^  —  The  merchantable  size  is  24  inches  corresponding  to 
a  rotation  of  180  years.  The  old  wood  is  17  inches  and  over,  the  average 
wood  9  to  16  inches  inclusive,  and  the  young  wood  1  to  8  inches. 

A  sample  inventory  is  shown  on  the  following  page. 

(A)  According  to  the  inventory  the  normal  proportion  exists,  the 
average  wood  totaling  3,000  M  and  the  old  wood  5,000  M  —  therefore 

the  cut  is    '         =  83  M  per  year  or  if  the  old  wood  were  growing  at  the 

,      ,  o               .                   5,000  X  0.02  X  60        ^  , ,  ,  ,  ,         ,  ,    , 

rate  of  2  per  cent  per  year  — or  3  M  would  be  added 

making  the  cut  86  M. 

(B)  Suppose  the  volume  of  the  old  wood  =  6,200  M  and  the  volume 
of  the  average  wood  =  1,800  M.  Here  the  old  wood  exceeds  the  normal 
proportion  so  the  old  wood  diameter  classes  should  be  examined  to  see 
if  they  can  be  transferred  to  the  average  wood  group  and  held  over  a 
period  equal  to  60  years  —  one-third  the  rotation.  If  there  is  no  objec- 
tion to  this  transfer  the  trees  in  the  17  and  18-inch  diameter  classes, 

35  An  exact  adaptation  of  an  official  French  illustration  of  the  method  and  as  illus- 
trated by  the  Chamonix  Working  Plan,  by  A.  Schaeffer.  American  units  have  been 
substituted.  The  art  of  French  regulation  under  such  an  expert  as  Schaeffer  rests 
chiefly  on  a  thorough,  intimate  knowledge  of  the  local  conditions  rather  than  on  the 
organization  of  methods  that  differ  fundamentally  from  what  has  already  been  accepted. 
Schaeffer  knew  the  selection  conifer  forests  of  the  Savoie  region  so  well  that  he  could 
probably  estimate  ocularly  the  growth  per  cent  on  any  forest  within  one-half  of  1  per 
cent  by  simply  making  a  reconnaissance  on  foot.  Such  insight  into  the  growth  of  a 
forest  is  similar  to  the  knowledge  of  stands  per  section  obtained  in  the  West  by  seeing 
what  the  timber  on  sections  of  land  (640  acres)  looks  like,  and  then  learning  what  they 
cut  out  under  given  methods  of  logging. 


238 


GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING   PLANS 


which  we  will  presume  totals  800  M,  will  be  deducted  from  the  old  wood. 

Thus    6,200    M  _  800  M  =  5,400    M,    ^^^  =  90  M     per    year,    plus 
growth. 

(C)  Suppose  the  volume  of  the  old  wood  equals  3,300  M  and  the 
volume  of  the  average  wood  equals  4,700  M.  Here  the  average  wood  is 
in  excess  of  the  normal  ratio,  so  it  is  determined  where  one  or  more  of 
the  largest  average  wood  diameter  classes  can  be  transferred  to  the 
old  wood  for  immediate  cutting.  If  it  were  found  that  the  16-inch 
diameter  class,  which  we  will  presume  totals  600  M,  can  be  added  to  the 
old  wood,  the  volume  will  be  3,300  M  plus  600  M  which  equals  3,900 

M  and  the  cut  '  '      •  equals  65  M,  plus  growth. 


Young  wood 

Average  wood 

Old  wood 

Total 

Total 

Total 

D.B.  H., 

Number 

volume, 

D.  B.  H., 

Number 

volume. 

D.B.  H., 

Number 

volume, 

inches 

trees 

board 
feet 

inches 

trees 

board 
feet 

inches 

rees 

board 
feet 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

Not  calipered  nor 

computed 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Completely 

12 

calipered 

13 

■     and 

14 

computed 

15 

16 

1 
J 

17 

18 
19 
20 
21 
22 

Completely 
calipered 

and 
computed 

23 

Totals.. . 

3,000  M 

5,000 M 

After  studying  the  application  of  this  method  of  1883  for  25  years, 
Schaeffer  ^^   decided   that    the   results   were  very   satisfactory;    it    has 

36  Possibilite  des  Futaies  Jardinees,  A.  Schaeffer,  pp.  321-326.     Revue  des  E.  et  F., 
1908. 


AREA   (VOLUME)   ALLOTMENT  BY  PERIODS  239 

enriched  poor  stands  and  in  some  eases  has  resulted  in  an  excessive 
growing  stock.  But  the  excess  of  the  timber  capital  is  in  accordance 
with  the  government  policy  of  conservation.  From  the  viewpoint  of 
good  silviculture,  Schaeffer  has  formulated  a  rule  for  selection  fir-spruce 
stands  of  always  cutting  at  least  two-thirds  the  actual  increment  each 
year.  Otherwise  the  stand  cannot  be  maintained  in  good  condition 
because  if  less  than  two-thirds  the  increment  is  removed  it  means  that 
some  diseased  or  decrepit  trees  must  be  held  over  a  cutting  cycle.  Such 
a  rule  has  wide  application  to  similar  stands  in  the  United  States  when 
a  wave  of  forest  saving  shall  finally  lead  us  away  from  the  current  forest 
destruction.  To  practice  too  intensive  economy  in  a  stand  means  an 
increase  in  defective  timber. 

Area  (Volume)  Allotment  by  Periods.  —  This  method,  called  by  French 
writers  the  ^^  "combined  method,"  is  as  follows  when  applied  to  an 
(see  i  page  232)  even  aged  high  forest :  The  method  is  applied  throughout 
France  to  the  rich  oak-beech  high  forests  which  are  so  noteworthy  in 
the  so-called  Parisian  zone  of  the  Plains  (see  p.  30)  where  the  regenera- 
tion is  by  the  shelterwood  system  over  a  regeneration  period  of  20  to 
30  years.  Formerly  great  stress  was  laid  on  the  necessity  for  an  orderly 
sequence  of  fellings.  Lately  the  tendency  is  to  break  away  from  any 
preconceived  order  of  felling  and  instead  to  base  the  order  and  sequence 
of  fellings  on  the  conditions  actually  existing  in  the  various  compart- 
ments.^^ But  protection  against  dangerous  winds  and  the  maintenance 
of  protection  belts  of  old  timber  is  always  sought  after.  In  the  spruce- 
fir  forests  great  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  regularizing  fellings 
(see  p.  75). 

"After  having  fixed  the  length  of  the  rotation,  it  is  divided  into  equal  periods,  which 
should  be  long  enough  to  permit  the  regeneration  of  a  complete  forest  canton  (during 
a  period)." 

The  period  adopted  is  usually  20  to  30  years  and  rarely  40  years. 
The  next  step  is  to  determine  what  compartments  are  to  be  cut  during 
each  period. 

^^  See  Huffel,  Vol.  Ill,  "Methode  combinee."  To  give  an  accurate  picture  of  how 
the  French  apply  this  method,  the  text  has  been  followed  as  closely  as  possible. 

38  Where  the  shelterwood  system  was  applied  to  fir-spruce  stands  it  had  been  cus- 
tomary to  divide  the  forests  into  four  fixed  periodic  blocks  corresponding  to  four  periods, 
equal  to  one-fourth  the  rotation.  This  led,  according  to  Huff  el,  to  "excessive  cutting 
of  large  timber  on  half  the  area  (blocks  I,  IV,  and  sometimes  III),  absolutely  deplor- 
able felling  of  average-sized  timber  on  most  of  the  forest  (blocks  I,  IV,  and  often  II), 
and  during  (the  operations)  the  maintenance  of  overmature  timber  in  the  second 
periodic  block  no  less  deplorable.  ...  In  the  first  period  the  revenue  was  too 
much,  in  the  second  about  correct,  in  the  third  a  deficiency,  and  in  the  fourth  very 
deficient.  .  .  .  The  "  precomtages "  invented  in  the  last  case  to  correct  this  de- 
ficiency rendered  the  yield  calculation  incoherent  and  illogical,  without  remedying  the 
evil  very  much." 


240  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING  PLANS 

"Each  periodic  block  must  be  formed  of  a  single  contiguous  area,  naturally  de- 
limited, separated  and  distinguished  in  a  permanent  way  from  the  bordering  blocks 
so  as  to  form  a  topographic  mass  in  the  forest.  .  .  .  The  yield  of  chief  fellings  is 
calculated  by  volume,  as  in  Cottas  method.  The  immediate  fellings  (thinnings)  have 
no  fixed  yield;  it  is  enough  to  indicate  the  annual  area  they  run  over  during  the  period. 
.  .  .  The  (exact)  location  of  the  principal  fellings  is  not  determined  (in  advance); 
they  take  place  according  to  the  needs  of  regeneration,  at  any  point  within  the  periodic 
block  to  be  reahzed  in  turn." 

At  the  end  of  each  period  the  yield  is  recalculated  for  the  periodic 
block  which  will  then  be  cut  over.  In  theory  the  areas  of  periodic 
blocks  should  be  equal,  but  owing  to  varying  soil  quality  they  may  vary 
considerably. 

As  already  stated  the  period  must  be  long  enough  so  that  regeneration 
can  be  secured,  because  "during  a  period  of  fixed  length  an  entire  periodic 
block  of  determined  area  will  be  cut."  It  is  considered  better  to  pre- 
scribe the  cutting  of  125  acres  in  20  years  rather  than  250  acres  in  40 
years,  because  in  the  latter  case  it  leads  to  irregularity  and  confusion. 
For  example,  with  a  rotation  of  144  years,  there  would  be  a  choice  of 
(a)  eight  periods  of  18  years,  and  with  oak  and  a  mild  climate  (a)  would 
be  preferred  to  the  (6)  or  (c)  alternatives  which  follow;  (6)  six  periods 
of  24  years;  (c)  four  periods  of  36  years.  The  compartments  are  arranged 
in  the  order  in  which  they  require  cutting,  and  they  put  in  the  first 
period  all  compartments  most  in  need  of  cutting,  in  the  order  of 
urgency. 

If  there  is  a  lot  of  old  overmature  timber  declining  in  vigor  the  French 
use  the  "  precomptage,  where  they  then  subtract  their  volume  from  the 
yield  of  the  normal  maximum  fellings  ,  .  .  and  by  the  same  amount 
decrease  the  cut  of  the  block  when  its  turn  comes  to  be  cut." 

This  is  too  artificial  and  often  results  in  confusion.  It  is  really  borrow- 
ing from  the  future  cuts  to  make  a  heavy  present  cut  so  as  to  get  rid  of 
overmature  stands  in  need  of  regeneration. 

The  main  disadvantages  of  this  method  if  applied  too  rigidly  is  that 
it  is  impossible  to  fix  the  order  of  cutting  in  advance  even  for  one  period, 
because  the  schemes  are  soon  disarranged  by  nature,  and  contiguous 
blocks  are  impossible.  If  an  ironclad  order  of  cutting  is  maintained 
heavy  sacrifices  must  be  made,  because  stands  are  cut  before  or  after 
they  should  be  cut  silvically.  If  there  are  subtractions  and  transfers, 
i.e.,  "precomptage,"  then  the  whole  scheme  of  future  management 
becomes  disarranged  (see  p.  75).  Variations  in  the  commonly  accepted 
periodic  block  method  have  been  suggested  by  Huffel  and  others. 
Changeable  periodic  blocks  which  are  not  formed  of  contiguous  compart- 
ments are  advocated  in  preference  to  the  fixed  periodic  block  of  the 
older  working  plans.  This  means  that  there  is  only  one  periodic  block  — 
the  first  —  which  at  the  end  of  each  period  is  always  being  revised.     A 


THE  GURNAUD   METHOD  241 

similar  scheme  is  where  the  forest  is  divided  into  a  number  of  compart- 
ments equal  to  the  number  of  years  of  the  rotation.  Then  the  period 
is  based  on  the  time  it  takes  to  get  regeneration  with  a  margin  of  a  few 
years  for  safety.  The  compartments,  equal  in  number  to  the  years  of 
the  period,  and  most  in  need  of  cutting,  are  grouped  into  the  periodic 
block  to  be  cut  during  the  period,  and  the  yield  is  the  total  volume  in 
this  compartment  divided  by  the  years  of  the  period. 

The  Gurnaud  Method.^^  —  The  Gurnaud  method  of  yield  regulation 
bases  the  cut  upon  the  actual  growth  of  the  different  size  classes  subject 
(a)  to  the  condition  of  the  stand  and  (&)  to  the  judgment  of  the  forester 
since,  according  to  Jobez,  "the  interpretation  of  these  figures  (the 
growth)  is  entirely  a  personal  matter  and  according  to  each  individual 
case." 

The  growth  is  secured  by  adding  the  present  growing  stock  to  the 
cut  for  the  last  cutting  cycle;  this  total  is  subtracted  from  the  original 
stand  to  give  the  apparent  growth.  To  obtain  the  real  growth  the 
volume  of  the  trees  under  the  minimum  size  calipered,  which  grew  into 
the  merchantable  size  classes,  is  subtracted  from  the  apparent  growth. 
This  last  step  is  a  new  idea  in  American  forest  technique;  it  may  be 
going  to  an  extreme  of  refinement,  and  might  be  questioned.  The 
growth  per  cent  is  then  figured  by  dividing  the  original  volume  into  the 
real  growth.  The  method  demands  great  technical  skill  and  sound 
judgment  in  its  application;  any  method  can  be  made  to  serve  under 
such  circumstances  but  the  Gurnaud  formula  is  especially  exacting  in 
this  respect.  The  method  was  designed  for  selection  forests  and  where 
a  forest  had  .the  normal  growing  stock  it  could  be  readily  applied  as 
could  any  other  formula  method. 

The  advantages  of  the  method  are:  (1)  It  necessitates  a  frequent  and 
detailed  study  of  the  stand  by  size  classes,  and  allows  the  forester  to  use 
his  judgment.  (2)  The  growth  is  based  on  the  increment  of  the  whole 
stand  and  allows  for  the  volume  of  trees  which  were  too  small  to  be 
calipered  but  which  grew  into  merchantable  size  classes  during  the 
cutting  period.  This  avoids  the  calculations  of  growth  based  on  the 
increase  in  size  of  individual  trees.  (3)  The  trained  forester  realizes 
that  growth  and  yield  figures  are,  at  best,  an  approximation.*"  There- 
fore, the  best  way  to  avoid  errors  is  to  have  frequent  stocktaking. 

The  disadvantages  are:  (1)  It  is  not  a  real  method  of  regulating  the 
yield  because  correct  results  depend  on  the  art  of  forestry  rather  than 
on  definite  clear-cut  principles.  (2)  Instead  of  dividing  the  real  growth 
by  the  original  volume  to  get  the  growth  per  cent  Gurnaud  should 
have  taken  the  mean  of  the  first  and  second  inventories.     This  error, 

35  Based  on  the  discussion  by  Huffel,  Vol.  Ill,  Economic  Forestiere. 

40  Accroissement  d'un  Massif  Jardine,  S.  F.  de  F.  C.  et  B.,  No.  5,  March,  1908,  A.  S. 


242 


GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING  PLANS 


which  could  easily  be  corrected,  tends  to  make  the  growth  per  cent 
appear  too  high.  (3)  The  method  as  originally  designed  requires  fre- 
quent and  accurate  stocktaking  and  therefore  is  expensive  and  tedious. 
(4)  The  accuracy  of  the  growth  calculations  depends  on  accurate 
inventories  which  might  easily  be  in  error  by  5  to  10  per  cent.  There- 
fore if  both  the  (a)  first  and  (6)  second  inventories  were  (a)  10  per 
cent  too  much  and  (6)  10  per  cent  too  little  an  error  of  20  per  cent 
would  result  in  the  yield.  (5)  Too  much  is  left  to  the  opinion  and  judg- 
ment of  the  forester.  (6)  Huff  el  advances  another  objection  with  which 
the  writer  is  not  wholly  in  sympathy,  namely,  that  it  is  dangerous  to 
examine  too  minutely  the  growth  of  trees  of  different  sizes  and  ages 
because  the  stand  should  be  regarded  as  a  whole.  The  tendency  to-day 
in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  is  to  use  more  judgment  in  treating  selection 
stands  and  if  possible  to  get  rid  of  tree  classes  which  show  they  are 
declining  in  vigor  or  annual  growth.  On  the  other  hand  the  method 
would  not  work  well  with  abnormal  stands. 

Illustration.  —  Suppose  a  selection  fir  forest  of  1,000  acres  were 
divided  into  ten  equal  cutting  areas,  and  that  every  10  years,  beginning 
in  1910,  all  trees  over  12  inches  in  diameter  were  calipered  and  estimated 
by  2-inch  diameter  classes.  Gurnaud  would  first  calculate  the  growth 
for  each  cutting  area  as  follows: 


Area  of  cutting  100  acres 

Trees 

Feet,  board  measure 

Stand  in  1920               

2,000 
100 

2,100 
1,960 

140 

1,000,000 

Cut  1910-1920                       ...           

50,000 

Total                             

1,050,000 

Stand  in  1910                                            

980,000 

Apparent  growth 

70,000 

To  arrive  at  the  true  growth  a  deduction  must  be  made  for  the  140 

trees  which  grew  into  the  merchantable  size  class:  140, 11-inch  trees  X  100 

board  feet,  or  14,000  feet  board  measure;  true  growth  for  10  years, 

56,000  feet  board  measure;  true  growth  for  1  year,  5,600  board  feet. 

5,600 


.57 -|-  per  cent  or  better  if  the  mean  of  the  two  inventories 
5,600 


980,000 

were  to   be   taken   1 ,000,000  +  980,000  =  .56+  per  cent.     The  stand 

2 
per  acre  would  be  10,000  feet  and  the  growth  per  acre  per  year  56 
board  feet.     When  it  comes  to  an  analysis  of  the  stand  separately  for 
each  size  class  the  process  is  somewhat  more  complicated;  those  inter- 
ested in  a  further  study  of  the  method  should  study  La  Methode  du 


GENERAL  243 

Controle,   P.  Jacquin,   Besangon,   1886,   or  La  Methode  du  Controle, 
published  in  1890  by  the  Exposition  Universelle  of  1889/^ 

WORKING  PLANS 

General.  —  The  working  plan,  or  management  plan,  is  merely  the 
means  of  enforcing  systematic,  obligatory,  mandatory  regulation.  It  is 
"The  plan  or  plans  under  which  a  given  forest  property  is  to  be  continu- 
ously managed."  In  France  the  government  working  plans  in  use  to-day 
are  the  revised  plans,  good  for  only  15  to  30  years.  In  theory  the  work- 
ing plan  revisions  have  to  be  made  at  the  end  of  each  period,  but  in 
Savoie,  where  the  yield  will  be  greatly  increased  after  20  years,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  make  revisions  oftener.  They  are  simple,  concise,  and 
must  be  followed  by  the  local  officer  in  charge.  There  is  no  differentia- 
tion into  planting,  protection,  grazing,  improvement,  administration,  or 
felling  plans,  such  as  have  been  attempted  in  the  United  States  on  our 
National  Forests.  The  French  working  plan  is  essentially  a  timber 
felling  plan  for  one  or  more  small  economic  units  (or  working  groups) 
of  a  distinct  local  forest. 

The  ideal  working  plan  should  control  and  order  the  felhngs;  but  in 
addition  there  is  a  certain  suppleness  necessary  owing  to  unforeseen 
accidents  which  may  occur  even  in  well-managed  forests.  To  be  suc- 
cessful, any  working  plan  should  be  adaptable  to  local  changes,  for, 
without  suppleness,  a  working  plan  is  a  failure  and  the  tendency  of  any 
working  plans  officer  without  experience  is  to  be  too  narrow  and  to  in- 
sist on  rigid  methods  appHcable  to  all  forests. 

An  excellent  illustration  of  the  derangement  of  working  plan  yields 
by  windfall  is  in  the  forest  of  Gerardmer.  On  September  1,  1903,  the 
inspector  reported  that  in  the  first,  third,  fourth,  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  working  groups,  which  had  a  prescribed  annual  yield  of  11,971 
cubic  meters,  on  account  of  tremendous  windfalls,  46,378  cubic  meters, 
or  the  yield  for  almost  four  years,  had  already  been  cut.  In  the  United 
States  fire  will  be  the  greatest  cause  of  overturning  working  plans  for 
years  to  come. 

The  main  difference  between  the  working  plans  ^-  of  State  and  com- 

*i  Before  leaving  the  subject  of  regulation  the  writer  should  acknowledge  that  some 
of  the  ideas  —  and  very  fundamental  and  sound  ones  —  have  been  absorbed  from  the 
regulation  lecture  notes  of  Professor  H.  H.  Chapman  of  Yale  University.  Those  who 
had  the  privilege  of  hearing  Professor  Chapman  lecture  may  judge  to  what  extent  his 
technique  has  been  followed. 

^  The  stocktaking  of  an  average  forest  now  costs  aoout  1.5  francs  per  hectare,  but 
on  account  of  the  increased  cost  of  labor  this  will  soon  increase  to  2  francs  per  hectare. 
No  detailed  system  of  cost  keeping  is  kept  for  different  phases  of  a  working  plan,  but 
the'total  cost  per  hectare,  including  office  work,  boundaries,  and  compartment  bounda- 
ries, is  about  3  francs  per  hectare  (23  cents  per  acre).     (1912  cost  data.) 


244  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING  PLANS 

munal  forests  is  that  in  communal  forests  the  cut  has  to  be  divided  up 
so  that  each  village  will  not  have  too  far  to  go.  In  other  words,  this 
is  a  potent  reason  for  small  sales.  For  example,  in  the  forest  of  Dingy 
St.  Clair,  the  annual  cut  has  to  be  divided  up  so  that  there  will  be  one 
sale  near  each  village.  The  forest  is  on  each  side  of  a  valley  and  it 
would  be  too  costly  to  have  one  or  two  central  sales,  since  the  transport 
of  the  wood  would  have  to  be  across  the  valley.  This  is  an  inconvenience 
to  the  working  plans  officer  since  it  complicates  the  sales  problem. 

Before  attempting  a  new  working  plan  it  has  been  the  French  custom 
to  have  a  frank  discussion  of  the  essential  problems  with  the  local  force 
before  the  working  plans  officer  makes  his  final  decision.  At  this  con- 
ference it  is  entirely  feasible  for  the  local  officers  in  charge  to  emphasize 
exceptions  from  the  general  rule.  Once  formulated  the  plan  must  be 
accepted  by  a  commune. 

Each  ranger  in  charge  of  a  district  is  furnished  with  a  digest  of  the 
working  plan.*^  The  main  points  covered  in  this  digest  are  the  order, 
location  and  area  of  fellings  during  the  period.  The  exact  data  in- 
cluded are  rotation,  yield  and  what  should  be  charged  against  the  annual 
felling  budget;  volume  felHngs  with  the  canton,  compartment,  area,  total 
volume,  and  estimated  amount  to  be  cut  designated  for  each  separate 
felling;  area  fellings  with  year,  canton,  compartment,  and  area  of  felling 
classified  by  compartment.  Under  remarks  is  included  the  method  of 
treatment,  such  as  selection  fellings,  special  instructions  regarding  the 
fellings,  cultural  rules  given  separately  for  volume  and  area  cuttings. 
The  data  are  precisely  presented,  and  cover  rather  more  than  a  double 
page. 

In  past  years  the  inventory  frequently  included  only  trees  of  consider- 
able size.  To-day  it  usually  includes  trees  down  as  small  as  0.20  meter 
(7.9  inches)  in  diameter  by  5-centimeter  (2-inch)  classes.  In  other 
words,  all  trees  were  measured  in  the  valuation  survey  down  to  the 
estimated  diameter  which  would  be  reached  in  one-third  the  years  of  the 
rotation.  The  general  feeling  is  that  this  very  complete  inventory  is 
exceedingly  valuable  for  the  sake  of  future  comparisons. 

Schaeffer  ^*  has  originated  new  methods  of  working  plan  description. 
In  describing  the  fertility  of  the  soil  he  argues  that  "figures  are  better 
than  epithets."  Recognizing  the  inaccuracy  of  describing  soil  quality, 
Schaeffer  has  established  this  simple  rule: 

«  The  working  plans  in  France  are  rarely  typewritten  but  are  copied  by  hand.  Copy- 
ing costs  75  centimes  per  double  foolscap  page  and  one  franc  for  tables,  an  ordinary 
map  5  francs  per  copy.  Four  copies  must  be  made  of  each  working  plan  —  one  copy 
for  Paris,  one  for  the  conservator,  one  for  the  inspector,  and  one  for  the  local  ranger. 

«  A.  Schaeffer,  S.  F.  de  F.  C.  et  B.,  No.  5.  March.  1910,  "Coefficients  de  Fertilite 
des  Sols." 


GENERAL 


245 


"To  obtain  the  coefficient  of  fertility  of  any  stand  in  a  selection  (fir)  forest,  normally 
stocked  (that  is  to  say,  complete  and  carrying  trees  of  all  ages  properly  spaced),  divide 
the  figure  40  by  the  average  number  of  rings  in  the  last  centimeter  of  growth." 

This  rule  is  explained  by  the  following  table: 


Number  of  rings  in  the 
last  centimeter  (average) 

Growth  per  cent 

Soil  Tertility  (key) 

Equivalent 

2.0 

5.64 

20 

Excellent 

2.1 

5.64 

19 

Excellent 

2.2 

5.64 

18 

Very  good 

2.4 

5.64 

17 

Very  good 

2.5 

5.64 

16 

Very  good 

2.6 

5.64 

15 

Good 

2.8 

5.64 

14 

Good 

3.0 

3.76 

13 

Good 

3.3 

3.76 

12 

Quite  good 

3.6 

3.76 

11 

Quite  good 

4.0 

2.83 

10 

Quite  good 

4.5 

2.83 

9 

Passable 

5.0 

2.26 

8 

Passable 

6.0 

1.88 

7 

Passable 

7.0 

1.61 

6 

Mediocre 

8.0 

1.41 

5 

Mediocre 

10.0 

1.13 

4 

Poor 

13.0 

0.87 

3 

Poor 

20.0 

0.57 

2 

Very  poor 

40.0 

0.28 

1 

Very  poor 

Another  innovation  in  working  plan  description  is  the  wide  use  of 
graphics  which  allow  a  comparison  between  the  forest  at  different 
stages  of  its  development  and  with  average  or  normal  conditions.  An 
example  of  the  latest  forest  description  follows  (see  also  p.  532) : 


246 


GOVERNMENT   REGULATION   AND   WORKING   PLANS 

I 


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THE  WORKING  PLAN  REPORT  247 

The  Working  Plan  Report.  —  According  to  tlie  Dictionnaire  des  Forets, 
by  Rousset  et  Boner,  page  68,  the  working  plan  report  follows  the  outline 
given  below: 

Part  I.  —  General  data.  —  1,  Name.  2,  Total  area,  area  wooded,  openings  and 
clearings.  3,  Boundaries.  4,  Rights  and  servitudes.  5,  Topography  and  drainage. 
6,  Soil.  7,  Chmate.  8,  Nature  and  condition  of  stand.  9,  Kind  of  treatment.  10, 
Wood  products,  principal  and  secondary;  their  volume  and  value  in  money  during  the 
next  ten  years.  11,  Routes,  roads  and  method  of  logging.  12,  Nurseries.  13,  Market. 
14,  Grazing,  pasturage,  agriculture. 

Part  II.  —  Chapter  1 .  —  Digest  and  critical  review  of  treatment  and,  if  there  has 
been  any,  of  the  working  plan  in  force. 

Chapter  2.  —  Basis  of  the  proposed  management.  1,  Division  of  the  forest  into 
sections  and  justification  of  this  division.  2,  Division  of  each  section  into  working 
groups  and  justification.  3,  Choice  and  justification  of  the  method  of  cutting  to  apply 
to  each  working  group.     4,  Table  (A)  of  the  working  groups  by  sections. 

Part  III.  —  Special  studies  of  each  working  group.  1,  High  forest  section.  (1) 
Division  into  compartments  with  description  of  compartments  in  table  (B).  (2)  De- 
termination of  the  normal  age  for  cutting  and  consequently  normal  rotation;  division 
of  this  rotation  into  periods ;  division  of  the  working  groups  into  periodic  blocks ;  general 
system  of  normal  cutting  with  table  (C) .  (3)  Preparatory  rotation.  (4)  Chief  transi- 
tion rotation.  (5)  General  scheme  of  felling  with  table  (E).  (7)  Yield  with  table 
(F).     (8)  Allotting  the  cut  with  table  (G).     (9)  Application  of  the  yield;  cultural  rules. 

2.  Coppice  section.  (1)  Division  into  compartments  with  description  of  compart- 
ments. (2)  Determination  of  the  exploitable  age  for  the  coppice,  decision  as  to  the 
length  of  rotation;  division  of  this  rotation  into  periods,  where  (furete)  coppice  is  con- 
cerned. (3)  Establishment  of  the  general  scheme  of  cutting;  quarter  in  reserve  in  the 
public  (institution)  and  communal  wood  with  table  (H).  (4)  Standards.  (5)  Im- 
provement cuttings;  gleanings;  freeing  of  seedlings. 

Part  IV.  —  Works  and  betterments.  (1)  Preparation  of  the  general  map  and  the 
compartment  map.  (2)  Subdivisions  of  management;  the  boundaries.  (3)  Survey 
and  marking  of  the  boundary.  (4)  Artificial  reforestation  and  nurseries.  (5)  Drainage. 
(6)  Roads. 

Part  V.  —  Comparative  examination  of  the  annual  production  and  accessory  prod- 
ucts in  material  and  money,  now  and  after  management. 

Maps.  —  Part  of  the  working  plan  is  a  general  map  on  tracing  cloth,  showing  grad- 
ient, water  courses,  routes,  roads,  ranger  stations,  sawmills  or  nurseries,  boundaries  of 
working  groups,  cantons,  periodic  blocks,  compartments,  and  coupes.  If  the  scale 
of  the  map  will  not  allow  all  the  necessary  details,  there  should  also  be  a  map  by  work- 
ing groups. 

Appendix.*^  —  Should  include  tables,  stand  tables,  and  stem  analyses  used  in  fixing 
the  yield.     The  outline  for  the  revision  follows : 

Part  I.  —  Preliminary  data.  —  (1)  Name.  (2)  Area.  (3)  Department  and  dis- 
trict.    (4)  Conservation,  inspection,  canton.     (.5)  Altitudes.     (6)  Species  by  per  cent. 

Part  II.  —  Management  in  force.  —  (1)  Digest  of  the  management  in  force;  system 
and  method  of  felling  applied  to  the  forest;  division  in  sections  and  working  groups. 
(2)  Digest  of  the  general  and  special  scheme  of  felling.     (3)  Aim  of  management  and 

«  The  outline  for  the  revision  of  a  working  plan  should  be  compared  with  the  above 
and  with  the  outline  actually  followed  in  the  revised  working  plan  (1910)  for  the  com- 
munal forest  of  Thiez  given  in  the  Appendix,  page  517. 


248  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION   AND   WORKING   PLANS 

results  obtained  by  the  reproduction  cuttings,  selection,  preparatory  in  coppice,  im- 
provement. 

Part  III.  —  Revisions.  —  Chapter  1.  —  General  considerations.  Modifications  to 
make  in  the  general  fundamentals  of  management,  to  the  division  in  sections  and  work- 
ing groups,  to  the  rotation,  etc.     Table  (A)  of  new  sections  and  working  groups. 

Chapter  2.  —  Special  studies  in  each  new  working  group. 

High  Forest  Section.  —  (1)  Composition  of  the  working  group  compared  with  the 
former  working  plan.  (2)  Compartments.  (3)  General  scheme  of  felling,  normal  and 
provisionary.  (4)  Special  scheme  of  feUing.  (5)  Determination  of  the  yield.  (6) 
Location  of  fellings  for  the  period.     (7)  Allotment  of  the  yield;  cultural  rules. 

Coppice  Section.  —  (1)  Composition  of  the  working  groups  compared  with  the  former 
working  plan.  (2)  Description  of  stands.  (3)  Determination  of  the  exploitable  age 
for  coppice;  fixing  the  rotation;  division  of  the  rotation  into  periods;  selection  coppice. 

(4)  General  scheme  of  felling;  quarter  in  reserve;  yield.  (5)  Special  scheme  of  felling 
with  table  (H).  (6)  Standards.  (7)  Improvement  cuttings;  cleanings;  freeing  of 
seedlings. 

Part  IV.  —  Betterments.  —  Betterments  prescribed  by  the  working  plan.  Better- 
ments accomplished  (remarks  on  the  methods  employed,  results  obtained).  Better- 
ments remaining  to  be  done.     Estimate  of  the  expense. 

Part  V.  —  Comparative  review  by  working  groups  of  the  annual  products,  principal 
and  secondary,  in  material  and  money  realized  before  and  after  the  revision. 

Federal  Forests  (Digest).  —  Complete  data  replanting,  etc.  (1)  Species  seeded, 
amount  per  hectare,  methods.  (2)  Species  planted,  kind  and  number  per  hectare, 
methods.     (3)  Results.     (4)  Care  and  expense  of  upkeep,  weeding  and  replacements. 

(5)  Total  cost.     (6)  Necessary  data  to  get  better  results  in  future. 

Sample  Plots  in  all  Federal  forests  when  natural  seeding  with  thinnings  close  one- 
half  hectare  area  in  young  stand,  chosen  by  chief  ranger,  checked  by  inspector,  marked 
and  boundary  stones  laid,  take  inventory  after  each  cutting  to  determine  exploitability 
and  revenue. 

Communal.  —  One-fourth  in  reserve  when  area  more  than  10  hectares,  "and  not 
entirely  stocked  with  conifers  on  one-fourth  area." 

Chamonix  Working  Plan.  —  The  best  picture  of  a  modern  French 
working  plan  revision  is  obtained  by  the  study  of  a  working  plan  in 
actual  use;  the  Chamonix  working  plan  ^^  has  therefore  been  studied  at 
length.  It  is  for  a  communal  forest  where  there  is  need  for  a  sustained 
annual  yield,  and  where,  because  of  its  importance  as  a  tourist  center, 
the  forest  cover  must  be  maintained.  A  selection  system  is  considered 
imperative  on  account  of  steep  slopes,  the  danger  from  windfall  and 
avalanches,  as  well  as  the  necessity  of  taking  every  precaution  to  guard 
against  erosion. 

There  follows  a  complete  resume  of  the  plan  with  an  explanation  of 
the  methods  employed.  It  is  divided  into  five  parts  with  an  appendix 
following  Part  V,  By  way  of  introduction  the  author,  M.  Schaeffer, 
states  that  the  original  working  plan  contains  complete  statistics,  but 
that  a  number  of  points  require  modification  and  correction.     Part  I, 

^6  Proces  verbal  de  revision  d'Amenagement,  par  A.  Schaeffer,  1910.  This  plan 
costs  about  20  cents  per  acre  excluding  office  work. 


CHAMONIX  WORKING  PLAN 


249 


preliminary  data,  includes  a  very  detailed  review  of  area  changes  (Art.  2)/^ 
the  present  area  being  4,733  acres;  brief  allusions  to,  (Art.  3)  boundaries; 
(Art.  4)  rights  and  servitudes;  (Art.  5)  topography;  (Art.  6)  soil;  (Art.  7) 
climate;  (Art.  8)  composition  and  condition  of  stand;  the  per  cent  of 
each  species  is  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  volume  of  all  trees  calipered, 
namely,  5  inches  and  over;  the  per  cent  given  in  even  hundreds  was 
found  to  be:  spruce  78  per  cent;  larch  20  per  cent;  fir,  Scotch  pine,  and 
cembric  pine  (with  alder,  birch,  and  service  tree)  2  per  cent;  (Art.  11) 
roads,  paths,  means  of  logging;  besides  some  22.5  miles  of  new  trails 
many  of  thfe  old  paths  which  had  faulty  alignment  had  been  recon- 
structed; (Art.  14)  pasturage,  gathering  needles.  The  practice  of 
gathering  the  dry  needles,  the  moss,  and  even  the  humus,  has  led  in  some 
cases  to  the  impoverishment  of  the  stand  and  the  commune  is,  therefore, 
urged  to  put  a  stop  to  it  at  once  in  view  of  the  aesthetic  value  of  the 
stands  bordering  this  great  tourist  center. 

Part  II.  —  Management  in  Force.  —  The  fourteen  working  groups  are 
listed  in  numerical  order  and  by  name  with  the  area  of  each  as  for  example : 
first  working  group,  "  Argentiere-Nord,"  508  acres.  The  working  groups 
vary  in  size  considerably,  one  with  23  acres,  six  with  from  99  to  247 
acres,  three  with  249  to  494,  and  four  with  from  496  to  581 ;  M.  Schaeffer 
believes  a  working  group  in  the  mountains  should  not  be  more  than 
1,000  acres.  Then  follows  the  felling  scheme  for  the  period  dating  from 
March  9,  1892.     This  table  is  headed  as  follows: 


Working  group 


Method  of  calculating 
the  yield 


First,  working  group 
of  Argentiere-Nord. 


First  lot: 
A,  B,  C,  etc. 


Transfer  of  trees 
from  5  inches  up 
in  the  "average 
wood." 


"  Art.  I  is  "name"  (see  official  outline  for  working  plans  given  on  page  247  for  the 
list  of  other  project  headings  not  included  in  the  revision).  According  to  W.  B.  Greeley: 
".  .  .  it  is  probable  that  the  greatest  pubhc  encouragement  to  the  private  owner 
to  keep  his  timberland  productive  has  been  the  stimulus  and  example  of  the  pubhcly 
owned  forests.  These  are  scattered  through  practically  every  section  of  the  country. 
In  every  forest  region,  the  private  owner  has  seen  good  forestry  practice  demonstrated 
for  scores  of  years  on  State  or  communal  holdings.  He  knows  the  forest  officers  in  his 
locality  and  consults  them  on  the  methods  applicable  to  his  own  woodland.  The 
widely  distributed  public  forests  have  not  only  set  the  standards  of  good  management 
but  have  made  the  local  silviculture  a  part  of  farm  lore  of  the  region.  The  rural  popu- 
lation of  France  knows  how  to  grow  trees  just  as  it  knows  how  to  grow  potatoes  or 
care  for  its  vineyards.  .  .  .  And,  by  a  law  passed  in  1913,  the  expert  services  of 
the  State  are  offered  at  cost  to  owners  of  timberland  who  wish  to  cut  their  holdings  on 
a  conservative  basis  corresponding  to  the  requirements  of  the  "regime  forestier"  and  to 
obtain  the  special  forms  of  protection  against  trespass  now  accorded  to  public  holdings 
by  the  forest  code.     This  law  is  of  too  recent  origin  to  have  yet  demonstrated  its  value." 


250 


GOVERNMENT   REGULATION  AND  WORKING  PLANS 


Under  the  topic,  "Application  of  the  working  plan,"  there  are  given 
by  working  groups  the  data  below : 


Compartments 
cut  over 

Material 

to  be 

cut, 

cu.  m. 

Material  cut 

No.  of 
working 
group 

Subtracted  from  yield 

Not 
sub- 
tracted, 
cu.  m. 

Grand 
total, 
cu.  m. 

Main 
cut, 
cu.  m. 

Emer- 
gency, 
cu.  m. 

Wind- 
fall 
dead- 
wood, 
cu.  m. 

Total, 
cu.  m. 

Remarks 

1 

2 

etc. 

Totals .  . 

A,  B,  C,  D, 

E,  F,  G,  H, 

I,  K,  M, 

1,720 
26,100 

1,509 
20,215 

13 
579 

307 
8,363 

1,829 

29,157 

1,061 

1,829 
30,218 

Results  obtained.  —  While  admitting  that  an  exact  comparison  for  the 
whole  forest  is  not  possible,  yet  notwithstanding  the  overcut  M.  Schaeffer 
feels  that  the  forest  has  been  enriched  by  the  management  during  the 
past  period.  For  those  areas  which  can  be  compared  he  gives  the  results 
in  tabular  form : 


Former 
volume 
by  new 
volume 
tables, 
cu.  m. 

Present 
volume, 
cu.  m. 

Volume 

cut, 
cu.  m. 

Growth 

Working  group 

Total, 
cu.  m. 

Per 

hectare, 
cu.  m. 

Remarks 

1 

etc. 
Totals 

21,648 
114,. 509 

26,547 
230,778 

1,609 
19,2.30 

6,508 
75,499 

1.84 

2.92 

This  comparison,  systematized  as  it  is,  cannot  help  but  be  an  accurate 
guide  in  determining  the  yield  and  consequently  it  is  all  the  more  sur- 
prising that  the  calculation  is  omitted  from  so  many  plans.  Changes 
in  lines  between  working  groups  often  make  an  exact  comparison  by 
groups  impossible,  but  the  figure  for  the  whole  forest  is  well  worth  the 
cost  of  the  calculation.  M.  Schaeffer  makes  it  a  rule  to  multiply  the 
former  growing  stock  figures  by  the  volumes  of  the  latest  volume  table 
if  the  original  table  is  not  still  in  use. 

The  systematic  comparison  of  financial  results  is  equally  interesting ;  it 
is  by  years,  and  has  been  given  in  full  so  as  to  illustrate  the  fluctuations 
which  must  be  looked  for  owing  to  windfalls  and  unforeseen  damage  to  grow- 
ing stock  or  to  unusual  communal  demands : 


CHAMONIX  WORKING  PLAN 


251 


§H 


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252 


GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND   WORKING   PLANS 


ACCESSORY  YIELD    (non  ligneux)  in  Francs 


Years 

Extension 

of  exploi- 
tation 

^'arious 

concessions 

sold 

(springs, 

crossing 

privileges, 

stone,  sand, 

etc.) 

Minor 

products 

delivered 

in  the  forest 

Grazing 
in  forest 

Hunting 

Trespass 

Totals 

Value  of 
dav's  labor 
of  free  use 
permittees 

Value 

Price  of 
location 

Civil 

damages 

1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 

Totals 

Average 
annually. 

60 
3 

12,771.35 
638.5 

25,716.50 
1,286.00 

7,039.73 
352.00 

150.00 

7.5 

8,760.70 

438.00 

54,498.28 
2,725.00 

It  is  rather  surprising  to  see  the  price  per  cubic  meter  for  the  windfall 
(5.4)  greater  than  the  price  for  the  regular  cut  (5.2) ;  this  is  explained  by 
the  cost  of  logging  scattered  timber  as  contrasted  with  the  clean  cutting 
of  a  considerable  windfall  even  though  it  were  thrown  on  the  market  quite 
unexpectedly. 

Part  III.  —  Revision.  Chapter  1,  General  Considerations.  —  The  neces- 
sity for  varying  the  management  boundaries  is  here  taken  up;  these  are, 
of  course,  merely  worldng  plan  lines. 

Rotation.  —  In  the  words  of  M.  Schaeffer,  "The  rotations  are  actually 
fixed  at  180  years  for  the  spruce  and  pines  and  at  240  years  for  the 
larch.  The  notion  of  a  distinct  rotation  for  each  species  is  a  theoretical 
consideration  which  does  not  possess  much  weight  practically  ...  as 
a  simplification  we  propose  to  adopt  a  single  average  rotation  of  200 
years."  This  policy  seems  to  be  so  well  adapted  to  practical  conditions 
in  the  United  States  that  it  has  been  quoted  in  part  verbatim. 

Chapter   II.  —  Special    Study    of  Each    Working   Group.  —  (Art.    1) 


CHAMONIX  WORKING  PLAN  253 

Composition  of  the  working  groups  as  compared  with  former  plan. 
(Art.  2)  ''Compartments." 

The  feature  of  the  working  plan  is  the  conciseness  with  which  statistical 
data  are  presented.  Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  detailed  compart- 
ment descriptions  given  in  German  working  plans  will  be  particularly 
interested  in  the  graphic  representation  of  the  growing  stock.  This  is 
of  great  importance  because  in  reality  it  is  the  key  to  the  marking. 
The  weak  link  is  the  determination  of  the  normal  growing  stock  which 
is  taken  to  be  the  same  for  all  situations  and  stands,  but  to  be  exact 
would  be  practically  impossible  without  undue  expense. 

The  stand  descriptions  are  exact  and  are  not  by  any  means  perfunc- 
tory: For  example,  "Despite  the  avalanche  of  February  17,  1904,  which 
knocked  down  3,116  trees  and  poles  in  the  middle  of  the  growing  com- 
partment, the  stand  has  recovered  and  is  approaching  a  normal  growing 
stock."  As  one  glances  through  the  pages  care  for  exact  details  is 
evident:  "Avalanche  area  3.91  hectares;  numerous  defective  stands; 
opening  of  3.00  hectares;  a  number  of  trees  dead  topped;  reproduction 
sufficiently  abundant "  ;  these  are  partial  examples  of  the  detail.  Possibly 
more  care  could  have  been  taken  in  describing  the  reproduction,  but  I 
rather  surmise  it  is  often  lacking,  so  no  mention  is  made. 

(Art.  3)  Regulation  of  felling.     Exact  order  left  to  local  officers. 

(Art.  4)  Determination  of  the  yield.  The  yield  is  calculated  under 
the  so-called  method  of  1883  where  in  the  selection  forest  the  volume 
of  the  "old  wood"  is  supposed  to  be  five-eighths  and  the  volume  of  the 
"average  wood"  three-eighths  of  the  total.  If  the  minimum  tree  meas- 
ured is  8  inches  in  diameter  then  the  "average  wood"  includes  trees  8 
to  14  inches  inclusive,  the  "old  wood"  all  above  14  inches,  and  the 
"young  wood"  the  trees  below  8  inches. 

In  this  case  the  actual  total  of  the  "average  wood"  amounted  to 
165,797.7  cubic  meters  and  the  "old  wood"  126,979.3,  a  total  of  292,777 
cubic  meters.     The  working  plan  says : 

292  777  X  5 

"The  normal  proportion  should  be:  old  wood, '—z =  182,986;  average  wood, 

s 
292  777  X  3 
'—^ =  109,791.     It  is  far  from  being  attained,  but  experience  has  shown  that 

o 

it  is  necessary  to  convert  it  artificially.  The  principal  yield  would  otherwise  be  lowered 
by  the  normal  volume  of  'old  wood.'  It  appears  on  the  other  hand  from  the  descrip- 
tive summary  that  a  careful  thinning  is  necessary  in  a  large  number  of  compartments; 
there  the  average  wood  forms  regular  even-aged  stands.  It  is  then  necessary  to  add 
to  the  yield  of  the  principal  products  an  accessory  yield  comprising  the  loss  which  is 
unavoidable  because  of  the  volume  which  does  not  enter  into  the  calculation  of  the 
yield,  namely  109,791  cubic  meters.     We  put  this  loss  with  great  conservation  at  0.25 

per  cent  per  year,  and  we  will  then  have  for  the  actual  yield  (P),  P  =  — -^-- \- 


254 


GOVERNMENT  REGULATION   AND  WORKING  PLANS 


^^^  X  109,791  =  2,744  +  274  =  3,018  cubic  meters,  this  result  corresponding  to  1.03 

per  cent  of  the  total  growing  stock  and  to  1.68  cubic  meters  per  hectare  figuring  on 
the  basis  of  1,800  hectares  actually  wooded.  This  yield  is  considered  so  conservative 
that  it  is  expected  the  actual  growing  stock  will  be  increased." 

Reference  should  be  made  to  the  growth  figures,  pages  256  to  260. 

(Art.  5)  Allotting  the  yield.  The  annual  cut  is  allotted  by  convenient 
districts,  10  in  number,  so  that  the  wood  will  be  convenient  to  the  differ- 
ent hamlets  or  small  sawmills.  In  other  words,  it  would  impose  a  hard- 
ship on  some  of  the  villagers  if  the  cut  were  made  in  one  locahty  alone. 
This  compHcates  the  management,  but  much  the  same  problem  may  be 
looked  for  in  the  United  States  on  National  Forests  where  a  number  of 
small  local  mills  must  be  supplied  with  stumpage  or  else  they  will  have 
to  shut  down  and  move  elsewhere. 

(Art.  6)  Marking  the  cutting  areas  during  the  second  period  (1910- 
1929).  The  order  of  cutting  is  often  disarranged  by  windfalls,  etc.,  but 
it  is  carefully  worked  out  by  the  working  plans  officer  by  working  groups. 
The  form  used  is : 


Canton 

Compartment 

Area 

Volume 
inven 
toried 

Per  cent 
to  be 
realized 

Estimated 
yield 

Remarks 

L.E.Grand  Chantey.  . . 

70 

12.69 

1,549 

25 

388 

In  the  first  working  group  the  per  cent  to  be  cut  varies  from  10  to  25 
per  cent  of  the  standing  timber.  The  total  amount  inventoried  was 
43,360  cubic  meters,  and  the  cut  estimated  at  872. 

(Art.  7)  Cultural  Rules.     (A)  Fellings  by  volume. 

"A  large  number  of  compartments  have  not  been  cut  over  for  quite  a  long  time, 
therefore,  the  overmature  and  rotting  trees,  and  those  crooked  or  dry  topped,  are  abun- 
dant. In  certain  divisions  they  even  form  most  of  the  stand.  We  estimate  that  their 
removal  would  almost  equal  the  yield  during  a  period  at  the  very  least  ...  on  the 
steep  slopes  so  frequent  in  the  forest,  every  day  there  are  trees  damaged  by  falling  stones 
or  by  the  logging.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  while  on  the  one  hand  one  must  often 
remove  diseased  trees,  yet  on  the  other  there  are  compartments  where  poles  and  young 
high  forest  need  immediate  thinnings.  It  will  then  be  the  thinning  of  these  young 
stands  which  will  complete  the  yield  and  we  believe  it  necessary  to  insist  on  this  point. 
One  can  but  admit  that  to  get  a  considerable  volume  by  marking  stands  of  small  size 
on  steep  slopes  is  hard  work.  The  officer  in  charge  of  marking  must  guard  against  the 
tendency  of  the  markers  to  designate  large  trees  ...  he  will  also  have  to  fight 
against  the  difficulties  of  the  ground.  This  rule  should  be  applied  specially  in  the  com- 
partments (enumerated)  on  areas  where  the  regeneration  is  difficult  (compartments 
.  .  .  especially)  continue  the  existing  thinnings  and  in  the  little  openings  caused  by 
the  removal  of  several  overmature  trees  at  once  start  reforestation  by  groups.  .  .  . 
In  the  old  compartments  (unmanaged)  the  stand  should  be  kept  as  fully  stocked  as 


CHAMONIX  WORKING   PLAN  255 

possible.  Be  careful  to  take  the  necessary  steps  to  get  rid  of  all  stems  which  might 
start  an  insect  attack.  There  is  another  group  of  divisions  which  require  attention; 
there  are  those  which  are  situated  in  the  valley  near  the  group  of  hotels  and  really 
form  a  park.  (Compartments  .  .  .)  usually  stocked  with  an  old  spruce  stand  on 
the  decline  and  for  the  most  part  in  a  critical  condition.  The  soil  packed  by  the  walkers, 
free  to  grazing  and  litter  gathering  they  are  in  a  terrible  condition  for  reproduction  and 
the  future  of  the  stands  is  absolutely  compromised.  .  .  One  can  without  great 
inconvenience  let  the  old  oaks  stand  until  the  last  stages  of  decay,  but  not  so  with 
the  spruce  which  when  they  decHne  .  .  .  collect  insects.  .  .  .  These  stands 
must  be  closely  watched  and  not  allowed  to  wait  until  the  last  phase  of  decay.  Several 
measures  seem  necessary;  closure  to  common  entry  and  litter  gathering,  successive 
fencing  areas  to  start  the  regeneration." 

In  the  park  behind  the  Casino  the  existing  reproduction  should  be 
opened  up  so  as  to  form  Httle  patches  of  advance  growth. 

(B)  FeUing  by  area.  It  will  consist  in  topping  the  broadleaved  trees 
to  favor  the  conifers,  but  birch  in  good  condition  should  be  preserved 
where  it  is  of  aesthetic  value. 

(Art.  8)  Deduction.  All  trees  8  inches  and  over  are  counted  against 
the  yield. 

Part  IV.  —  Betterments.  —  The  following  improvements  are  taken 
up.  Map,  compartment  numbers;  boundary  pillars;  restocking;  re- 
generation has  been  retarded  by  grass  and  weeds  so  M.  Schaeffer  recom- 
mends the  grubbing  out  of  horizontal  seed  spots  3  by  3^  feet  in  size,  since 
they  have  given  excellent  results.  They  should  be  not  only  in  the  open- 
ings but  also  in  the  sodded  ravines. 

"When  the  slope  is  steep  the  sod  which  is  removed  should  be  placed  on  the  lower 
side  to  form  a  bench.  On  the  bare  soil  sow  broadcast  several  larch  seed.  We  have 
not  seen  any  failures,  and  the  experiment  thus  far  may  be  considered  as  decisive.  It 
should  be  seen,  however,  that  the  seeding  is  not  too  thick  because  usually  the  natural 
regeneration  will  complete  it  .  .  .  and  an  excess  density  is  to  be  feared  since  with 
the  larch  it  is  a  cause  of  damping  off." 

The  little  benches  have  also  proved  of  value  in  stopping  small  snow- 
slides. 

Works  to  prevent  avalanches.  The  plan  of  campaign  recommended 
is:  (1)  Don't  bother  with  those  areas  which  are  almost  impossible  to 
correct.  (2)  Where  work  will  avail  the  Reforestation  Branch  will 
build  dry  masonry  walls  on  a  small  scale,  and  plant  denuded  areas  to 
larch  and  cembric  pine.  (3)  The  small  ravines  which  are  eroding  should 
be  handled  by  the  local  force  by  building  small  benches.  The  finances 
are  then  discussed  and  the  commune  assured  of  State  assistance. 

Part  V.  —  Financial  Summary  and  Forecast.  —  From  1890  to  1909  the 
average  annual  revenue  is  given  as  S2,078  and  the  cost  of  administration 
$768,  leaving  $1,310  net.  For  the  next  10  years  the  gross  revenue  is 
estimated  at  $5,196,  the  expenses  at  $725,  and  the  net  revenue  at  $4,471 


256 


GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING  PLANS 


or  more  than  triple  that  of  the  past  period.  The  rise  is  due  chiefly  to 
increases  in  stumpage.  Counting  4,450  acres  of  forest  this  is  $1  net 
per  acre  per  year  for  a  mountain  forest.  It  will  be  double  or  triple  this 
figure  owing  to  the  increase  in  stumpage  since  the  war."*^ 

The  Appendix.  —  The  Appendix  is  especially  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive. To  start  with  there  is  a  tabular  and  graphic  comparison  of  the 
old  and  new  volume  tables.  These  are  based  on  diameter  alone  and 
the  same  volume  table  figures  are  used  for  spruce  and  larch,  but  a  separate 
table  for  the  pine.  Next  comes  a  list  of  all  trees  calipered  by  compart- 
ments.    The  species  are  listed  separately  as  follows: 


COMPARTMENT   14 


Number  of  trees 

Volumes, 

D.  B.  H. 

Spruce 

Larch 

Total 

20 
25 
etc. 

5,948 
2,986 

121 

88 

6,069 
3,074 

1,213.8 
1,229.6 

On  each  page  in  the  first  column  before  the  d.  b.  h.  figures  is  given 
the  volume  in  cubic  meters  (to  the  nearest  tenth  only)  for  each  diameter 
classified.  Separate  records  are  given  for  each  of  the  137  compart- 
ments, for  each  working  group  total,  and  for  the  entire  forest.  After 
giving  his  theoretical  normal  hectare  of  selection  forest,  400  trees  8  to 
24  inches  in  diameter,  totaling  343  cubic  feet,  the  growing  stock  (for 
the  entire  forest)  for  1889  is  graphically  compared  with  the  present  stock 
and  with  the  normal  stand.  These  curves  show  at  a  glance  that  the 
forest  is  still  understocked  especially  in  the  larger  diameters.  But  it 
also  illustrates  the  progress  made  during  the  past  ten  years  in  conserv- 
ing a  depleted  stand.  A  point  in  policy  which  M.  Schaeffer  has  estab- 
hshed  is  that  it  is  not  safe  to  hold  over  more  than  one-third  the  annual 
increment  because  of  the  continual  need  of  cleaning  out  overmature 
material  in  a  selection  forest  and  of  making  thinnings.  The  curves  are 
reproduced  below;  in  the  original  working  plan,  they  are  supplemented 
by  a  table  giving  for  the  normal  hectare  the  number  and  volume  of 
trees  by  2-inch  diameter  classes  8  inches  to  24  inches. 

The  Pressler  borings  are  given  in  full,  tabulated  by  2-inch  diameter 
classes.  There  are  not  many,  but  they  are  carefully  selected  under 
average  conditions.  For  8-inch  trees  there  are  39;  for  10,  48;  for  12,  46; 
for  20,  but  22.  The  readings  are  the  number  of  years  it  takes  the  tree 
in  each  class  to  grow  2  inches.  These  are  then  averaged  for  each  diam- 
^  During  the  war  700  cubic  meters  sold  for  70,000  francs! 


CHAMONIX  WORKING   PLAN 


257 


eter  class  and  the  growth  per  cent  calculated  for  the  corresponding  classes 
by  the  growth  per  cent  formula.     The  results  were  then  evened  off  as 


S  100,000 


for  the  entire  forent 


20  30 

Diameter  in  inches 


Fig.  20  (a). 


.Actual  results 

-Actual  results,  evened  off  by  curve 


Diameter  in  inches 

Fig.  20  (b). 

follows,  the  irregularity  in  the  larger  diameters  being  due  to  insufficient 
data: 


258 


GOVERNMENT  REGULATION  AND  WORKING   PLANS 


1?? 

Ill 

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Selection  forest,  poor  in 
old  wood,  but  grow- 
ing fast.     The  former 
openings  are  now  oc- 
cupied by  coniferous 
saplings  which  domi- 
nate  the   birch   and 
alder 

CHAMONIX  WORKING  PLAN  259 

M.  Schaeffer's  argument  based  on  these  figures  is  given  in  full  since 
it  illustrates  the  judgment  —  or,  if  you  like,  guesswork  —  which  enters 
into  the  final  yield  analysis  and  answer. 

"The  312  trees  (bored)  together  take  6,742  years  to  pass  from  one  (2-inch)  diameter 

class  to  another  or  an  average  of    '    ,    =  21.6.     If  one  glances  at  the  preceding  table 

(see  curve)  it  is  evident  that  for  the  diameter  classes  between  8  and  28  inches  the  time 
it  takes  to  pass  is  about  constant.  .  .  .  One  can  conclude  also  that  the  length  of 
the  period  fixed  at  20  years  by  the  working  plan  of  1890  should  be  considered  as  a 
minimum  and  that  the  rotation  of  200  years  adopted  in  the  present  study  is  not  too 
high  when  it  takes  the  average  seedling  194  years  to  pass  from  a  diameter  of  6  inches 
to  24  (21.6  X  9  =  194).  This  conception  of  the  average  length  of  time  (to  pass  from 
one  class  to  another)  establishes,  in  a  way,  an  index  of  the  forest.  For  the  forest  of 
Houches,  where  situated  in  a  valley  .  .  .  the  average  time  was  19.4  (Chamonix 
21.6).  This  difference  of  two  years  shows  that  the  forest  of  Chamonix  is  less  favorably 
situated  than  its  neighbor,  and  it  might  be  said  this  inferiority  amounts  to  10  per  cent. 
The  rotation  of  the  forest  of  Houches  has  been  fixed  at  180  years;  that  of  Chamonix, 
therefore,  ought  to  be  normally  200  (as  it  is). 

"In  evening  off  this  growth  per  cent  graphically  (see  curve;  .  .  .  several  inter- 
esting deductions  can  be  made.  To  start  with  it  is  noticeable  that  in  the  lower  classes 
where  the  measurements  were  numerous,  the  evened  off  curve  follows  the  actual  curve. 
It  might  be  stated  also  that  beginning  with  24-inch  diameters  the  growth  per  cent 
falls  normally  below  1  per  cent.  This  merits  the  conclusion  that  the  reservation  of 
trees  of  higher  diameters  should  be  the  exception.  If  the  evened  off  growth  per  cent 
is  multiphed  by  the  total  volume  (on  the  entire  forest)  as  given  in  the  recent  stock- 
taking, the  probable  production  of  the  forest  as  it  stands  is  obtained:  2.54  X  30,437 

-f  2.  X  43,951,  etc.  (for  each  class),  with  the  following  total  =  — '  „  =  4.511  cubic 
meters.     The  average  per  cent  would  then  be      '  >.--  =  1.54  per  cent.     If  it  is  possible 

to  conclude  that  1.54  is  the  maximum  growth  per  cent  under  actual  conditions,  and 

given  the  yield  reduced  to  1.03  per  cent  then  0.51  per  cent  (of  the  growth)  or  about 

one-third  will  be  saved  each  year. 

"There  are  other  methods  of  valuing  the  probable  production  of  the  Chamonix 

forest.     Taking  for  granted  that  the  figure  of  1,800  hectares  represents  the  area  actually 

292  777 
forested,  it  might  be  argued  that  the  average  stand  is         '  „     =  160  cubic  meters 

roughly.  By  referring  to  the  table  (of  average  production  for  Savoie)  ...  it 
appears  that  when  it  takes  22  years  (to  pass  from  one  diameter  class  to  another)  and 
the  stand  per  hectare  is  160  cubic  meters  then  the  growth  is  2.5  cubic  meters  per  hec- 
tare; the  total  growth  then  is  1,800  X  2.5  =  4,500  cu.  m.,  a  figure  which  exactly  agrees 
with  that  obtained  (by  multiplying  the  volume  by  the  growth  per  cent).  It  is,  more- 
over, confirmed  by  the  comparison  of  the  compartments  calipered  twice;  those  20 
years  ago  had  a  volume  of  218,980  cubic  meters  (calculated  by  the  present  volume 
table)  and  to-day  278,360.  Since  about  26,000  cubic  meters  (by  same  volume  table) 
was  cut,  the  production  has  been  278,360  +  26,000  -  218,980  =  85,380  or  4,269  per 
year,  a  figure  which  is  also  in  accord  with  the  preceding  when  it  is  considered  it  applies 

to  only  about  1,700  hectares  (i.e.,  l:^^i><J^  =  4^519). 

"Finally  if  we  use  the  formula  of  the  whole  yield,  that  is  to  say,  if  we  take  count  of 
the  growth  of  'old  wood'  and  a  third  of  that  of  the  'average  wood'  (remembering  that 


260  GOVERNMENT  REGULATION   AND   WORKING   PLANS 

in  view  of  the  transfer  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  'old  wood'  is  about  1  per  cent,  and 
that  of  the  'average  wood'  2.1  per  cent)  we  will  have 

182,986 +  1^?^?|><^«X^,      ,, 

P  (yield)  = 200 ^  W)^  ^^^'"^^^  =  ^'^^^' 

T 

a  figure  which  is  also  near  the  others  (already  given  above).  This  similarity,  it  is 
interesting  to  note,  allows  one  to  conclude  that  the  production  of  the  forest  of 
Chamonix  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  4,500  cubic  meters  and  that  in  fixing  the  yield  at 
3,018  cubic  meters  there  will  be  an  annual  saving  of  about  1,500  meters.  This  economy, 
which  is  really  an  enrichment  of  the  stand,  is  fully  justified  and  is  in  perfect  accord 
with  the  wishes  of  the  officials." 

The  American  professor  of  management  could  easily  pick  flaws  in 
this  working  plan.  To  start  with,  he  might  argue  that  the  same  normal 
stand  should  not  hold  for  all  soils,  species,  mixtures,  and  altitudes; 
that  Pressler's  method  is  not  exact;  that  the  decrease  in  the  number 
of  trees  is  not  fully  known,  and  so  on.  But  what  impresses  me  most  is 
the  simplicity  of  the  plan,  its  evident  practicability,  its  freedom  from 
ponderous  descriptions  which  are  replaced  by  tables  and  curves  showing 
at  a  glance  what  the  administrator  must  know.  No  two  plans  are 
exactly  alike.  Where  there  is  a  "Chief  of  Management"  stationed  in  a 
district,  they  have  no  cut-and-dried  air.  Some  of  the  methods  are  far 
too  intensive  for  the  United  States,  but  it  is  believed  the  review  contains 
suggestions  which  may  be  of  value  to  the  profession.  There  is  practi- 
cally no  difference  in  the  important  details  between  an  original  plan  and 
a  careful  revision.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  methods  could  be  followed 
very  closely  in  a  forest  where  intensive  management  had  to  be  applied 
such  as  on  a  small  estate.  It  is  no  wonder  that  M.  Schaeffer  is  recog- 
nized as  the  foremost  working  plan  expert  in  France. 


CHAPTER  X 
FEATURES  OF  FRENCH  NATIONAL  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION  ^ 

Brief  Summary  op  Legislation  (p.  261).  General,  Corsica,  Maures  and  I'Esterel, 
Frontier  Forests,  Fishing  and  Shooting,  Dunes  and  Landes,  Mountain  Landes,  Clearing 
of  Private  Timber,  References  to  Legislation. 

Administrative  Organization  and  Education  (p.  268).  Early  Organization,  Re- 
organization of  1882,  Salaries,  Modern  Organization,  MUitary  Rank,  Education. 

Protection  (p.  275).  Introduction,  Damage  from  Logging,  Servitudes  and  Use 
of  Minor  Products,  Excessive  Pruning,  Damage  by  Birds,  Insect  Damage,  Damage  by 
Game,  Damage  from  Grazing,  Fungous  Damage,  Windfall  Damage,  Damage  by  Frost, 
Damage  by  Sunscald  and  Drought,  Snow  Damage,  Intensive  Fire  Damage,  The  Fire 
Problem  in  the  Forest  of  I'Esterel  (Var),  Fire  Insurance  in  France. 

Betterments  (p.  290).     Forest  Houses,  Roads  and  Trails,  Boundaries,  Maps. 

Sale  of  Timber  (p.  293).  General  Sales  Procedure,  Estimate  and  Appraisal,  Cutting 
and  Logging  Rules,  Example  of  a  Long-term  Sale,  Stumpage  Prices. 

BRIEF  SUMMARY  OF  LEGISLATION 

GeneraL  —  It  is  rather  surprising  to  find  a  forest  code  and  ordinance 
still  in  force,  except  for  minor  modifications,  that  was  passed  in  1827. 
Since  that  time  there  have  been  numerous  special  laws  for  Corsica'^ 
on  account  of  the  less  intensive  conditions  and  long-term  logging  con- 
tracts; for  the  Maures  and  I'Esterel,  between  Toulon  and  Cannes,  on 
account  of  the  dangerous  fires;  for  frontier  forests;  for  Algeria,^  Indo- 
China,  Tunisia,^  and  other  colonies.  There  are  also  special  laws  for 
fishing  and  shooting,  dunes  and  Landes,  eroded  slopes  in  the  mountains, 
military  organization  of  the  Forest  Service,  pensions,  taxes,  public  works, 
water  (including  log  driving),  and  rural  poHce. 

There  are  many  who  believe  that  the  Forest  Code  of  1827  is  out  of 
date  and  therefore  should  be  replaced  by  a  new  law  more  suited  to 
changed  conditions.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  strict,  it  is  well  under- 
stood, and  a  change  would  be  strongly  opposed  by  many  foresters  be- 
cause of  the  disastrous  effects  of  too  lenient  forest  laws  and  the  impossi- 
bility of  passing  a  law  as  drawn  up  by  the  Forest  Service  owing  to  the 
probability  of  amendments  by  the  legislative  assembly.  Those  who 
wish  to  obtain  an  idea  of  the  essential  details  covered  by  the  code  are 
referred  to  the  translation  of  the  Algerian  Code  of  1908  which  follows 

1  Major  R.  Y.  Stuart  kindly  reviewed  this  chapter. 

2  See  Appendix  of  French  Forests  and  Forestry  (Tunisia,  Algeria,  and  Corsica). 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc. 

261 


262      FEATURES  OF  FRENCH   NATIONAL   FOREST   ADMINISTRATION 

closely,  in  part  word  for  word,  the  French  Code  of  1827.  The  main 
difference  is  that  the  Algerian  Code  is  more  supple  and  less  repressive. 

Corsica.  —  Since  1840  the  Waters  and  Forest  Service  was  given  the 
right  to  make  sales  for  periods  up  to  20  years  after  suitable  public  auction. 
This  law  provided  that  the  transport  improvements  should  revert  to  the 
State  when  the  sale  expired;  that  the  State  should  have  an  option  to 
purchase  sawmills  within  1.2  miles  of  the  forest.  The  object  of  this  law 
was  to  develop  forests  hitherto  inaccessible  under  ordinary  sales.  The 
law  of  1854  abolished  grazing  servitudes  in  Corsica  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact  even  to-day  grazing  is  practically  unrestricted. 

Maures  and  I'Est^rel.  —  Owing  to  the  excessive  fire  damage  a  special 
fire-protective  scheme  was  legislated  in  1870  and  revised  in  1893.  The 
provisions  of  this  law  are  discussed  in  this  chapter  under  "Protection." 

Frontier  Forests.^  —  Trespass  committed  on  a  bordering  State  can 
be  judged  in  France  under  French  law  if  the  State  in  question  has  passed 
a  reciprocity  law  to  the  same  effect. 

Fishing  and  Shooting.  —  Important  and  detailed  laws  have  been 
enacted  to  govern  the  administration  of  fishing  and  shooting.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  law  of  1908  contains  a  list  of  the  useful  and 
harmful  birds. 

Dunes  and  Landes.  —  The  decree  of  April  29,  1862,  placed  the  fixation, 
maintenance,  conservation,  and  exploitation  of  the  dunes  under  the 
Ministry  of  Finance  (Director  of  Forests),  but  the  Ministers  of  State, 
Finances,  Agriculture,  Commerce,  and  Public  Works  were  all  charged 
with  the  execution  of  the  decree.  The  decree  of  December  14,  1810, 
provided  for  the  fixation  and  forestation  of  the  dunes.  In  the  first  place 
a  map  was  required  showing  State,  communal  and  private  lands  with  a 
plan  as  to  the  best  methods  to  follow.  Where  owners  were  unable  to 
carry  out  the  measures  prescril^ed  it  was  arranged  that  the  work  should 
be  undertaken  by  the  State  and  managed  until  the  cost  of  the  work  was 
completely  paid  for  with  interest  (since  April  7,  1900,  calculated  at  4 
per  cent).  The  measures  included:  Forbidding  the  removal  of  weeds 
or  plants  from  dune  areas  without  special  authorization,  patrol  and 
police  force,  and  the  State  was  given  the  right  to  remove  brush  from 
private  land.  The  ordinance  of  February  5,  1817,  provided  that  the 
work  should  be  directed  by  the  "Fonts  et  Chaussees"  under  the  Minis- 
try of  the  Interior,  with  the  provision  that  when  the  trees  reached  a 
certain  age,  to  be  determined  later,  they  would  be  under  the  Waters 
and  Forests  Service.  The  ordinance  of  January  31,  1839,  sanctioned 
the  auction  of  resine  on  18,632  acres  of  wooded  dunes;  both  thinnings 
and  final  cuttings  were  mentioned  and  natural  regeneration  was  to  be 

3  The  basis  for  these  data  and  what  follows  is:  Code  de  la  Legislation  Forestiere,  A. 
Puton  et  Ch.  Guyot,  Paris. 


CLEARING   OF  PRIVATE   TIMBER  263 

provided  for.  The  ordinances  of  July  15,  1810,  and  May  2,  1810,  pro- 
vided protective  measures  for  the  dunes  in  the  Department  of  the 
Pas-de-Calais,  no  ditches  or  removal  of  sand  within  200  fathoms  of 
high  water,  no  removal  of  grass  or  weeds,  no  grazing  without  special 
authorization. 

The  law  of  June  10,  1857,  provided  for  the  drainage  and  sowing  of 
communal  lands  at  the  expense  of  the  communes,  or  if  they  were  unable 
at  the  expense  of  the  State,  with  reimbursement  from  the  proceeds 
with  principal  and  interest. 

Mountain  Lands.  —  The  law  of  July  28,  1860,  which  provided  for  the 
restoration  of  the  eroded  mountains,  was  superseded  by  the  law  of  April 
4,  1882.  Before  a  reforestation  area  boundary  is  decided  upon  there  is 
an  open  hearing  in  each  of  the  communes  interested,  a  meeting  of  the 
municipal  councils,  a  recommendation  of  the  Arrondissement  Council, 
General  Council,  and  Special  Commission.  The  period  of  inquiry  is 
30  days  and  if  a  decision  is  made  to  set  aside  the  area  for  reforestation 
then  a  law  is  passed  setting  aside  the  land  required  as  shown  by  the 
approved  reports,  maps,  and  plans  of  forest  officers.  The  work  is  carried 
out  by  the  Waters  and  Forest  Service  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  The 
ownership  of  this  land  is  governed  as  follows: 

Where  institution,  communal,  or  private  land  is  being  damaged  by 
grazing  it  can  be  reserved  from  use  after  inquiry  and  consideration 
similar  to  that  required  before  reforestation,  but  if,  after  10  years,  it  is 
still  necessary  to  reserve  it,  pubHc  expropriation  is  necessary.  The 
annual  loss  during  the  first  10  years  of  reservation  is  paid  for  from  the 
municipal  treasury.  Work  can  be  undertaken  at  the  expense  of  the 
State  to  hasten  restoration,  and  trespass  will  be  prosecuted  as  if  on  a 
forest. 

Clearing  of  Private  Timber.  —  The  restrictions  against  clearing  private 
forest  land,  even  if  for  purposes  of  cultivation,  are  so  stringent  that  the 
analysis  of  the  law  by  Guyot  is  given  in  full.  It  is  generally  referred  to 
as  the  law  of  June  18,  1859,  put  into  effect  December  19,  of  the  same 
year.* 

Art  219  (Law  of  June  18,  1859).  -  No  private  owner  has  a  right  to  grub  up  or  to 
clear  his  timber  without  notifying  the  sous-pr6fecture  at  least  4  months  m  advance, 
during  which  time  the  administration  may  inform  the  owner  of  its  opposition  to  the 
clearing.  The  declaration  of  the  owner  states  choice  of  residence  in  the  canton  m 
which  the  timber  is  located. 

Before  signifying  opposition,  and  at  least  8  days  after  advice  is  given  to  the  party 
concerned,  the  inspecteur  or  the  "sous-inspecteur,"  or  one  of  the  "gardes  generaux 
of  the  circonscription,  proceeds  with  the  examination  of  the  condition  and  location 
of  the  timber  and  makes  out  a  detailed  "proces-verbal"  of  which  the  party  is  given 
notice  with  the  request  that  any  objections  be  submitted. 
4  Translated  by  R.  C.  Hall. 


264      FEATURES  OF  FRENCH   NATIONAL   FOREST   ADMINISTRATION 

The  prefet,  "en  conseil  de  prefecture,"  gives  his  opinion  on  this  opposition. 

The  forest  agent  of  the  department  is  notified  of  this  opinion  as  well  as  the  owner, 
and  it  is  transmitted  to  the  Minister  of  Finances  who  makes  an  administrative  decision, 
after  having  consulted  the  financial  section  of  the  "conseil  d'etat." 

If,  within  six  months  following  the  notification  of  opposition,  the  decision  of  the 
minister  is  not  given  and  transmitted  to  the  owner  of  the  timber,  the  clearing  may  take 
place. 

Original  Art.  219.  —  For  20  years  from  the  date  of  promulgation  of  the  present 
law,  private  owners  have  no  right  to  grub  up  or  to  clear  their  timber,  unless  they  notify 
the  sous-prefet  at  least  6  months  in  advance,  during  which  time  the  administration 
may  inform  the  owner  of  its  opposition  to  the  clearing.  Within  the  6  months  from 
this  notification,  the  prefet  has  to  decide  the  case  subject  to  approval  of  the  Minister 
of  Finances.  If  within  the  6  months  following  the  notification  of  the  opposition,  the 
decision  of  the  minister  has  not  been  given  and  transmitted  the  owner,  then  the  clearing 
of  timber  may  take  place. 

Ordonnance  of  Aiigust  1,  1827,  for  the  execution  of  the  "Code  Forestier." 

REGULATIONS   REGARDING   THE    CLEARING    OF   TIMBER 

Art.  192.  (Decree  Nov.  22,  1859.)  —  The  declarations  prescribed  in  Art.  219  of 
the  "Code  Forestier"  must  indicate  the  name,  the  location,  and  the  area  of  the  timber 
which  private  owners  desire  to  clear;  furthermore  they  must  mention  the  choice  of  a 
residence  in  the  canton  in  which  the  timber  is  located;  these  declarations  will  be  made 
in  duplicate  and  deposited  at  the  prefecture  where  they  will  be  put  on  record.  They 
will  be  signed  by  the  sous-prefet  who  will  give  back  one  of  the  copies  to  the  owner  mak- 
ing out  the  declaration,  and  will  immediately  transmit  the  other  to  the  "agent  forestier 
superieur  de  I'arrondissement." 

Art.  193.  (Decree  of  Nov.  22,  1859.)  —  Before  proceeding  with  the  investigation 
of  the  conditions  and  location  of  timber,  and  at  least  8  months  in  advance,  one  of  the 
agents  designated  by  Article  219  of  the  "Code  Forestier"  will  have  to  send  the 
party  concerned,  at  the  residence  selected  by  this  party,  a  notice  stating  the  day  on 
which  the  said  investigation  will  take  place  and  inviting  the  party  to  assist  or  to  be 
represented. 

Art.  194.  (Decree  of  Nov.  22,  1859.)  —  The  proces-verbal  established  by  the  for- 
estry agent  will  mention  all  data  and  information^  which  may  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
cause  objection  to  the  clearing  on  account  of  one  of  the  reasons  enumerated  in  Article 
220  of  the  "Code  Forestier";  furthermore,  if  the  timber  in  question  is  located  in  part 
of  the  frontier  zone,  where  the  clearing  cannot  take  place  without  authorization,  this 
fact  will  simply  be  mentioned  in  the  proces-verbal. 

Art.  195.  (Decree  of  Nov.  22,  1859.)  —  The  proces-verbal  will  be  transmitted  with 
all  papers  to  the  conservateur  who,  before  reporting  his  opposition,  will  have  a  copy  of 
it  sent  to  the  party  concerned,  inviting  him  to  present  his  objections. 

Art.  196.  (Decree  of  Nov.  22,  1859.)  —  If  the  conservateur  thinks  that  the  timber 
must  not  be  cleared,  he  will  transmit  his  opposition  to  the  owner  and  he  will  immediately 
refer  the  case  to  the  prefet,  transmitting  him  all  his  papers  with  his  objections.  In  a 
contrary  case,  the  conservateur  will  refer  without  delay  to  the  directeur  g6n6ral  des 
forets,  who  will  report  on  the  matter  to  the  Minister  of  Finances. 

Art.  197.  (Decree  of  Nov.  22,  1859.)  —  Within  a  month's  time,  the  prefet,  at  the 
prefecture  meeting,  will  give  his  opinion  regarding  the  opposition  with  full  details. 

Within  8  days  following  this  opinion,  the  prefet  will  have  it  transmitted  to  the 
owner  of  the  timber  and  to  the  conservateur  and,  if  there  is  no  conservateur  in  the 


REGULATIONS   REGARDING   THE   CLEARING   OF   TIMBER       265 

department,  to  the  "agent  forestier  sup6rieur"  who  wiU  decide  the  case  after  having 
consulted  the  financial  section  of  the  "conseil  d'etat."  The  ministerial  decision  will 
be  transmitted  to  the  owner  within  6  months  from  the  date  of  notification  of  the  oppo- 
sition. 

Art.  220.  (Law  of  June  18,  1859.)  —  Opposition  to  the  clearing  can  only  be  formu- 
lated for  the  timber  preservation  of  which  is  recognized  as  being  necessary : 

(1)  For  the  maintenance  of  soil  on  mountains  or  slopes. 

(2)  As  a  protection  against  soil  erosion  and  silting  up  of  creeks,  rivers  and  torrents. 

(3)  For  the  existence  of  springs  and  water  courses. 

(4)  For  the  protection  of  dunes  and  coasts  against  erosion  by  the  sea  and  invasion  of 

sand. 

(5)  As  a  protection  of  territory  in  that  part  of  the  frontier  zone  which  shall  be  deter- 

mined by  regulation  of  public  administration. 

(6)  For  public  health. 

The  previous  Article  220  is  now  the  new  Article  221. 

Art.  221.  (Law  of  June  18,  1859.)  —  In  case  of  violation  of  Art.  219  the  owner  is 
fined  the  sum  of  $96.50  minimum  and  .$289.50  maximum  per  hectare  {2\  acres)  of 
cleared  timber.  Furthermore,  he  is  compelled,  if  so  ordered  by  the  Minister  of  Finances, 
to  replant  places  cleared  with  timber  trees  within  a  period  which  cannot  exceed  three 
years.     "Code  Forestier,"  91,  159,  160,  165,  198,  199,  219,  223. 

Original  Art.  221 .  —  In  case  of  failure  of  the  owner  to  do  the  planting  or  the  sowing 
within  the  time  prescribed  by  the  judgment,  the  work  will  be  done  at  his  expense  by 
the  forestry  administration  upon  authorization  previously  given  by  the  prefet  who  will 
settle  the  voucher  covering  this  work  and  will  have  it  executed  against  the  owner. 

Ordonnance  of  August  1,  1827.  Art.  198.  (Decree  of  Nov.  22,  18.59.)  —  When 
mayors  and  ad  joints  shall  have  made  out  proces-verbaux  stating  that  clearing  work 
has  been  effectuated  in  violation  of  Title  15  of  the  Forestry  Code,  they  will  be  obliged, 
independently  of  the  delivery  they  must  make  of  them  to  our  "procureurs,"  to  send  a 
certified  copy  to  the  local  forestry  agent. 

Art.  199.  (Decree  of  Nov.  22,  1859.)  —  The  conservateur  will  report  to  the  directeur 
general  des  forets  on  the  condemnations  pronounced  in  the  case  provided  for  in  Par.  1 
of  Article  221  of  the  Forestry  Code,  and  will  give  his  advice  on  the  necessity  of  replant- 
ing the  places  with  timber  trees.  The  ministerial  decision  which  will  order  replant- 
ing, will  be  transmitted  to  the  party  concerned  through  administrative  channels. 

Art.  222.  (Law  of  June  18,  1859.)  —  In  case  of  failure  of  the  owner  to  do  the  planting 
or  sowing  within  the  time  prescribed  by  the  ministerial  decision,  the  work  will  be  done 
at  his  expense  by  the  forestry  administration  upon  authorization  previously  given  by 
the  prefet  who  will  settle  the  voucher  covering  this  work  and  will  have  it  executed  against 
the  owner.     "Code  Forestier,"  15,  41,  140,  221. 

New  Article  222  (Forestry  Code)  is  only  a  reproduction  of  Article  221  of  the  same 
code,  except  for  the  substitution  of  the  words  "ministerial  decision"  for  the  word 
"judgment,"  as  a  consequence  of  the  change  brought  by  the  law  of  June  18,  1859,  to 
the  wording  of  former  Article  220. 

Art.  223.  (Law  of  June  18,  1859.)  —  The  disposition  contained  in  the  preceding  four 
articles  may  be  applied  to  the  sowing  and  planting  made  for  replacement  of  cleared 
timber  pursuant  to  the  ministerial  decision.     "Code  Forestier,"  219  s.,  224. 

Article  223  (Forestry  Code)  modified  by  the  Law  of  June  18,  1859,  reads  hke  the 
old  Article  222  of  the  same  code,  in  which  the  word  "judgment"  has  been  replaced  by 
the  expression  "ministerial  decision"  in  order  that  this  disposition  may  agree  with  the 
new  wording  of  Article  221. 


266      FEATURES  OF  FRENCH   NATIONAL   FOREST   ADMINISTRATION 

Art.  224.  (Law  of  June  18,  1859.)  —  There  are  excepted  from  the  regulations  of 
Art.  219: 

(1)  Young  timber  during  the  20  years  following  its  sowing  or  planting,  except  in 

case  provided  for  in  the  preceding  article. 

(2)  Parks  or  fenced  gardens,  or  gardens  adjoining  houses. 

(3)  Open  timber  of  less  than  10  hectares  area  (24.7  acres)  when  not  part  of  another 

forest,  the  whole  of  which  aggregates  an  area  of  10  hectares,  or  when  not  lo- 
cated on  the  top  or  on  the  slopes  of  a  mountain.     Forestry  Code  219,  223. 

New  Article  224  (Forestry  Code)  corresponds  to  the  old  Article  223.  It  only  modi- 
fies it  by:  (1)  Substituting  the  figure  of  10  hectares  for  4  hectares  for  the  area  of  timber 
which  may  be  cleared  without  fulfilling  formalities  determined  by  Article  219  (Forestry 
Code).  (2)  Substituting  the  expression  "fenced  gardens  or  gardens  adjoining  houses" 
for  the  words  "fenced  gardens  and  gardens  adjoining  houses,"  concerning  trees  forming 
part  of  parks  or  gardens  exempted  by  the  application  of  Article  219. 

Art.  225.  (Law  of  June  18,  1859.)  —  Court  actions  concerning  clearings  made  in 
violation  with  Article  219  are  outlawed  after  lapse  of  two  years  from  the  date  when  the 
clearing  took  place.  — ■  Forestry  Code  185,  187,  221. 

New  Article  225  is  the  reproduction  of  previous  Article  224. 

Art.  226.  (Law  of  June  18,  1859.)  —  The  sowings  and  plantings  of  timber  on  the 
top  or  on  the  slopes  of  mountains,  on  dunes,  or  in  the  waste  lands  will  be  exempted 
from  taxes  for  30  years.  —  Forestry  Code  194,  195,  219  s. 

New  Article  226  reproduces  the  terms  of  Article  225,  except  two  changes. 

Law  of  March  29,  1897.  —  Fixing  the  general  budget  of  expenses  and  receipts  of 
exercise,  1897  (Renueil  Periodique  Dallez,  97.4.33). 

Art.  3.  Article  116  of  the  Law  of  the  3  Frimaire,  an  VII,  regarding  the  repartition 
and  the  situation  of  the  land-tax  is  modified  as  follows:  "The  revenue  taxable  on  any 
cleared  soil  which  shall  be  afterwards  planted  or  sown  with  timber  will  be  reduced  by 
three-fourths  during  the  first  30  years  after  planting  or  sowing,  whatever  may  have 
been  the  state  of  cultivation  of  the  soil  prior  to  the  clearing. 

1.  The  ministerial  decision  which  refuses  an  owner  of  timber  the  authorization  of 
clearing  is  not  limited  in  its  duration;  it  is  final  and  lasts  with  all  its  effects  so  long  as 
unmodified  or  not  recalled  by  the  minister  who  rendered  it.  —  Cr.  c,  March  15,  1884. 
D.  P.,  84.5.281. 

2.  The  prohibition  of  clearing  pronounced  under  these  conditions  has  the  character 
of  a  true  legal  servitude  burdening  directly  the  timber  itself,  and  as  long  as  this  inter- 
dict has  not  been  recalled,  it  keeps  all  its  force  in  regard  to  the  owner  who  has  made 
the  declaration  requesting  clearing  as  well  as  toward  his  assigns  "a  titre  gratuit"  or 
"a  titre  on^reux."  Then,  if  the  said  owner  or  his  assigns  thinks  proper  to  provoke  a 
new  investigation  in  order  to  be  authorized  to  clear  all  or  part  of  the  timber  on  which 
the  ministerial  decision  has  been  made,  he  should  not  proceed  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  prescribed  in  Art.  219  (Forestry  Code),  but  should  address  directly  the  minister 
who  has  made  the  decision  in  order  to  obtain  from  him  the  modification  or  cancellation 
of  his  decision.  —  Same  decree. 

3.  Par.  2  of  Article  214  (Forestry  Code)  which  excepts  from  the  prohibition  of 
clearing  "the  parks  or  fenced  gardens  adjoining  houses,"  must  be  understood  in  this 
sense,  that  the  exception  exists  only  in  favor  of  parks  or  gardens  which  are  actually 
both  fenced  and  adjoining  habitations.     Riom,  June  11,  1883,  D.  P.,  84.5.283. 

4.  Especially  one  cannot  consider  as  a  park  in  the  meaning  of  Article  224  (Forestry 
Code)  a  body  of  timber  around  a  chateau  but  not  fenced;  it  makes  little  difference  if 
this  timber  combines  certain  conditions  of  management  for  the  satisfaction  and  interest 
of  the  owner.  —  Same  decree. 


REGULATIONS   REGARDING   THE  CLEARING   OF   TIMBER        267 

5.  And  the  appellate  judge  cannot  admit  the  proof  of  the  enclosure  of  the  timber 
when  the  lack  of  enclosure  has  not  been  established  by  a  court  which  has  had  authority 
to  deal  with  the  subject.  —  Same  decree. 

6.  The  Par.  3  of  Art.  224  (Forestry  Code)  freeing  from  the  interdiction  of  clearing, 
timber  not  fenced,  of  less  than  10  hectares  (24.7  acres)  area,  provided  it  is  not  part  of 
another  forest  which  would  make  up  an  area  of  10  hectares,  does  not  establish  any  dis- 
tinction between  timber  belonging  to  the  same  owners  or  to  different  owners.  Riom, 
June  11,  1883,  D.  P.,  84.5.282. 

7.  The  accused  party  has  to  prove  that  the  timber  cleared  was  of  an  area  less  than 
10  hectares,  and  that  it  was  not  part  of  a  body  of  timber  of  more  than  10  hectares  area. 
—  Same  decree. 

8.  And  this  proof  cannot  be  accepted  when  the  contrary  is  formally  stated  by  a 
"proces-verbal"  which  must  be  trusted  until  shown  false.  —  Same  decree. 

9.  The  exemption  from  all  taxes  during  30  years,  established  by  Art.  226  (Forestry 
Code)  in  favor  of  sowings  and  plantings  of  timber  on  the  tops  or  slopes  of  mountains 
is  only  apphcable  to  the  "land-tax"  and  not  to  the  registration  taxes,  especially  to 
taxes  for  transfers  due  to  death.  —  Req.  July  7,  1885.     D.  P.,  85.1.453.^ 

Certain  features  of  land  control  (or  acquisition)  for  combating  drift- 
ing sand  or  erosion  deserve  emphasis  if  only  to  illustrate  how  demo- 
cratic the  governmental  methods  are  in  France  when  the  interests  of 
the  local  inhabitants  are  concerned: 

(1)  Where  private  owners  are  unwilling  to  repair  damage  injurious 
to  the  public  interests  the  use  of  the  land  can  be  taken  over  by  the 
State,  the  work  done  and  the  land  only  returned  to  the  original  owners 
when  they  pay  the  bill  with  legal  interest,  or  when  the  costs  are  earned 
by  the  land  itself;  or  in  the  mountains  the  land  may  be  condemned, 
the  necessary  work  done  by  the  State  when  the  owner  could  secure  his 

6  Speaking  of  French  forest  taxation,  W.  B.  Greeley  concludes: 
".  .  .  When  land  is  planted  which  has  lain  fallow  for  a  considerable  time,  the 
law  provides  that  there  shall  be  no  increase  in  the  assessed  value,  or  rated  income, 
of  the  ground  for  a  like  period.  Aside  from  these  exemptions,  private  forests  in  France 
are  taxed  on  their  current  income,  a  method  which  dates  back  to  the  Revolutionary 
period.  Under  the  law  of  1907  a  valuation  commission  periodically  classifies  the  lands 
in  all  forms  of  culture,  commune  by  commune,  in  accordance  with  their  relative  pro- 
ductivity. There  may  thus  be  three  or  four  types  of  forest,  as  determined  by  their  soil 
and  timber  species  and  the  value  of  their  products.  A  net  yearly  income  is  then  ob- 
tained for  average  areas  wthin  each  type.  All  forest  properties  shown  on  the  official 
survey  and  plats  of  the  commune  are  thus  classified  and  a  net  income  based  upon  the 
sample  tracts  studied  is  assigned  to  each.  The  periodic  revenues  customary  in  French 
forests,  where  nearly  all  properties  harvest  some  products  every  few  years,  are,  under 
this  system,  reduced  to  an  annual  basis  which  represents  the  net  returns  for  stumpage 
after  deducting  costs  of  upkeep,  fire  protection,  forest  guards,  thinnings,  planting 
blanks,  and  other  cultural  measures.  The  tax  is  levied  upon  this  net  income  and 
usually  amounts  to  8  or  10  per  cent,  about  half  of  which  goes  to  the  central  government. 
The  rest  comprises  the  departmental  and  communal  taxes  and  levies  for  local  roads. 
It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  French  forest  owners  are  demanding  a  straight-out  yield 
tax  levied  upon  forest  products  when  actually  cut,  the  same  principle  which  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  basis  for  forest  tax  reforms  in  the  United  States.     .     .     . 


268      FEATURES   OF  FRENCH    NATIONAL    FOREST    ADMINISTRATION 

land  by  repaying  the  State  with  interest;  as  an  alternative  the  private 
owner  could  secure  half  his  land  by  trading  the  other  half  to  the  State 
to  cancel  the  costs  of  reparation.  Similar  methods  were  applied  to 
communal  lands  which  were  really  private  lands  owned  in  fee  simple 
but  with  the  various  interests  undivided. 

(2)  Before  mountain  land  can  be  reserved  from  use  the  scheme  advo- 
cated by  Government  technical  representatives  had  to  be  passed  upon 
by  the  village,  by  the  commune,  by  the  arrondissement,  by  the  depart- 
ment, by  a  technical  and  political  commission,  and  by  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  who  also  had  to  have  a  decree  by  the  House  of  Deputies 
before  the  actual  work  could  be  begun. 

These  details  are  recited  to  illustrate  the  difficulty  of  securing  legisla- 
tion in  France,  even  if  it  aims  at  benefiting  the  public,  if  private  inter- 
ests are  on  the  defensive.  Even  during  the  Great  War  the  requisition 
of  private  timber  finally  had  to  be  passed  upon  by  a  local  and  a  central 
commission  before  the  requisition  could  be  placed.  And  in  France 
the  adverse  interests  are  always  represented  on  the  commissions.  More- 
over these  interests  have  representatives  in  the  House  of  Deputies  who 
can  embarrass  the  ruling  party  if  injustice  is  done. 

References  to  Legislation.  —  Special  features  of  French  forest  legisla- 
tion are  treated  in  the  various  studies  of  this  volume;  the  references  are 
given  in  the  Index  under  "Legislation." 

ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION  AND  EDUCATION 

Early  Organization.  —  The  quality  and  efficiency  of  the  French 
Waters  and  Forests  Service  has  varied  with  the  history  of  France.  It 
is  not  surprising  that,  in  the  early  days,  there  was  a  great  deal  of  graft 
and  incompetency.  It  was  the  order  of  the  day.  At  a  period  when 
even  the  bishops  and  clergy  lent  themselves  to  corrupt  methods  of  ad- 
ministration it  was  no  wonder  that  the  Forest  Service  suffered  likewise. 
Beginning  in  1554  positions  in  the  Forest  Service  were  sold  by  the  King 
and  from  the  17th  century  employment  in  the  royal  forests  was  heredi- 
tary. The  first  mention  of  regular  "conservations"  was  in  1791,  when 
France  was  divided  ®  into  28  conservatorships  with  inspectors,  assistant 
inspectors,  guards,  surveyors,  and  rangers  as  assistants.  In  1817  the 
Forest  Service  was  suppressed,  but  in  1820  it  was  reestablished.  Real 
forestry  might  be  said  to  have  started  in  France  December  1,  1824,  with 
the  founding  of  the  Nancy  Forest  School,  the  first  director  being  Bernard 
Lorentz,  who  had  studied  under  Hartig  in  Germany.  Such  foresters  as 
Parade,  Nanquette,  Bagneris,  and  Broilliard  were  the  result  of  teaching 
by  Lorentz. 

»  See  Huffel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  308,  325. 


REORGANIZATION  269 

Reorganization  of  1882.  —  On  August  1,  1882/  the  forest  department 
was  reorganized.  On  that  date  the  departmental  estabhshment  was 
simplified  and  was  reorganized  to  include  general  inspectors,  conservators, 

">  "You  will  find  below  the  text  of  a  Government  order,  dated  August  1,  1882,  which 
confirms  the  new  organization  of  the  Forest  Department  of  which  the  foundations  had 
been  laid  by  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  on  the  28th  of  April  preceding.  The  publica- 
tions of  M.  Tassy,  late  Conservator  of  Forests,  have  made  known  to  you  the  spirit 
and  object  of  this  much  needed  reform. 

"It  was  in  fact  necessary  to  put  an  end  to  the  confusion  of  functions  everj^where 
existing  in  our  department;  it  was  necessary  to  suppress  divers  grades  corresponding  to 
identical  duties  as  superfluous;  and  lastly,  it  was  necessary  to  stop  the  frequent  trans- 
fers of  forest  officers,  and  to  accelerate  their  chances  of  promotion  to  responsible  posts. 

"Such  are  the  results  that  we  may  be  permitted  to  expect  from  these  reforms.  The 
departmental  establishment  is  simplified.  It  is  composed  of  general  inspectors,  of 
conservators,  of  inspectors,  of  general  guards.  It  would  seem  useful  to  define  sum- 
marily the  attributes  attaching  to  these  several  grades. 

"General  Inspectors.  —  They  represent  the  superior  administration  in  their  tours 
of  inspection  in  the  provinces. 

"Visiting  the  different  forest  regions  every  year,  in  frequent  contact  with  the  officers 
of  all  grades,  and  thus  becoming  acquainted  with  their  capabilities,  it  is  the  mission  of 
the  general  inspectors  to  secure  unity  of  action  in  conformity  with  plans  previously 
agreed  upon. 

"In  the  intervals  between  their  tours,  as  members  of  the  administrative  council 
under  the  presidency  of  the  director  general,  they  are  enabled,  from  a  complete  local 
knowledge,  to  offer  their  opinions  on  the  proposals  made  by  forest  officers. 

"Conservators.  —  The  conservator's  r61e  is  to  transmit  orders  and  to  explain  their 
spirit  and  object  to  the  ofl^cers  placed  under  his  orders.  His  attributes  are  not  altered, 
but  the  control  of  operations  and  works,  which  he  used  to  exercise  in  concurrence  with 
inspectors,  now  falls  on  him  alone  and  will  necessitate  a  greater  activity  on  his  part. 

"The  efficacy  of  this  control  will  besides  be  facilitated  by  the  early  formation  of 
new  forest  circles. 

"Inspectors.  —  The  inspector  of  forests  has  now  become  the  chief  executive  officer 
of  the  department,  and  has  the  initiative  and  responsibility  in  all  principal  forest  opera- 
tions. He  prepares  and  executes  plans  and  estimates  of  works.  He  directs  fellings, 
whether  principal  or  secondary,  and  remains  responsible  for  those,  the  execution  of 
which  is  intrusted  in  certain  cases  to  his  subordinates.  He  issues  all  executive  orders 
and  conducts  all  the  correspondence.  lender  the  new  system  he  combines  the  former 
duties  of  an  inspector  with  most  of  those  which  hitherto  devolved  on  range  oflficers 
(chefs  de  cantonment),  that  is,  sub-inspector,  general  guard,  or  general  guard  'adjoint.' 

"The  execution  of  all  those  duties  has  been  rendered  possible  by  the  Government 
order  of  August  1,  last,  which  increases  the  number  of  inspectors  from  .160  to  240,  and 
at  the  same  time  reduces  the  areas  of  their  charges  to  about  30,000  acres. 

"The  inspector  will  be  assisted  in  his  office  work  by  a  clerk,  and  in  his  other  duties 
by  a  number  of  subordinates  from  the  secondary  forest  schools.  The  latter  will  serve 
under  his  orders  in  charge  of  ranges  with  the  title  of  general  guard,  and  will  be  responsible 
to  him. 

"General  Guards.  —  The  general  guard  is  an  ofl!icer  whose  duties  are  essentially  active, 
who  should  be  as  often  as  possible  lodged  in  a  house  belonging  to  the  department,  and 
should  keep  neither  an  office  nor  records.  ...  In  the  same  spirit  it  is  intended 
that  in  order  to  reward  capable  and  zealous  foresters,  promotion  to  certain  posts  of 


270      FEATURES   OF  FRENCH   NATIONAL  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 


inspectors,  and  forest  assistants.^  The  general  inspectors  represented 
the  administration  at  Paris  and  inspected  the  work  throughout  France. 
In  the  office  they  passed  upon  proposals  submitted  by  forest  officers. 
The  conservator  transmitted  orders  sent  him  from  Paris  and  explained 
their  spirit  and  object  to  the  officers  under  his  charge.  The  inspectors 
were  made  the  chief  executive  officers  and  had  the  initiative  and  re- 
sponsibility for  all  important  forest  operations,  such  as  executing  plans 
and  making  estimates,  supervision  of  fellings,  correspondence,  and  such 
work  as  is  now  performed  by  forest  supervisors  in  the  United  States. 
Under  the  inspectors  the  forest  assistants  performed  field  work,  but  were 
not  responsible  for  administration.  They  assisted  and  supervised 
rangers  and  guards.  The  organization  of  1882  did  not  last  long,  for 
in  1883  they  returned  to  the  system  of  "cantonments"  managed  by 
forest  assistants  and  assistant  inspectors.  The  general  inspectors' 
positions  which  had  been  done  away  with  in  1887  and  replaced  by 
administrators  under  the  director  at  Paris  were  reestablished  at  the 
end  of  1911,  but  the  number  was  reduced  to  two.  A  resume  of  the  suc- 
cessive organizations  is  shown  in  the  table  which  follows: 

TABLE  23.—  NUMBER  OF  OFFICERS  IN  EACH  GRADE 


General  inspectors 

Administrators 

Conservators 

Cnief  of  personnel 

Directors  and  professors 

Inspectors 

Assistant  inspectors 

Forest  assistants 

Inspector  (assistant)  in  office 

Forest  assistants,  fourth  and  fifth  classes. 
Forest  assistants  (office) 


39 


189 
300 
213 


41 

1 

3 

244 

234 

243 


65 


3 
36 

5 
237 

228 
179 


56 


3 
37 

"5 
235 
223 
202 


46 


etc 


Total  supervisory  force. 
Total  subalterns 


234 
584 


287 
554 


281 
463 


280 
471 


Totals. 


818 


851 


744 


751 


general  guard  may  be  open  to  them,  although  they  may  not  have  undergone  the  tests 
of  passing  out  from  the  secondary  schools. 

"For  the  success  of  the  reform,  I  rely  on  the  zeal  and  good  will  of  officers  of  all  grades. 
They  will  find  in  the  new  organization  better  chances  of  promotion,  and  will  be  able 
to  devote  a  part  of  the  time  hitherto  spent  in  the  office  to  out-door  work.  To  these 
advantages  I  hope  that  increased  pay  may  soon  be  added,  and  in  this  expectation  I  am 
encouraged  by  the  benevolent  intentions  of  which  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  has 
already  given  us  so  many  proofs.  In  any  case  I  can  announce  that  traveling  allow- 
ances will  shortly  be  better  proportioned  to  the  actual  expenses  incurred  by  officers." 

8  For  detailed  data  and  names  of  officers  see  the  Annuaire  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  pub- 
lished annually  by  the  Revue  des  Eaux  et  Forets. 


SALARIES 


271 


No  change  in  1912  in  other  grades.^  Reorganization  under  considera- 
tion. 

Salaries.  —  The  yearly  salary  of  a  French  forest  officer  is  low^"  and  has 

9  L' Administration  Forestiere  et  des  Transformations.  By  "P.  F.,"  "R.  E.  and  F.," 
pp._618-620.  1911.  These  data  on  organization  were  checked  by  Lt.  Col.  Parde, 
Director  of  the  Barres  Ranger  School. 

"  During  the  war  they  have  received  per  diem  allowances  to  compensate  for  the  high 
cost  of  hving.  As  a  matter  of  fact  these  were  entirely  inadequate  and  were  only  $1  to 
$2  a  day.     The  amount  depended  on  rank. 

On  account  of  the  increased  cost  of  hving,  the  following  new  salary  schedule  (retro- 
active to  July  1,  1919)  was  approved  by  Deschanel  on  March  13,  1920.  The  salaries 
are  in  dollars  at  the  normal  rate  of  exchange: 


Class 

General 
inspectors 

Conservators 

Inspectors 

Assistant 
inspectors 

Forest 
assistants 

Professors 
at  school 
of  Nancy 

"Agents 

compatable" 

at  school 

1 
2 

3 

4 

4,250 
3,860 

3,470 

3,470 

3,090 
2,700 

2,700 
2,500 

2,310 

2,120 

2,120 

1,930 

or 
1,740 

1,530 

1,330 

1,230 

1  clerical  c 

1,140 

students 

770 

3,090 

2,900 

luty 
2,700 

2,500 
2,310 
2,120 

1,740 
1,560 

1,380 

1,200 

1,020 

880 

5 

6 

As  a  matter  of  fact  these  salaries  at  the  current  rate  of  exchange  are  about  one-third 
the  amounts  hsted  in  dollars  because  to-day  (May  15,  1920)  it  takes  15  francs  to  equal 
a  dollar. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  French  salaries  with  those  paid  in  British  India  in 
1916,  which  are  more  than  double  those  paid  officers  in  the  U.  S.  F.  S.:  Inspector  general, 
$10,600  per  year.  Chief  conservators,  $8,600  per  year.  Conservators  in  three  grades, 
$7,600,  $6,800,  and  $6,000  per  year.  Deputy  conservators  and  assistant  conservators, 
$1,520  per  year,  rising  by  annual  increments  of  $160  to  a  maximum  salary  of  $2,800, 
when  the  annual  increment  becomes  $200,  until  a  maximum  of  $5,000  is  reached  in  the 
twentieth  year  of  service.  (While  drawing  pay  up  to  and  including  $2,160,  officers  are 
styled  assistant  conservators,  and  after  this  deputy  conservators.) 

The  provincial  Forest  Service,  recruited  from  the  native  population,  includes:  Extra 
assistant  conservators,  $1,000  per  year,  and  rising  by  annual  increases  of  $80  to  $2,200 
in  the  sixteenth  year  of  service.  Extra  deputy  conservators,  $2,300  per  year,  and  ris- 
ing by  annual  increments  of  $100  to  a  maximum  of  $2,600.  By  special  orders  in  each 
case  an  extra  deputy  conservator's  pay  may  be  raised  to  $2,800,  $3,200,  or  $3,400, 
respectively. 

The  subordinate  force  is  paid  as  follows:  Rangers,  $200  to  $800  per  year.  Deputy 
rangers  and  foresters,  $60  to  $160  per  year.  In  Burma  the  pay  ranges  from  $80  to 
$200  per  year. 

For  guards  and  other  subordinates  the  pay  varies,  according  to  the  standard  of 
wages  in  the  various  provinces,  from  $28  to  $60  per  year. 


272      FEATURES  OF  FRENCH  NATIONAL  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 


always  been  considered  too  low  when  the  nature  of  his  work  is  compared 
with  other  branches  where  higher  pay  is  received.  The  allowances  for 
travel  are  on  a  per  diem  basis   and  increase  with  the  higher  rank. 


General  inspector 

Conservator 

Inspector 

Assistant  inspector 

Forest  assistant 

National  forest  school  student. 


.$2,509.00 

2,316.00 

1,302.75 

916.75 

636.90 

"231.60 


S2,123 

1,930 

1,206 

820 

550 


•SI, 737. 00 

1,090.45 

723,75 


$1,544.00 
993.95 


<*  Per  year  during  school  attendance. 

If  an  agent,  such  as  an  inspector  or  assistant  inspector,  is  attached  solely 
for  office  duty  he  receives  the  regular  pay  of  his  rank.  Frequently  a 
forest  assistant  or  an  assistant  inspector  who  is  poor  at  field  work  may 
be  given  a  position  similar  to  that  of  chief  clerk. 

The  rate  of  pay  per  year  for  the  subordinate  force  (prepos^s)  was 
(1918): 

1.  Detailed  as  clerks: 

Special  (oflfice  assistant)  12  3 

Rangers $.328.10  $308.80     $289.50    $270.20 

Guards One  class  of  $250.90  with  free  lodging. 

2.  In  the  forest  with  free  lodging: 

Special  12  3 

Rangers $308.80         $289.50         $270.20         $250.90 

Guards 250.90  231.60  212.30  193.00 

In  addition  to  this  schedule  of  pay  every  employee  entitled  to  the 
forest  honor  medal  for  exceptionally  meritorious  work  receives  $9.65 
a  year  extra.  While  a  ranger  is  at  the  Barr^s  Secondary  School  he 
receives  the  full  salary  attached  to  his  rank.  All  officers  and  subordinates 
receive  a  pension. 

Modern  Organization.  —  The  modern  organization  of  the  French  For- 
est Service  (the  result  of  the  1888  decree)  is  as  follows: 

It  is  under  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  is  managed  by  a  Direc- 
tor General  who  is  a  Conseiller  d'fitat.  The  different  bureaus  at  Paris 
are  under  three  conservators  (corresponding  to  branch  chiefs  in  the 
U.  S.  F.  S.).  These  bureaus  are  divided  into  sections  as  follows:  Per- 
sonnel and  organization,  areas,  forest  instruction,  grazing  and  game, 
management,  exploitation,  reforestation,  betterments,  and  fish  culture. 
The  two  general  inspectors  are  charged  with  the  inspection  of  the  work 
in  all  departments  outside  Paris. 


MODERN  ORGANIZATION  273 

France  proper  is  divided  into  thirty-two  conservations.  This  includes 
Corsica  ^^  which  is  listed  as  the  thirtieth  conservation.  These  thirty-two 
conservations  are  located  at  the  following  points : 

(1)  Paris  (Oise,  Seine,  Seine-et-Marne,  Seine-et-Oise). 

(2)  Rouen  (Calvados,  Eure,  Eure-et-Loire,  Manche,  and  Seine-Inf^r.). 

(3)  Dijon  (Cote-d'Or). 

(4)  Nancy  (Meurthe-et-M.  Meuse  p.,  Vosges  p.). 

(5)  Chambery  (Mayenne,  Savoie,  Haute-Savoie). 

(6)  Charleville  (Ardennes,  Aube  p.,  Marne). 

(7)  Amiens  (Aisne,  Nord,  Oise  p.,  Pas-de-Calais,  Somme). 

(8)  Troyes  (Aube,  Cote-d'Or  p.,  Marne  (Haute)  p.,  Yonne). 

(9)  fipinal  (Meur-et-M.  p.,  Vosges). 

(10)  Gap,  Alpes  (Hautes). 

(11)  Valence  (Ardeche,  Drome,  Vaucluse). 

(12)  Besangon  (Doubs,  Terr,  de  Belf.). 

(13)  Lons-le-Saunier  (Jura). 

(14)  Grenoble  (Isere,  Loire,  Rhone). 

(15)  Alengon  (C6tes-du-Nord,  Finistere,  lUe-et-Vilaine,  Morbihan,  Orne,  Sarthe), 

(16)  Bar-le-Duc  (Ardennes  p.,  Meuse). 

(17)  Magon  (Ain,  Saone-et-Loire). 

(18)  Toulouse  (Ariege,  Haute-Garonne,  Gers  p.,  Tarn-et-Gar) . 

(19)  Tours  (Indre-et-Loire,  Loir-et-Cher,  Loire-Infer.,  Loiret,  Maine-et-Loire). 

(20)  Bourges  (Cher,  Indre,  Nievre). 

(21)  Moulins  (Ailier,  Creuse,  Puy-de-D6me,  Haute-Vienne) . 

(22)  Pau  (Gers,  Basses-Pyr6n6es,  Haute-Pyr6n6es) . 

(23)  Nice  (Alpes-Marit,  Var). 

(24)  Niort  (Charente,  Charente-Infer.,  Vendue,  Vienne). 

(25)  Carcassonne  (Aude,  Pyr6n6es-Or.,  Tarn). 

(26)  Aix  (Basses- Alpes,  Bouches-d.-Rh.). 

(27)  Mmes  (Gard,  H6rault,  Lozere). 

(28)  Aurillac  (Haute-Loire,  Aveyron,  Cantal,  Correze,  Lot). 

(29)  Bordeaux  (Dordogne,  Gironde,  Landes,  Lot-et-Gar). 

(30)  Ajaccio  (Corse). 

(31)  Chaumont  (Haute-Marne). 

(32)  Vesoul  (Haute-Saone). 

At  the  head  of  each  conservation  there  is  a  conservator.  Each  con- 
servation is  divided  into  "inspections,"  comprising  a  number  of  forests, 
administered  by  an  inspector;  each  inspection  includes  two  or  three 
"cantonments"  under  assistant  inspectors  or  forest  assistants  (gardes 
generaux).  The  protective  force  includes  rangers  and  guards;  these 
employees  are  usually  housed  by  the  State.  As  compared  with  the 
United  States  the  Forest  Service  administration  in  Washington  corre- 
sponds to  the  central  administration  in  Paris,  but  in  France  there  is 
less  centralization.     The  districts  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service 

11  See  Chapter  IV,  French  Forests  and  Forestry.  There  are  now  three  new  conserva- 
tions in  the  restored  provinces  (a)  Metz  (Moselle),  (6)  Strasbourg  (Bas-Rhin),  (c)  Colmar 
(Haut-Rhin).    See  appendix,  page  495. 


274      FEATURES  OF   FRENCH   NATIONAL   FOREST   ADMINISTRATION 

correspond  to  the  conservations  in  France  except  that  the  conservations 
are  really  one-man  positions  and  are  consequently  very  much  smaller 
than  the  seven  large  centralized  districts  in  the  United  States.  On  the 
forests,  the  inspector  corresponds  to  the  supervisor,  and  the  assistant 
inspector  to  the  deputy  supervisor  or  forest  examiner,  except  that  the 
assistant  inspector  may  be  in  sole  charge  of  a  forest.  The  garde  general 
corresponds  to  the  forest  assistant  in  the  United  States;  the  ranger  and 
guard  positions  are  the  same  except  that  in  France  these  officers  are 
in  charge  of  definite  areas  rather  than  on  special  projects,  such  as  large 
timber  sales,  as  is  often  the  case  in  the  Western  United  States.  In  the 
central  bureau  at  Paris  the  rank  does  not  differ  from  the  rank  on  the 
forests  themselves.  For  example,  a  conservator  or  inspector  may  be  in 
charge  of  a  bureau  or  section,  respectively,  whereas  in  the  United  States 
a  new  position  has  been  created,  namely,  that  of  assistant  forester  or 
forest  inspector,  when  an  officer  is  given  special  administrative  work 
at  the  central  bureau  at  Washington.  In  the  Service  des  Eaux  et 
Forets  the  responsibility  is  essentially  personal  for  all  lines  of  work;  in 
the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  there  is  a  tendency  to  divide  the  work  among  a 
staff  of  specialists.  In  France  forest  operations  are  largely  controlled  by 
the  working  plan;  at  the  time  of  writing  there  are  no  real  working  plans 
in  operation  on  U.  S.  National  Forests  (see  p.  219).  There  is  no  position 
in  France  corresponding  to  that  of  State  Forester  in  the  United  States. 

Military  Rank.  —  The   corresponding    military  rank  held   by  forest 
officers  in  time  of  war  is  as  follows: 


Forest  rank 

Military  rank 

Guard 

f  Private  (first  class) 
I  Corporal 

Non-commissioned  officer 

Lieutenant 

Ranger 

Forest  assistant 

Assistant  inspector 

Captain 

Commandant  (battalion  chief) 

The  Forest  Service  uniform  is  theoretically  retained  in  time  of  war, 
subject  to  changes  made  necessary  by  general  changes  in  color  or  material 
to  conform  with  the  Regular  Army  standard.  It  is  customary  to  assign 
the  younger  forest  officers  to  line  regiments  (usually,  if  not  always,  to 
the  infantry)  and  the  older  men  to  executive  and  administrative  work 
of  various  kinds.  ^^ 

Education.  —  The  officers  of  the  French  Forest  Service  are  recruited 
chiefly  from  Nancy,  the  official  State  forest  school  established  Decem- 

12  For  a  further  discussion  of  administrative  organization  see  French  Forests  and 
Forestry,  especially  pp.  18-21,  53,  101-105,  123-128. 


PROTECTION  275 

ber  1,  1824.1^  It  is  a  2-year  course  with  extensive  field  work  in  local 
forests  followed  by  a  tour  of  all  important  regions.  The  ranger  force 
is  educated  at  Barres  (Loiret)  where  there  is  an  extensive  botanical 
garden  of  exotic  species.  An  excellent  forestry  course  is  given  at  (a) 
the  Institut  Agronomique  and  at  (6)  the  Ecole  Poly  technique;  students 
enter  Nancy  after  two  years'  study  at  (a)  or  (6).  Guards  are  trained  at 
Nogent-sur-Vernisson  (Loire  et  Cher). 

As  part  of  the  forestry  education  and  propaganda  system  there  are  a 
number  of  important  societies  ^*  and  associations  which  aim  at  protect- 
ing and  popularizing  French  forests.  These  have  been  arranged  in 
alphabetical  order: 

(1)  Acad^mie  d'Agriculture  de  France,  of  Paris,  is  interested  in  all  branches  of 
agriculture  and  has  a  silviculture  section  which  speciahzes  in  all  general  forestry  ques- 
tions, such  as  physiology,  development  of  trees  and  stands,  wood  utilization,  manage- 
ment, reforestation,  etc.  It  is  interesting  to  see  forestry  made  an  integral  part  of 
agriculture. 

(2)  Association  Centrale  Pour  I'Am^nagement  des  Montagnes,  of  Bordeaux,  special- 
izes in  restoring  mountain  areas  by  improving  grazing  lands,  in  creating  woodland  on 
poor  ground,  and  in  reforesting  mediocre  grass  land. 

(3)  Club  Alpin  Frangais,  of  Paris,  furthers  the  reforesting  of  denuded  mountains. 

(4)  Comit6  des  Forets,  of  Paris,  a  syndicate  of  forest  owners,  has  to  do  with  the 
improvement  of  private  forest  property,  and  especially  its  administration  and  exploita- 
tion. 

(5)  Soci4t6  des  Agriculteurs  de  France,  of  Paris,  entirely  independent  of  the  Govern- 
ment, is  active  in  all  branches  of  the  theory  or  practice  of  agriculture  and  silviculture. 

(6)  Soci6t6  Forestiere  Frangais  des  Amis  des  Arbres,  which  has  a  section  at  Paris 
and  affiliated  sections  in  the  departments,  conducts  propaganda  for  the  improvement 
and  the  creation  of  forests,  planting  of  fruit  trees,  and  betterment  of  grazing  lands. 
It  also  supplies  seed  and  planting  stock  to  its  members. 

(7)  The  Soci6t6  Forestiere  de  Franche-Comte  et  Belfort,  of  Besangon,  aims  to  im- 
prove technical  methods  and  furthers  reforestation  on  uncultivated  land  and  grass  land. 

(8)  Soci6t6  Gay-Lussac,  of  Limoges,  organizes  a  congress  each  year  on  "Trees 
and  Water." 

(9)  The  Touring-Club  de  France,  of  Paris,  has  a  section  of  "Land  and  Forests" 
which  conducts  an  active  campaign  for  preserving  beautiful  forests,  reforestation, 
reclamation  of  eroded  mountains,  and  general  forest  betterments. 

PROTECTION 

Introduction.  —  The  prevention  of  damage  of  all  kinds  must  depend 
on  the  practicability  and  cost  of  prevention.  Logging  operations  result 
in  unavoidable  damage  and  in  war-time  logging  much  of  the  finesse  of 
European  methods  had  to  be  waived.  But  even  in  France  most  of  the 
damage  is  by  fire,  although  only  in  the  Provenge  (chiefly  from  the 
Italian  border  to  Marseilles)  and  in  the  Landes  and  Gascogne  is  inten- 

"  See  Huffel,  Vol.  Ill,  for  further  data. 

1*  This  list  was  obtained  for  the  writer  by  Captain  Fresson. 


276      FEATURES  OF   FRENCH    NATIONAL   FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

sive  fire  protection  necessary.  In  these  localities  the  danger  of  fire  is 
so  great  that  even  costly  protection  has  frequently  failed  and  large 
areas  have  been  burned.  Owing  to  the  excessive  fire  damage  in  the 
Maures  and  I'Esterel  (Var)  a  special  fire  protective  scheme  was  first 
legislated  in  1870  and  revised  in  1893.  The  main  provisions  of  the  law 
are :  The  use  of  fire  in  any  form  is  forbidden  during  July,  August,  and 
September  within  656  feet  of  forest  or  brush  land,  except  upon  special 
authorization;  at  other  times  charcoal  kilns,  and  other  dangerous  use  of 
fire,  can  only  be  located  at  the  risk  of  the  owner  or  contractor.  Special 
police  powers  are  accorded  both  private  and  public  forest  officers.  Owners 
of  forest  or  brush  land  which  is  not  entirely  cleared  of  undergrowth  may 
be  required  by  neighbors  to  open  cleared  fire  lines  65  to  164  feet  in 
width  to  be  built  half  on  each  owner's  land.  Railroads  are  also  required 
to  clear  and  maintain  fire  lines  65  feet  from  the  track;  if  not  completed 
the  work  can  be  done  under  the  direction  of  forest  officers  at  the  expense 
of  the  railroads.  To  encourage  road  building  a  subsidy  of  $932  per 
mile  was  granted  for  suitable  roads  built  within  the  Maures  and  I'Esterel 
area.     (See  p.  285  for  additional  details.) 

In  1918  and  1919,  however,  there  were  disastrous  fires  in  the  Landes 
and  in  the  Maures  and  I'Esterel  regions  because,  owing  to  the  war,  the 
undergrowth  could  not  be  systematically  cleared.  The  Engineer  (for- 
estry) troops  salvaged  more  than  120,000  cubic  meters  (about  30,000,000 
feet  board  measure)  of  fire-killed  timber  in  the  Landes  alone.  The 
chief  fire  preventive  measures  in  France  ^^  have  been  fire  notices,  look- 
out posts  connected  with  telephones,  tool  depots,  fire  lines  (to  fight 
from,  since  the  French  hold  that  ''one  should  never  count  on  a  fire  line 
to  stop  a  fire  by  itself")  33  to  66  feet  wide,  and  secondary  lines  3.3  to 
6.6  feet  wide,  and,  finally,  cutting  of  inflammable  undergrowth  (an 
efficient  means  of  fire  prevention,  but  expensive).  But  unquestionably 
the  fire  prevention  and  fighting  practice  in  the  United  States  is  on  a 
greater  scale  and  is  farther  advanced  than  in  Europe;  consequently  the 
opportunity  for  developing  forest-fire  technique  has  been  larger.  Per- 
haps the  greatest  lesson  to  be  derived  from  the  intensive  protection  in 
France  is  that  with  dense  and  inflammable  brush  under  a  pine  high  forest 
no  measures  are  reasonably  certain  unless  the  underbrush  is  kept  cleared. ^^ 
Even  intensive  fire  lines  will  not  prevent  or  stop  dangerous  fires  if  there 
is  underbrush  and  high  winds  during  a  drought.  In  France  the  protec- 
tive measures  against  birds,  mammals,  fungous  diseases,  dangers  following 
windfall,  or  snow  damage  have  not  been  so  intensively  developed  as  in 
other   European   countries.     There   are   three   main   reasons   for   this. 

16  Jolyet,  pp.  581-586. 

IS  See  also  French  Forests  and  Forestry,  T.  S.  Woolsey,  Jr.,  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc., 
for  conclusions  in  Algerian  and  Tunisian  fire  protection. 


THE   FOREST  AND   SPRINGS  373 

it  is  there  that  nearly  all  springs  are  concentrated.  Forests  existing  on  mountains, 
notably  on  those  whose  aspect  is  perpendicular  to  those  of  moist  winds,  cause  the  pre- 
cipitation of  the  greatest  quantity  of  aqueous  vapor  which  they  contain.  It  is  enough 
to  cast  a  glance  at  a  hydrographic  map  to  be  convinced  of  this  fact.  Bare,  denuded 
mountains  have  only  a  very  feeble  action  in  this  respect;  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Adriatic  as  well  as  on  a  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  are  renowned  for  their  dry- 
ness, show  this  in  a  very  striking  manner.  Deprived  of  forests,  these  mountains  lack 
the  means  of  coohng  the  air  and  drawing  to  themselves  in  consequence  the  vaporous 
precipitations  it  contains.  The  denuded  soil,  which  the  sun  penetrates  with  intense 
heat  on  those  parts  exposed  to  the  west  and  the  southwest,  does  not  certainly  possess 
this  property." 

"A  second  distinction  consists  in  the  enormous  diminution  in  the  proportion  of 
surface  flow  on  wooded  mountains,  compared  with  the  same  slopes  when  they  are 
denuded.  .  .  .  The  water,  instead  of  precipitating  itself  into  the  thalweg  and  caus- 
ing thereby  sudden  and  dangerous  inundations,  penetrates  slowly  through  the  covering 
and  into  the  soil  which  it  soaks  to  a  great  depth.  Therefore  it  is  unquestionable,  and 
we  believe  an  uncontested  fact,  that  mountain  forests  are  favorable  generally  to  the 
production  of  springs." 

There  is  a  stronger  reason  stiU  for  this  being  the  case  when  mountain  forests  grow 
in  a  hot  climate  where  physical  evaporation  is  considerable. 

The  Influence  of  Forests  on  the  Infiltration  of  Waters  in  the  Plains.  —  The 
influence  of  the  surface  flow  is  complete  in  the  case  of  forests  in  the  plains.  There 
the  feeding  of  the  subterranean  sheet  will  depend  only  on  physiological  evaporation 
and  on  the  permeability  of  the  soil.  Let  us  first  examine  the  action  of  forests  on  this 
permeability  of  the  soil. 

Forest  soil  in  good  condition  is  naturally  light.  The  roots  of  trees  penetrate  deeply 
into  it,  sometimes  to  a  depth  of  10  and  13  feet  and  more;  in  swelling  out  they  produce 
the  effect  of  wedges  which  divide  the  soil  mechanically.  When  the  trees  have  been 
felled  the  roots  decompose  and  their  place  is  taken  by  a  network  of  channels  filled  with 
hygroscopic  matter,  which  directly  conducts  the  water  to  considerable  depth.  Along 
the  roots  of  trees  under  foot,  especially  near  the  stem  between  the  soil  and  the  bark, 
there  exist  empty  spaces  which  are  caused  by  the  swaying  of  the  tree  when  shaken  by 
the  wind;  rain  water,  which  has  run  along  the  stem,  arrives  directly,  one  might  say 
instantaneously,  by  means  of  these  at  the  soU.  Lastly,  forest  vegetation  is  favorable 
to  the  division  of  the  soil  through  the  action  of  earthworms. 

In  winter,  the  temperature  of  the  forest  soil  is  appreciably  higher  than  that  of  the 
open  ground.  It  often  results  from  this  that  during  the  cold  season  the  rainfall  or 
melting  snow  acts  upon  a  frozen  surface,  which  has  become  impenetrable  at  the  surface,  in 
such  a  manner  that  all  the  water  disappears  in  surface  flow.  In  the  forest,  the  soil  which 
is  less  cold  need  not  necessarily  be  frozen,  and  can  therefore  absorb  the  fallen  water. 

According  to  all  the  evidence  collected,  physical  evaporation  of  the  water  of  the  soil 
is  less  under  trees  than  on  an  agricultural  soil.  The  forest  covers  the  ground  with  a 
double  protective  screen;  first  the  covering  of  dead  leaves,  an  eminently  hygroscopic 
substance,  and  in  consequence  always  cool,  which,  superimposed  immediately  on  the 
ground,  opposes  evaporation  with  great  energy.  Higher  up,  the  crown,  often  very  dense, 
offers  its  maximum  density  in  summer,  at  a  period  when  evaporation  is  greatest.  The 
temperature  of  the  air  is  also  lower  under  the  trees  than  outside,  especially  in  summer. 
This  forms  a  powerful  impediment  to  evaporation.  The  lowest  temperature  of  the 
forest  soil  in  summer  acts  again  in  the  same  way. 

Finally,  evaporation  is  much  favored  in  a  flat  country  by  the  wind,  which  is  con- 
tinually renewing  the  strata  of  the  air,  saturated  by  direct  contact  with  the  soil. 


374  APPENDIX 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  measiire  the  comparative  importance  of  evaporation 
beneath  the  trees  and  outside  of  them  by  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  hquid  lost  from 
receptacles  full  of  water  placed  under  cover  and  in  the  open  fields.  Under  these  condi- 
tions two  to  five  times,  in  certain  cases  eight  times,  but  on  an  average  three  times, 
more  water  is  evaporated  in  the  open  country  than  under  the  trees.  But  these  experi- 
ments are  of  Uttle  value  even  when  the  receptacles  of  water  are  replaced  by  impene- 
trable chests  full  of  earth;  the  conditions  under  which  the  experiments  are  made  being 
too  far  removed  from  natural  conditions. '^ 

It  remains  for  us  now  to  compare  the  forest  with  land  under  cultivation  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  quantity  of  water  drawn  off  from  the  soil  by  the  vegetation. 

To  tell  the  truth,  we  are  absolutely  ignorant  of  the  quantity  of  water  necessary  to 
the  production  of  agricultural  or  forest  crops.  One  observer,  Wollny,^^  undertook  in 
1879  and  1880  direct  measurements  of  the  quantities  of  water  consumed  by  various 
plants  (barley,  oats,  red  clover,  grass,  rye,  etc.)  which  he  had  sown  in  especially  pre- 
pared boxes  without  drainage.  At  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  he  had  ascertained 
the  quantity  of  water  contained  in  the  soil  of  the  boxes;  by  adding  to  this  the  same 
quantity  of  water  as  would  be  furnished  under  natural  conditions  lasting  over  a  similar 
period  of  time,  either  by  rain  or  by  dew,  and  by  removing  from  the  bottom  of  the  boxes 
all  that  filtered  through  the  earth,  and  which  he  carefully  collected,  the  amount  of 
water  consumed  was  obtained.  In  reality  the  quantities  measured  are  superior  to 
this  consumption  for  they  include,  in  addition,  that  which  has  been  lost  by  evaporation 
from  the  soil,  or  by  evaporation  of  the  water  remaining  adherent  to  leaves  and  stalks. 
The  experiments  of  WoUny  were  extended  over  105  to  155  days  of  the  season  of  growth. 

The  consumption  of  water  was  on  an  average  38  million  pounds  to  the  acre,  the  maxi- 
mum figure  being  furnished  by  the  clover  which  reached  47  miUion.  These  figures 
represent  an  average  consumption  per  acre  per  day  during  the  growing  season  of  about 
18  to  19  cubic  yards. 

In  1870  and  1871  an  older  writer,  Risler,^^  discovered  that  the  average  daily  con- 
sumption per  acre  during  the  season  of  growth  was  27  cubic  yards  for  Luzern  and 
fields  generally,  23  for  oats,  12  for  rye,  etc.,  and  on  an  average  17  for  cultivated  vege- 
tables, while  it  would  only  be  4.2  cubic  yards  for  the  fir  tree  and  3.1[for  the  oak.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  we  have  no  means  of  judging  of  the  value  of  these  figures, 
as  we  do  not  know  how  they  were  obtained. 

M.  Ney,  by  combining  the  figures  of  WoUny  and  of  Risler,  calculates  ^^  that  field 
vegetables  in  general  consume  2,093  cubic  yards  of  water  per  acre  during  the  growing 
season. 

An  Austrian  experimenter,  V.  Hohnel,  has  directly  measured  the  quantity  of  aqueous 
vapor  emitted  by  the  leaves  of  different  trees  from  June  1  to  October  1.  During  that 
period  he  found  that  the  leaves  of  the  several  species  emitted  the  following  percentages 
of  their  own  weight  in  aqueous  vapor:  Birch,  68  per  cent;  ash,  57;  hornbeam,  56;  beech, 
47;  oak,  28;  spruce  pine,  6;  Scotch  pine,  6;  fir  tree,  3. 

With  these  data  for  basis,  M.  Ney  ^^  calculates  that  the  consumption  of  water  per 

32  For  the  French  experiments  see  M.  de  Bouville,  op.  cit.,  pp.  25  et  seq.  For  those 
carried  out  in  Switzerland  consult  the  "  Mitteilungen"  of  the  Research  Station  of  Zurich. 
For  the  German  observations  see  the  official  accounts  published  by  M.  Muttrich  on  the 
work  of  the  Research  Stations;  a  resume  of  the  results  is  to  be  found  reproduced  by 
M.  Welaer  in  the  "  Encyclopedie  Forestiere  de  Lorey." 

^^  "Forschungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Agricultur  —  Physik,  Vol.  XII,  p.  27. 

^*  The  experiments  of  Risler  are  only  known  by  the  quotations  made  by  Wollny  in 
the  work  mentioned  previously,  and  we  are  ignorant  of  the  methods  pursued  by  this 
experimenter. 

25  "Der  Wald  und  die  Quellen,"  p.  74. 

36  Op.  cit.,  p.  75. 


THE  FOREST   AND   SPRINGS  375 

acre  during  the  season  of  growth  would  be  24,112,000  pounds  for  beech  (5.6  yards 
per  diem);  18,568,000  pounds  for  spruce  pine  (47  yards  per  diem);  6,424,000  pounds 
for  Scotch  pine  (1.6  yards  per  diem). 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  these  quantities  do  not  include  the  water  incorporated  in 
the  tissues  of  the  trees  for  the  purposes  of  their  growth,  but  only  that  emitted  by  evapora- 
tion from  leaves." 

Other  figures  have  been  published  by  Th.  Hartig,  V.  Hohnel  and  WoUny;  they  differ 
sometimes  so  much  from  those  quoted  above  that  one  is  necessarily  very  sceptical  as  to 
the  value  of  the  results  obtained.  As  M.  Henry  remarks  very  justly:  ^s  "If  it  is  easy 
to  determine,  by  means  of  weighing,  the  evaporation  on  a  sapHng  in  a  pot,  or  of  a  square 
of  young  forest  trees,  of  grass  or  corn;  if  one  can  calculate,  strictly  speaking,  according 
to  those  results,  without  fear  of  too  great  discrepancies  the  evaporation  on  an  acre 
covered  with  grass,  with  corn,  or  young  forest  trees  of  equal  height, ^^  it  is  far  too  rash 
to  apply  the  results  obtained  by  experiments  on  an  isolated  sapling  grown  in  a 
pot  to  a  forest  comprising  many  tangled  and  superimposed  stages  of  growth,  whose 
leaves  giving  more  or  less  shade  are  doing  their  work  with  different  degrees  of 
intensity." 

In  the  present  condition  of  science  it  is  not  therefore  possible  to  determine  by  con- 
trast in  a  sufficiently  precise  manner  the  difference  between  the  volume  of  water  under 
the  trees  and  in  the  open  which  goes  to  feed  the  subterranean  sheets. 

In  view  of  the  great  interest  this  question  presents,  and  of  the  diversity  of  opinions 
on  the  subject,  the  greatest  efforts  have  been  made  in  an  indirect  manner  to  arrive  at  a 
clear  idea  of  the  action  of  clumps  of  trees  on  the  feeding  of  the  subterranean  sheet. 

A  primary  series  of  researches  has  been  undertaken  with  a  view  to  determine  com- 
paratively the  quantity  of  water  which  filters  through  a  stratum  of  earth  enclosed  in 
a  box  without  drainage,  its  surface  being  covered  with  different  kinds  of  plants. 

It  has  proved  that  the  bare  earth  allows  more  water  to  pass  than  that  which  is 
covered  with  vegetation,  dead  leaves,  moss,  etc.  This  is  almost  the  only  definite  result 
obtained,  and  even  this  is  controvertible.  We  do  not  lay  much  stress  on  these  experi- 
ments which,  it  would  seem,  can  give  us  no  definite  information  as  to  what  occurs  under 
natural  conditions.'*'' 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  measure  directly  the  quantity  of  water  contained  in  the 
soil  under  the  trees  and  in  the  open  at  different  depths. 

Experiments  undertaken  in  Germany  ^^  and  in  Russia  have  brought  to  hght  the 
following  facts  which  appear  to  be  properly  estabhshed : 

The  humidity  of  forest  soil  is  very  great  at  the  surface,  but  diminishes  rapidly  to  a 
depth  varying  in  degree  which  does  not  go  beyond  31.5  inches  under  plantations  of 
spruce  pine,  according  to  Ebermayer,  and  which  reaches  a  depth  of  10  or  13  feet, 
according  to  Russian  experiments.  Below  this  level  the  amount  of  water  keeps  on 
increasing  with  the  depth.     There  exists  in  the  ground,  therefore,  a  dry  zone  more  or 

^'  The  quantity  of  water  remaining  annually  in  the  tissues  of  trees  may  be  estimated 
at  2,640  pounds  per  acre. 

3s  "Annales  de  la  Science  Agronomique,"  2nd  Series,  4th  year,  1898,  pp.  20  et  seq. 

3s  It  is  doubtful  if  even  this  is  admissible. 

*"  For  the  measurements  made  in  Switzerland  see  Bulletin  IV  of  the  "Mitteilungen" 
of  the  Research  Station  of  Zurich;  for  the  Bavarian  works,  see  the  various  pubhcations 
of  M.  Ebermayer,  etc. 

"  "Einfluss  des  Waldes,"  etc.,  an  article  by  M.  Ebermayer  which  appeared  in  the 
January  1888  number  of  the  "Allgemeine  Forst  und  Jagd  Zeitung."  A  good  trans- 
lation has  been  published  by  M.  Reuss  in  the  first  volume  of  the  "Annales  de  la  Science 
Agronomique,"  1889.  A  complete  resume  of  all  the  works  published  up  till  then  is 
inserted  in  the  account  of  the  "Congres  International  de  Sylviculture  a  Paris  en  1900," 
pp.  328  et  seq.  (Communication  by^M.  Henry  to  this  Congress). 


376  APPENDIX 

less  thick  and  more  or  less  deep,  lying  between  the  humid  region  of  the  surface  and 
the  humid  region  below. 

One  sees  there,  in  a  very  clear  fashion,  the  influence  of  the  absorption  of  water  by 
roots  of  plants  in  the  region  where  they  are  active,  or  in  that  immediately  below  where 
the  water  can  raise  itself  by  capillary  action  after  drying  up  the  superior  stratum.^^ 
This  is  a  general  fact  for  all  ground  covered  with  living  plants;  they  present  a  dry 
stratum  more  or  less  removed  from  the  surface,  according  to  the  depth  of  the  root 
system  of  vegetation  above.  This  depth  being  greater  in  the  case  of  forest  vegetation 
than  in  others,  it  is  clearly  to  be  seen  that  at  a  similar  level,  within  certain  limits,  the 
soil  of  the  forest  will  be  poorer  in  water  than  an  agricultural  soil.^^  It  has  been  con- 
cluded from  this  that  the  forest  absorbed  more  water  by  its  vegetation  than  other 
species  of  culture,  and  thus  was  harmful  to  the  feeding  of  phreatic  sheets  of  water. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  no  evident  and  necessary  connection  between  the 
humidity  of  the  soil  in  its  superficial  parts  and  the  alimentation  of  the  subterranean 
sheet.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  latter  depends  not  so  much  on  the  degree  of 
dampness  of  the  soil  as  upon  its  permeability.  A  stratum  of  coarse  sand  will  allow 
rain  water  to  filter  through  rapidly,  while  a  fine  clay  will  keep  it  stagnant  at  the  sur- 
face and  give  it  over  to  evaporation.  And,  nevertheless,  the  sand  will  be  dry,  while 
the  clay  will  always  contain  a  quantity  of  hygroscopic  water. 

An  extremely  interesting  fact,  which  will  perhaps  throw  some  light  on  the  relation 
of  the  wooded  condition  of  the  surface  with  the  feeding  of  phreatic  waters,  has  been 
quite  recently  brought  forward.  We  think  we  ought  to  dwell  on  this  with  some  detail, 
borrowing  what  follows  from  the  last  publications  of  our  learned  colleague,  M.  Henry .^'' 

The  Imperial  Free  Economic  Society  of  St.  Petersburg  undertook  a  series  of  re- 
searches into  subterranean  hydrology  in  the  forests  of  the  steppes  of  Russia,  the  director- 
ship of  which  was  confided  to  M.  Ototzky,  curator  of  the  Mineralogical  Museum  at 
St.  Petersburg. 

From  borings  effected  in  the  forest  of  Chipoff  (province  of  Voronez)  and  in  the  Black 

^  The  depth  of  the  system  of  our  large  tree  species  is  much  greater  than  has  been 
generally  supposed.  The  tempest  of  February  1,  1902,  having  torn  up  by  their  roots 
a  multitude  of  fir  trees  of  all  ages  in  the  Vosges,  we  took  advantage  of  this  opportunity 
to  ascertain  the  depth  to  which  the  roots,  thus  rendered  visible,  had  penetrated  the 
Vosges  sandstone  formation.  It  varied  from  5  to  11.5  feet.  If  one  takes  into  account 
that  the  extremities  of  the  roots  were  still  remaining  in  the  soil,  one  can  realize  that 
these  trees  were  deriving  nourishment  from  a  stratum  which  must  extend  to  a  depth  of 
13  and  perhaps  of  16  feet. 

^3  These  researches  of  a  very  delicate  nature  only  meet  with  reliable  results  when 
they  are  conducted  simultaneously  for  a  very  long  period  of  time  under  the  trees  and 
in  the  open.  If  one  observes  the  soil  after  heavy  rain  one  sees  it  saturated  at  the  surface 
to  a  greater  or  lesser  depth.  The  rain  having  ceased,  the  free  surface  water  sinks 
down  gradually  into  the  soil  under  the  action  of  its  weight,  saturating  always  a  deeper 
and  deeper  zone,  above  which  the  ground  has  become  dry,  until  it  comes  in  contact 
with  the  phreatic  sheet  of  water  of  which  it  raises  the  level.  It  is  conceivable  that 
very  varying  amounts  of  water  in  the  soil,  at  one  particular  season  and  depth,  have  to 
be  accounted  for,  according  to  the  proximity  and  abundance  of  the  latest  rainfall, 
that  is  to  say,  according  to  fortuitous  circumstances  which,  up  till  now,  observers 
do  not  seem  to  have  taken  into  account. 

^  M.  E.  Henry,  professor  of  the  "Ecole  Nationale  des  Eaux  et  Forets,"  was  the  first 
to  draw  attention  to  the  Russian  borings,  the  results  of  which,  up  till  then,  had  been 
unnoticed  both  in  France  and  Germany.  He  gave  an  account  of  these  in  a  series  of 
articles,  one  after  the  other,  from  1897  and  February,  1898  (Annales  de  la  Science 
Agronomique),  until  1903.  In  his  article  of  1903  M.  Henry  narrates  for  the  first  time 
the  complete  result  of  his  own  researches  undertaken  in  the  forest  of  Moudon.  The 
few  pages  which  M.  Ebermayer  devotes  to  the  subject  in  his  publication  dated  1900 
(Einfluss  der  Walder  auf  das  Gumdwasser)  only  reproduce,  almost  word  for  word, 
M.  Henry's  report  of  1898. 


THE   FOREST  AND   SPRINGS  377 

Forest  (province  of  Cherson),  M.  Ototzky  was  led,  since  1897,  to  formulate  this  theory, 
that,  all  physico-geographical  conditions  being  equal,  the  level  of  phreatic  waters  in  the 
forests  of  the  region  of  the  steppes  is  lower  than  in  neighboring  open  spaces.  In  support 
of  these  unexpected  conclusions  M.  Ototzky  published  the  results  of  a  series  of  sound- 
ings, of  which  some  it  is  true  are  open  to  objection  as  proof  positive  of  his  theories. ^^ 

In  1897  M.  Ototzky  was  directed  by  the  Imperial  Society  to  undertake  some  new 
researches,  but  this  time  in  the  Province  of  St.  Petersburg  at  60°  north  latitude  in  a 
region  whose  rainfall  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  steppes,  where  he  had  worked  in 
1895  (23.6  inches  annual  rainfall  instead  of  11.8). 

He  proved  again  that,  under  the  forests  where  observations  were  made,  the  phreatic 
sheet  is  depressed  compared  with  what  it  is  n  neighboring  cultivated  regions.  The 
difference  of  levels  is  rather  shght,  and  varied  from  19.7  to  44.5  inches. 

On  July  1,  1899,  M.  Henry,  professor  at  the  "Ecole  Nationale  des  Eaux  et  Forets," 
at  his  own  request,  was  authorized  to  undertake  at  the  expense  of  the  "Administration 
des  Eaux  et  Forets"  some  soundings,  with  a  view  to  verifying  and  completing  the  data 
furnished  by  the  Russian  experimenter. 

The  forest  of  Moudon  near  Luneville  (Aleurthe-et- Moselle)  was  chosen  for  these  re- 
searches. It  forms  a  large  mass  of  woodland  about  4,942  acres  in  extent  (the  altitude 
varies  from  807  to  873  feet).  The  soil  is  composed  of  strata  of  sand,  gravel,  and  flint, 
originating  from  the  ancient  alluvial  beds  of  the  Meurthe  and  the  Vezouse,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  which  rivers  the  forest  is  situated.  The  water-bearing  strata  are  met  at  a 
slight  depth,  their  upper  level  being  given  at  depth  of  about  6.5  to  16.4  feet.  A  little 
lower,  about  23  feet  or  more,  one  finds  an  impermeable  clay  against  which  the  infiltra- 
tions are  arrested.  These  different  strata,  and  especially  the  last  named,  appear  to  be 
horizontal. 

The  rainfall  in  the  forest  was  28  inches  in  1900  and  35  in  1901.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  9°  4  C.  (49°  F.)  with  an  average  of  +  1°  43  C.  (345  F.)  in  winter  and  17° 
70  C.  (64°  F.)  in  summer. 

The  forest  is  composed  of  oak,  beech,  and  hornbeam ;  it  has  been  planted  with  storied 
coppice  in  a  rotation  of  35  years  in  the  greater  part  of  its  extent.  Some  small  parts  are 
to  be  found  covered  with  Scotch  pine,  the  result  of  the  replanting  of  ancient  gaps  in 
the  forest. 

In  the  spring  of  1900  ten  holes  of  2  inches  in  diameter  were  drilled  by  the  aid  of  the 
Belgian  geological  borer,  and  these  holes  were  lined  with  zinc  tubes  which  had  been 
pierced  with  small  apertures  and  furnished  at  their  lower  end  with  a  similarly  perforated 
cone.  Thus  the  earth  was  prevented  from  falling  in  and  filling  up  the  bottom  of  the  well. 
The  numerous  small  apertures  in  the  metal  allowed  the  water  easily  to  find  its  own  level. 

Five  holes  were  bored  in  bare  ground  in  parcels  of  ground  which  had  been  cleared  for 
the  use  of  the  forest  guardians,  in  the  nursery  gardens,  and  in  the  communal  pasturage,  but 
always  on  the  borders  of  the  forest,  the  farthest  removed  being  about  a  hundred  meters. 
Five  others,  destined  to  be  compared  with  the  preceding  five,  were  made  under  the  neigh- 
boring woodlands,  as  nearly  approaching  the  same  conditions  as  it  was  possible  to  give. 

«  Evidently  it  is  well  to  operate  only  in  ground  which  lies  horizontally  at  the  surface, 
and  which  is  of  a  homogeneous  character  to  a  great  depth,  so  as  to  avoid  the  influence 
of  an  uneven  surface,  and  that  of  the  undulations  of  the  upper  levels  of  deep  impermeable 
strata,  whose  projection  may  be  very  different  from  that  of  the  surface.  In  stratified 
ground,  with  strata  alternately  more  or  less  permeable,  the  course  of  the  subterranean 
waters  depends  solely  on  the  way  these  strata  run,  and  can  give  us  no  notion  of  the 
influence  of  the  superficial  vegetation.  Unfortunately  the  ground  in  which  M.  Ototzky 
first  undertook  his  experiments  appears  to  have  been  far  from  homogeneous,  since  he 
found  there  in  less  than  16  feet  of  depth,  three  different  well-defined  spring  levels. 
Moreover  the  projection  of  the  soil  seems  to  have  been  taken  very  httle  into  account, 
notably  in  No.  3  boring  in  the  forest  of  Chipoff. 


378  APPENDIX 

There  were,  therefore,  five  pairs  of  borings. 

Observations  were  made  once  a  month  from  May  4,  1900,  to  August  24,  1902. 

The  levehng  was  done  by  the  pupils  of  the  "Ecole  Forestiere"  in  May,  1900,  and  May, 
1901,  in  taking  for  the  initial  point  the  altitude  of  the  Station  of  Marainvilhers  which  is 
about  790.1  feet. 

One  will  find  in  the  following  table  (page  379)  all  the  measurements  taken  at  Moudon; 
none  have  been  omitted  (abridged  in  translation) . 

We  have  been  obliged,  however,  to  omit  the  report  of  one  of  the  five  pairs,  of  which 
one  bore  was  made  in  the  fields  of  the  farm  of  St.  George  and  the  other  in  the  neighbor- 
ing coppice  (third  cutting  in  the  third  series  of  coppices)  because  the  bore  made  in  the 
field  was  destroyed  by  the  plow  in  March,  1901. 

The  figures  of  the  table  (page  379)  give  the  immediate  results  of  the  measurements 
effected,  without  taking  into  account  the  difference  in  the  altitude  of  the  orifices  of 
the  borings. 

If  all  the  measurements  are  reduced  to  the  same  horizontal  level,  one  finds  that 
the  level  of  the  water  under  the  forest  at  all  seasons  is  lower  than  that  under  bare  ground: 
By  11.8  inches  for  the  first  couple,  7.9  for  the  second  couple,  16.5  for  the  third  couple, 
12.2  for  the  fourth  couple. 

It  is  certain  that  the  difference  of  level  is  more  accentuated  than  these  figures  would 
indicate,  since  one  knows  that  in  permealjle  soils  the  phreatic  sheet  follows  the  varia- 
tions of  the  outline  relief  of  the  stratum,  although  with  far  less  pronounced  undulations. 

But  let  us  accept  the  preceding  figures  as  unquestionable  minima  whose  average  is 
11.8  inches. 

We  can  affirm  that,  according  to  the  measurements  effected  each  month  from  May  4, 
1900,  to  August  24,  1902,  in  eight  borings  made  at  random,  sometimes  under  the  wood- 
lands, sometimes  under  the  bare  ground  near  the  forest  of  Moudon  (Meurthe-et-Moselle) 
the  level  of  subterranean  waters  at  all  seasons  is  at  least  11.8  inches  deeper  under  the 
woods  than  it  is  outside. 

The  experiments  of  M.  Henry,  carried  out  regularly  for  a  period  of  28  months  have 
further  brought  to  light  the  following  facts,  which  are  absolutely  new. 

The  oscillations  in  the  level  of  phreatic  waters  is  less  under  the  woods  than  in  the 
open.  The  infiltration,  too,  is  slower  in  the  forest.  The  maxima  and  minima  occur 
about  a  month  later  than  those  observed  outside  of  the  woods. 

One  sees  here  that  the  forest  plays  the  same  role  of  regulator  and  stabihzer  which  one 
recognizes  it  to  do  with  regard  to  the  temperature. 

Some  experiments  made  quite  recently  by  M.  Ototzky,  an  account  of  which  has  been 
pubhshed  in  Russian  in  the  fourth  number  of  1902  of  the  Magazine  "La  Pedologie," 
and  of  which  a  French  translation  by  M.  A.  de  Lebedef,  attache  of  the  "Ministere  de 
LTnterieur  "  at  St.  Petersburg,  is  in  the  press  has  still  further  confirmed  these  facts. 

M.  Ototzky's  experiments  were  made  at  the  "  ficole  forestiere"  of  Staraia  Rossa 
(province  of  Novgorod)  at  58°  N.  latitude,  near  to  the  Lake  of  Ihnen.  "  One  is  obliged 
to  conclude,"  says  M.  Ototzky  at  the  end  of  his  article,  "that  the  level  of  subterranean 
water  is  lower  in  the  forest  than  in  the  stratum  exploited,  in  summer  as  well  as  in  winter, 
and  also  that  the  oscillations  are  less  }^ 

To  sum  up,  we  seem  to  have  gained  the  information  that  in  the  forests  of 
the  plains  in  temperate  or  cold    climates,"  whose  soil  is   formed  of   homogeneous 

^^  Quotation  borrowed  from  M.  Henry  (Revue  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  1903,  p.  197). 

^^  In  the  tropical  region  of  the  globe  where  the  heat  is  torrid,  it  is  physical  evaporation 
from  the  soil  which  plays  the  preponderating  part,  while  physiological  evaporation  does 
not  increase  with  the  temperature.  It  may  be,  therefore,  that  in  this  case  the  level  of 
the  subterranean  waters  is  even  higher  in  the  forest.  M.  Ribbentrop  has  vouched  for 
this  fact  near  Madras  (Revue  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  1901). 


THE  FOREST  AND   SPRINGS 


379 


DEPTH  OF  THE  SUBSOIL  WATER  (IN  FEET)  IN  THE  FOUR  COUPLES  OF 
BORINGS  IN  THE  STATE  FOREST  OF  MOUDON.* 


ground 


Old 
coppice 


Bare 

nursery 

site 


Old 
coppice 


Bare 
ground 


Old 
coppice 


Bare 
pasture 


Scotch 
pine 


Altitude  of  station,  in  feet 

Average  depth  of  water  level, 
in  feet 

Average  depth  of  water  level 
corrected  for  altitude,  in 
feet 

Difference,  in  feet 

Maximum  monthly  varia- 
tions, in  feet 


802.42 
12.11 


845.37 
9.25 


849,31 
14.57 


14.57 
+  1.38 


811.87 


8.10 
+1.01 


*  Totals  and  averages  only  are  given  in  translation,  condensed  and  rearranged  from 
results  of  field  work  extending  over  28  months,  May  4,  1900,  to  August  24,  1902.  See 
page  22  for  a  confirmation  of  these  conclusions. 

strata  lying  horizontally  and  in  which   in   consequence   the    subterranean  sheet    is 
motionless : 

(1)  The  level  of  phreatic  waters  is  lower  under  the  forest  at  aU  seasons,  than  outside 
of  it. 

(2)  The  depression  appears  greater  in  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  less,  than  where  it 
rains  a  great  deal. 

(3)  The  oscillations  in  the  level  are  considerably  reduced  and  lessened  by  the  presence 
of  the  forest. 

Returning  now  to  our  subject,  can  we  conclude  from  the  foregoing  that  forests  are 
injurious  to  the  feeding  of  the  subterranean  sheet  of  water  on  level  ground  in  temperate 
climates? 

This  certainly  seems  probable.  The  intensity  of  physiological  evaporation  may  be 
the  explanation  of  this  curious  lowering  of  the  subterranean  sheet  under  the  woods. 
This  will  be  the  lower,  that  is  to  say,  the  less  thick  (admitting  that  the  impermeable 
stratum  by  which  the  infiltrated  waters  are  arrested,  is  horizontal),  because  the  forest 
abstracts  more  water  from  infiltration  in  its  growth  than  does  the  neighboring 
ground. 

Nevertheless,  there  is  one  thing  which  may  cause  us  to  doubt  the  truth  of  these  con- 
clusions. A  careful  examination  of  Table  6  shows  us  that  the  depression  of  the  sheet 
beneath  the  forest  is  more  marked  during  the  season  of  repose  in  vegetation  than  during 
the  summer.  This  fact  is  verified  in  the  case  of  all  the  couples  of  borings,  and  for  the 
whole  length  of  time  during  which  observations  were  made.  One  might  conclude  from 
this  that  it  is  not  the  vegetation  of  the  trees  that  causes  the  lowering  of  level. 

Are  we  here  perhaps  in  the  presence  of  a  fresh  consequence  of  this  fact  that,  under 
the  forest,  the  region  drained  of  water  by  roots,  the  dry  zone  in  fact  reaches  to  a  lower 
level  than  under  cultivated  ground? 

However  this  may  be,  if  the  fact  of  the  lowering  of  the  level  of  subterranean  waters 
under  the  woods  appears  certain,  its  interpretation  is  less  so,  and  we  are  left  in  doubt 
as  to  the  definite  influence,  all  things  taken  into  consideration  of  the  woods  upon  the 
feeding  of  springs  in  level  ground. 

This  first  study  was  in  the  press  when  we  received  notice  (March,  1904)  of  the  official 


380  APPENDIX 

account  of  the  fourth  congress  of  the  International  Association  of  the  "Stations  de 
Recherches  Forestieres,"  which  assembled  in  Austria  in  September,  1903.^8 

At  this  congress,  M.  Hartmann,  an  engineer  of  the  Bavarian  State,  gave  an  account 
of  the  results  of  researches  undertaken  in  collaboration  with  the  Forest  Service  by  the 
Royal  Hydrotechnical  Service  with  a  view  to  the  comparative  study  of  the  oscillations 
of  the  level  of  the  subterranean  water  in  wooded  ground  or  in  the  open. 

Observations  were  taken  at  two  points.  The  first,  Mindelheim,  at  a  height  of  2,014 
feet,  is  situated  on  almost  perfectly  horizontal  ground  at  the  surface  (inclination  six  per 
thousand)  composed  of  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Mindel,  a  direct  tributary  of  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube. 

The  forest  is  situated  in  a  small  piece  of  isolated  ground  composed  of  about  988  acres 
in  the  midst  of  landed  estates,  and  is  composed  of  oak,  Scotch,  and  spruce  pines,  of  about 
9  years  of  age.     The  other  station,  Wendelstein,  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  Niirnberg. 

M.  Hartmann  thinks  it  can  be  concluded  from  his  statements  «  that  the  forest  exerts 
no  influence  on  the  level  of  the  subterranean  sheet.  The  latter  is  generally  not  stagnant 
(as  has  been  known  for  a  long  time)  but  takes  a  more  or  less  rapid  course  according  to 
the  inclination  of  the  surface  of  the  subsoil,  the  thickness  of  the  subterranean  sheet  in 
motion,  and  the  degree  of  permeability  of  the  soil  in  which  it  moves.  The  considerable 
differences  in  the  level  of  subterranean  waters  observed  in  Bavaria  at  points  contiguous 
to  a  horizontal  and  homogeneous  soil  at  the  surface,  can  only  be  explained  by  the  varia- 
tion in  the  projection  of  the  subsoil  stratum,  and  by  the  very  variable  depth  and  celerity 
of  the  subterranean  sheet. 

At  Mindelheim,  in  fact,  the  subterranean  sheet  is  nearer  the  surface  under  the  woods 
than  in  the  open.  M.  Hartmann  thinks  that  the  forest  counts  for  nothing,  and  that  the 
reverse  might  just  as  equally  hold  good. 

Conclusions.  —  In  the  course  of  this  long  study  on  the  influence  of  forests  on  the 
feeding  of  springs,  we  have  particularly  insisted  on  certain  points  which,  recently 
brought  to  light,  have  hitherto  only  been  dealt  with  in  original  memoranda,  and  are 
therefore  inaccessibleto  the  greater  number  of  readers. 

This  chapter,  now  that  its  end  has  been  reached,  leads  to  one  conclusion. 

(1)  We  have  seen  that  the  forest  has  the  effect  of  increasing  the  abundance  and  the 
frequency  of  atmospheric  precipitations. 

This  action  of  the  forest,  proved  by  many  experiments  in  France  and  abroad  during 
30  years,  must  be  regarded  as  a  well  established  fact,  although  certain  authors,  without 
absolutely  denying  it,  have  declared  it  negligible,  or  else  of  so  slight  a  nature  as  not  to 
be  ascertained  by  ordinary  rain  gauges,  since  these  instruments  are  lacking  in  absolute 
accuracy. 

The  increase  of  water  which  the  forest  obtains,  amounts  to  23  per  cent  in  an  average 
of  33  years  of  observations  taken  at  the  "Station  de  Recherches"  of  Nancy.  It  seems 
however  to  increase  with  the  altitude  of  the  place  where  the  forests  are  situated. 

(2)  The  forest  retains  a  part  of  the  fallen  water  by  its  adherence  to  the  crowns  and 
branches  and  this  returns  to  the  atmosphere  by  direct  evaporation.  On  the  other  hand 
these  same  crowns  and  branches  are  always  colder,  and  often  to  a  very  considerable 

^^Vierte  Versammlung  des  internationalen  Verbandes  forstlicher  Versuchsanstaten, 
1903.     Mariabrun,  1904  (published  by  the  "Station  de  recherches  autrichienne"). 

^s  It  seems  to  us  that  the  conclusions  of  the  Bavarian  engineer  are  somewhat  lacking 
in  precision,  at  least  in  the  text  we  have  before  our  eyes.  One  might  conclude,  it  would 
seem,  especially  from  the  accounts  given  by  himself,  that  the  two  points  chosen  for  the 
experiments  were  not  at  all  suitable  for  the  purpose,  the  subterranean  sheet  being  far 
from  immovable,  and  the  subsoil  not  horizontal.  In  any  case,  we  find  nothing  here  of  a 
nature  to  invalidate  the  very  clear  and  well  balanced  results  of  the  measurements  taken 
at  Moudon,  as  given  us  by  M.  Henry. 


PHYSICAL,   ECONOMIC,   AND   SOCIAL  381 

degree  colder,  than  the  surrounding  air,  and  sometimes  are  the  means  of  condensing 
enormous  quantities  of  aqueous  vapor,  which  they  introduce  to  the  soil  in  a  liquid 
state.  Moreover,  it  is  not  uncommon,  especially  in  winter  time,  to  see  the  soil  which  is 
immediately  shaded  by  a  tree,  receive  more  water  than  a  neighboring  point  in  the  forest 
where  there  is  a  gap  in  the  shade.  For  the  rest  it  would  seem  that  the  loss  of  water  aris- 
ing from  its  retention  by  the  crowns  is  inferior  to  the  increase  of  water  obtained  by  the 
presence  of  the  forest  itself.  This  fact  has  assuredly  been  established  in  the  case  of  the 
broadleaved  plantations  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nancy;  it  would  seem  also  certain  in 
the  case  of  the  plantations  of  Scotch  pines  and  larches,  and  it  is  probable  even  for  those 
of  spruce  pine.  One  can  therefore  affirm  that,  in  spite  of  the  screen  afforded  by  the 
treetops,  generally  speaking,  the  forest  soil  receives  more  water  than  does  the  neigh- 
boring soil  under  cultivation. 

(3)  The  forest  causes  an  enormous  diminution  in  physical  evaporation,  and  prevents 
surface  flow  almost  entirely.  Moreover  in  numerous  cases  where  one  of  these  phe- 
nomena —  and  c  fortiori  when  both  simultaneously  —  play  a  preponderating  part,  as 
often  happens  in  hot  countries  and  on  sloping  ground,  it  is  unreservedly  admitted  that 
the  forest  is  favorable  to  the  feeding  of  the  subterranean  sheet,  and  in  consequence  to 
that  of  springs. 

(4)  So  far  as  our  researches  have  actually  progressed,  we  cannot  be  sure  that  the  forest 
is  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  the  feeding  of  subterranean  waters  in  level  ground  or 
in  cold  or  temperate  climates. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  we  are  ignorant  as  to  whether  its  vegetation  does  not  abstract  more 
water  from  the  soil  than  do  agricultural  vegetables,  as  the  lowering  in  the  level  of  the 
phreatic  waters  observed  under  the  woodlands  would  seem  to  indicate.  It  may  be  that 
such  an  increase  in  the  communication  is  compensated  by  the  increase  in  the  watering 
of  the  soil,  and  the  reduction  in  physical  evaporation  when  these  two  last  factors  are 
unimportant  (as  for  example  at  low  altitudes  and  in  cold  climates).  For  the  rest,  the 
facts  noted  are  contradictory;  cases  of  springs  are  quoted  which  have  dried  up  in  conse- 
quence of  clearings  as,  on  the  other  hand,  superficial  dryings  up  of  the  soil  have  been 
observed,  where  replanting  has  taken  place.  Doubt  is  therefore  forced  upon  us  in  this 
special  case;  the  action  of  the  forest  on  the  feeding  of  the  springs  remains  uncertain,  and 
it  is  probably  variable  according  to  circumstances  which,  as  yet,  remain  unelucidated. 

(5)  Nevertheless  it  must  be  observed  that  springs  are  only  numerous  and  important 
in  mountain  regions,  and  there  certainly  the  forests  are  favorable  to  them. 

In  the  plains  the  springs  are  infrequent,  and  have  a  feeble  output.  We  are  therefore 
justified  in  repeating,  as  our  fathers  declared,  that  the  forest  is  the  mother  of  the  rivers; 
the  labors  of  modern  science  have  served  only  to  establish  the  parentage,  universally 
and  at  all  times  recognized,  which  connects  the  spring  with  the  tree  which  shades  it. 


APPENDIX  B 
THE  FOREST,  FROM  A  PHYSICAL,  ECONOMIC,  AND  SOCIAL  VIEWPOINT  i 

(By  Jacquot) 

To-day  there  is  strong  sentiment  in  favor  of  forests.  Newspapers  defend.  Congress 
discusses  and  prepares  laws  for  them,  associations  organize  for  the  protection  of  existing 

1  La  Foret,  A.  Jacquot,  pp.  287-305.  Digest  and  part  translation  made  with  a  view  to 
preserving  Jacquot's  picturesque  language.  According  to  scientific  research  Jacquot 
exaggerates,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  he  is  presenting  the  subject  of  forest 
influences  from  a  popular  viewpoint. 


382  APPENDIX 

stands  as  well  as  for  the  forestation  of  uncultivated  lands.  The  Touring  Club  of  France 
should  be  cited  as  a  special  example.  Numerous  governments  are  instituting  Arbor 
Days.  In  solemnly  planting  trees  with  their  own  hands,  the  kings  of  Spain,  Italy  and 
England,  and  high  government  officials  in  the  United  States  are  merely  imitating  an 
example  given  by  our  societies  or  by  the  ancestral  custom,  observed  in  certain  com- 
munes of  Alsace,  of  planting  at  least  one  tree  at  the  birth  of  each  child.  There  also, 
newly  married  couples  plant  two  fir  trees  on  the  day  of  their  marriage.  .  .  .  The 
tree  which  grows  in  humanity  which  is  increasing.  The  instinctive  cultivation  and 
religious  admiration  of  primitive  peoples  for  the  trees  is  based  on  science  and  reason. 

Physical  Role  of  Forests.  —  Humidity.  —  Forests  increase  the  degree  of  humidity 
in  the  air.  Not  only  are  the  arid  zones  sheltered  by  forests  .  .  .  but  furthermore, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  presence  of  a  vegetative  mantle  on  the  mountains  is  of 
importance  in  the  yield  of  crops  and  favors  life  and  populations.  Here  the  forestation, 
true  talisman  of  life,  becomes  a  work  of  safety,  and  a  question  to  be  or  not  to  be.  All 
floods  have  their  rise  on  the  bare  ground  created  by  the  destructive  felling  of  timber 
which  protects  it.  In  these  regions  the  forest  disappears  even  though  it  is  indispensable 
to  agricultural  crops,  the  foundation  of  human  life.  It  is  on  account  of  aridity  alone, 
and  not  for  any  other  reason,  that  there  have  been  terrible  famines  in  Russia,  in  India, 
and  in  China.  Deforestation  dries  up  a  country.  Without  water  there  can  be  no  life, 
without  humidity  the  ground  will  become  as  dead  as  the  moon,  and  forests  are  necessary 
in  order  to  have  water.  Since  their  deforestation  .  .  .  Columbia,  the  Islands  of 
Maurice,  of  Reunion,  and  of  Ascension,  Sicily,  Asia  Minor  and  all  other  denuded  regions 
have  experienced  terrible  droughts.  These  droughts  immediately  stopped  in  localities 
where  tree  growth  has  been  reestablished.  In  Porto  Rico  and  in  Jamaica,  the  phenome- 
non is  doubly  verified  in  recent  times.  The  rains  disappear  with  the  trees  but  return 
with  them.  Above  the  forests  there  are  light  clouds,  and  after  the  shower  the  branches 
drip  onto  the  soil.  .  .  .  During  the  night  the  trees  water  the  heather  as  if  the  urns 
of  the  sky  were  thinking  of  the  earth  in  order  to  fill  up  the  divine  springs.  We  have  seen 
all  that  and  have  concluded  that  the  forest  is  the  mother  of  the  waters.  But  figures  will 
suffice  to  give  an  idea  of  the  strength  of  the  forest:  an  acre  of  high  forest  pumps  every 
day  into  the  soil  10,000  to  12,000  quarts  of  reserve  water;  its  evaporation  can  be  placed 
at  2,616  cubic  yards  per  year  representing  a  stream  20  inches  high  or  almost  three- 
fourths  the  total  rainfall  falling  in  France.  The  quantity  of  liquid  emitted  by 
the  same  area  of  water,  mineral  substance  or  vegetable  substance  are  in  the  proportion 
of  1,  3,  and  60.  The  forest  is  certainly  a  reservoir  of  humidity.  It  is  also  a  regulator. 
While  running  water  is  often  dangerous,  its  infiltration  is  desirable  for  the  life  of 
springs.  This  infiltration  attains  its  maximum  under  forest  stands.  The  cover  of 
trees  (doubled  by  a  brush  under  story)  largely  reduces  evaporation.  Under  the  forest 
the  soil  is  better  irrigated  than  on  bare  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  snow  falls  more 
slowly,  consequently  the  absorption  of  the  forested  land  is  perfect.  The  forest  tends 
to  make  the  temperature  more  uniform  by  reducing  the  extremes  of  heat  or  cold.  It 
exercises  the  same  action  as  does  the  sea  at  the  seashore.  On  limestone  soil,  which  forms 
the  major  part  of  our  planet,  the  running  water  digs  out  the  soil  and  is  then  hidden  by 
these  very  fissures.  Drought  is  accentuated,  increasing  the  intensity  of  burning  sands, 
the  bare  steppes,  and  the  arid  deserts.  It  is  a  war  of  thirst,  which  menaces  the  twenti- 
eth century.  The  forest  alone  by  the  shelter  of  its  thick  layer  of  humus  is  capable  of 
making  a  successful  fight  against  the  bankruptcy  of  the  waters. 

Hail.  —  The  trees  diminish  the  storms,  lessening  electric  discharges  and  rendering 
less  frequent  and  less  dangerous  the  fall  of  hail,  which  in  the  deforested  regions  cuts 
and  damages  the  crops.  Numerous  examples  have  been  established.  In  eighteen 
departments,  where  the  hail  is  usually  the  most  damaging,  fourteen  are  the  least  forested 
in  France. 


PHYSICAL,   ECONOMIC,   AND   SOCIAL  383 

Frost.  —  Around  the  forest,  but  not  in  it,  one  finds  the  white  frosts  which  are  so 
common  in  dry  dimates.  The  upper  story  protects  the  lower  vegetation  hke  a  tender 
blanket.     It  replaces,  after  a  fashion,  artificial  shelter. 

"Wind.  —  Without  the  trees  in  numberless  countries,  the  violence  of  the  wind  lays 
low  the  plants  or  dries  them  up.  .  .  .  The  smallest  shrub  or  the  simple  hedge  of 
cypress  of  the  Provence  exercises  a  beneficial  protective  cover.  In  Russia,  when  the 
June  vegetation  of  the  steppes  is  in  full  bloom,  the  squares  enclosed  with  planted  hedges 
remain  green,  and  furnish  half  again  as  much  revenue.  In  Algeria,  they  say  that  nothing 
can  resist  the  sirocco.  Nevertheless,  it  has  been  conquered  by  the  trees.  Look  at 
the  delicate  plants  in  the  experimental  gardens  at  Algiers  and  the  rich  plantations  of 
the  Mitidja.     .     .     . 

Springs,  Avalanches.  —  All  the  world  to-day  bears  witness  to  the  benefit  of  the 
vegetable  cover  for  the  maintenance  and  conservation  of  springs  (see  Appendix,  p. 
361).     This  is  also  true  of  the  value  of  forests  in  protecting  against  avalanches. 

Floods.  —  The  forest  is  the  sovereign  regulator  of  waterflow.  On  the  denuded  slope, 
the  rain  rushes  along  carrying  the  material  eroded  from  the  loose  soil.  This  mass, 
increased  by  the  mixture  of  debris,  and  with  its  increasing  speed,  communicates  a 
tremendous  live  force  to  these  thousands  of  little  streams.  It  becomes  a  furious  tor- 
rent which  carries  off  the  slopes,  bears  rocks  along  and  even  fields  and  houses.  Gravel 
fills  the  bed  of  the  rivers  and  hinders  shipping.  It  covers  the  plain  with  blocks  of  stone 
and  sterile  sand.  What  would  happen,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  wooded  slope?  A 
large  proportion  of  the  rain  will  have  been  stopped  by  the  foliage  and  branches  to  be 
given  back  to  the  atmosphere.  The  remainder,  broken  up  by  the  foHage,  strikes  the 
soil  as  if  it  had  passed  through  a  sieve.  The  layer  of  dead  leaves  and  humus  which 
carpets  the  forest  floor  is  a  soft  sponge  with  an  extraordinary  capacity  for  absorption. 
It  absorbs  five,  six,  and  even  nine  times  its  liquid  weight  before  saturation,  when  it 
lets  the  water  seep,  drop  by  drop,  to  the  surface  and  to  the  interior  of  the  soil  to  feed 
subterranean  streams  which  result  in  springs.  The  small  surplus  water,  which  is  not 
retained,  encounters  in  its  flow  innumerable  obstacles,  trunks,  roots,  moss,  herbaceous 
flora,  dead  branches,  dead  leaves,  and  the  inextricable  lacework  of  roots.  The  flow  is 
divided  slowly  up  and  does  not  erode  the  soil.  It  arrives  at  the  foot  of  the  slope  slowly 
and  in  small  quantities.  .  .  .  Against  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  the  drying  winds 
of  the  south  the  branches  serve  as  a  screen.  In  the  spring  they  diminish  the  damaging 
effect  of  warm  rains  on  the  snow  and  prevent  too  rapid  melting.  The  regularity  of 
the  run-off  is  determined  by  the  state  and  extent  of  the  forests  which  cover  the  basin. 
Numerous  experiments  in  valleys,  some  forested  and  others  bare,  have  proved  this. 
These  comparisons  have  given  rise  to  the  adage:  "He  who  wishes  to  master  the  waters, 
must  first  master  the  forests."  Thus  to  the  trees  crowning  the  mountains  the  soil  is 
held  in  place.  The  slopes  are  maintained  and  erosion  ceases.  Its  action  can  thus  be 
summarized : 

"The  presence  of  forest  stops  the  formation  of  torrents.  Its  development  extin- 
guishes it.  Its  destruction  delivers  the  soil  as  a  prey  to  erosion.  All  the  fundamental 
laws  recognize  the  absolute  necessity  of  reforestation.  In  the  denuded  countries,  what 
ravages!  The  torrents  attack  the  mountainsides  like  a  'pieuvre,'  eat  them  out,  dis- 
integrate and  carry  them  piecemeal  to  the  plain.  High  up  the  rock  is  bared,  lower 
down  they  cause  the  fields  to  become  barren  and  covered  with  debris.  The  roads 
are  interrupted.  The  railway  lines  cut  and  the  bridges  demolished.  One  sees  the 
opening  up  of  abysses,  the  cut  of  railroad  lines,  and  the  engulfment  of  entire  villages. 
Each  year,  in  France,  the  floods  cause  an  average  damage  of  $5,790,000.  With  the 
expense,  which  has  been  caused  by  such  floods  during  the  19th  century,  all  Europe  could 
have  been  reforested.     These  catastrophes  have  been  the  result  of  excessive  deforesta- 


384  APPENDIX 

tion  —  a  veritable  social  crime.  It  is  the  ruination  of  the  mountaineer.  .  .  .  More- 
over, the  man  that  deforests  assassinates  the  plain.  The  damage  is  far  reaching.  .  .  . 
The  waterfall  which  directs  our  turbines  and  produces  the  power  for  heat  and  light 
may  be  done  away  with  and  rendered  useless  by  deforestation.  If  you  kill  the  forest, 
you  kill  the  brook  which  is  the  friend  of  mechanics.  Thanks  to  electricity.  .  .  . 
water  has  become  (as  the  ancients  said)  the  most  precious  of  gifts.  ...  By  enor- 
mous dams,  engineers  have  hoped  to  avoid  the  terrible  results  of  deforestation.  .  .  . 
How  much  inferior  is  this  inert  masonry,  limited  to  a  single  valley,  in  comparison  with 
the  strength  and  value  of  forests,  hving,  supple,  growing  forever,  which  cover  the  valleys 
as  they  do  the  plain.  .  Free  accumulator  of  water,  ideal,  green,  cool,  which  man  removes 
and  cuts  like  grain!  In  every  deforested  basin,  the  difference  between  the  low-water 
mark  and  the  flood  waters  is  formidable.  For  example,  in  the  Loire,  the  Chehff,  the 
Seybouze,  the  Vidourle,  the  Verdon,  it  is  900,  1,500,  6,600,  1,500,  and  2,000,000  times 
the  ordinary  flow.  The  flow  of  the  Ardeche  is  usually  reduced  to  6.5  cubic  yards, 
whereas  it  sometimes  amounts  to  10,500,  when  it  has  the  size  of  a  Mississippi,  or  an 
Orinoco,  or  a  Danube.  The  flood  that  comes  with  the  rapidity  of  a  galloping  horse 
and  throws  into  the  Rhone  such  a  volume  of  water  that  the  flood  level  rises  16.4  feet. 
If  there  is  no  stand  of  trees  to  stop  the  erosion  of  storm  floods,  every  deluge  ravages 
slopes  all  the  way  to  the  plain.  .  .  .  The  damage  done  by  the  Garonne  means  an 
annual  loss  of  $1,544,000.  This  same  amount  spent  only  once,  but  properly  applied, 
that  is  to  say  for  reforestation  in  the  Pyrenees,  would  permit  the  suppression  of  every 
cause  of  the  damage.  .  .  .  One  now  commences  to  realize  that  the  forest  is  a  two- 
faced  army  to  fight  for  or  against  water.  The  same  water  which  is  not  stored  by  the 
forest  may  be  transformed  to  mechanical  energy  or  .  .  .  may  suddenly  pre- 
cipitate itself  in  a  formidable,  devastating  mass.  The  impoverishment  of  the  world, 
erosion,  the  transport  from  the  mountain  to  the  sea,  the  frightful  loss  of  water  .  .  . 
the  forest  alone  can  stop  it.  .  .  .  Deprived  of  their  cover  of  wood  or  of  gra.ss,  the 
slopes  erode,  waste  away,  and  fall  in  ruins.  On  the  forested  slopes,  on  the  contrary, 
everything  remains.  The  roots  fix  the  humus  to  the  rocks.  Everywhere  the  forested 
mountain  changes  a  foolish  water  into  a  wise  one.  It  renders  the  typhoon  inoffensive 
by  dividing  up  its  floods  and  distributing  its  monstrous  mass  in  miflions  of  drops  which 
flow  slowly  over  the  old  surface  of  the  earth.  We  must  then  recognize  that  the  water 
being  everything  and  life  being  impossible  without  it,  the  tree  which  holds  the  water 
is  everything  itself.  If  the  forest  was  held  sacred  by  religion,  it  should  be  held  stiU 
more  sacred  by  reason  of  its  social  necessity.  To  plant  a  tree  is  to  accomphsh  a  good 
deed,  to  create  a  forest  is  to  enrich  the  country  by  a  conquest  which  does  not  cause  a 
tear  or  shed  a  drop  of  blood. 

"  Economic  Role  —  Utility  of  Wood.  —  From  the  beginning  of  the  world  wood  has 
been  a  prime  necessity.  The  prehistoric  people  lived  in  the  forest  and  on  the  forest. 
Coal,  gas,  and  electricity  have  modified  the  use  of  wood  but  without  abolishing  or 
diminishing  the  demand.  Imagine  the  enormous  volume  used  by  the  thousands  of 
trades  which  must  have  wood  products  for  the  innumerable  objects  manufactured, 
from  the  great  steamship  to  the  little  doll.  Alone,  paper  miUs  could  devour  all  the 
forests  of  the  world  and  only  to  assure  the  printing  of  70,000  newspapers  of  200  volumes 
which  are  published  dafly.  For  France  alone  it  represents  the  annual  production  of 
1,235,000  acres  of  high  forest.  The  coal  mines  use  each  year  24,000,000  cubic  meters 
(about  5  miflion  thousand  feet  board  measure)  in  their  galleries,  about  nine  and  a  half 
times  the  volume  of  the  greatest  pyramid  in  Egypt.  Finally  the  world  uses  more  wood 
than  it  produces.  The  excess  of  use  over  normal  increase  is  about  2,620,000  tons  per 
year.  The  deficit  is  momentarily  made  up  by  the  destruction  of  forests.  It  is  an 
expedient  of  which  the  fallacy  is  clear.     A  dearth  of  timber  menaces  us.     Our  country 


PHYSICAL,   ECONOMIC,   AND   SOCIAL  385 

imports  annually  from  39.5  to  42.5  million  dollars  worth.  Plant  new  stands  with  the 
utmost  ardor,  since  the  operation  is  profitable.^  The  pineries,  for  example,  yield 
5  to  10  per  cent.  There  does  not  exist  any  other  more  advantageous  investment. 
Forestatipn  enriches  the  planter  and  makes  our  country  stronger. 

*'  Social  Role — -Climate.  —  Following  excessive  deforestation,  the  local  climate  be- 
comes worse.  The  prosperity  of  agriculture,  the  health  of  inhabitants,  the  pubhc 
fortune  itself,  depends  upon  normal  proportion  of  forest.  This  per  cent  is  itself  an 
element  to  regulate  the  world's  circulation  of  cloud,  rain,  snow,  flood,  and  even  the 
ocean.  The  denuded  zones  in  the  mountains  must  be  restocked  in  order  to  re-establish 
order  in  nature,  without  which  all  economics  are  profoundly  upset;  it  is  partly  due 
to  the  absence  of  forests  that  one  must  attribute  the  burning  climate  of  the  interior  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia.  The  destruction  of  stands  has  produced  disastrous  climatic 
changes  in  Greece,  in  Russia,  ...  in  Asia  Minor,  and  in  certain  regions  of  India. 
All  history  agrees  on  this  point.  It  shows  clearly  the  disastrous  effects  of  great  de- 
forestation on  climate.  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  Strabon  predicted  to  their  contemporaries 
the  sterility  which  would  follow  deforestation  .  .  .  which,  in  lowering  the  humidity 
necessary  for  vegetation,  .  .  .  has  brought  on  something  more  terrible  than  any 
war,  namely,  the  decadence  of  the  most  powerful  empires,  .  .  .  those  great  coun- 
tries which  were  the  founders  of  the  human  race  —  Mesopotamia,  Turkestan,  Bactres, 
the  splendor  of  the  Greek  civilization  under  Alexander  the  Great,  Palestine,  Syria, 
deprived  of  forests  made  the  water,  the  vegetation,  and  the  inhabitants  disappear. 
Desert  and  sterile,  the  jaded  country  once  so  populous,  deforestation  has  driven  away 
life  itself.  Deforestation  has  even  permitted  the  sea  to  recover  land  once  cultivated  — 
the  Pomeranian  shore,  the  Zuyder  Zee.  At  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
Chinese  had  transformed  Tartary  into  a  desert  by  removing  the  trees  which  protected 
it.  Because  of  deforestation,  the  temperature  of  the  winter  season  is  even  lower  than 
it  was  in  Norway.  On  the  plateau  of  Iran,  the  temperature  passes  in  several  hours 
from  60°  C.  to  7°  C.  (140°  to  44.6°  F.).  The  air  is  so  dry  that  nothing  can  withstand 
it.  We  must  go  back  to  the  old  tradition  and  reahze  that  it  is  a  scientific  fact  that  the 
ancient  veneration  for  trees  shown  by  our  fathers  is  because  the  forest  is  completely 
indispensable  to  creation. 

"  Hygiene.  —  Under  the  majority  of  cases,  hygiene  is  intimately  linked  with  forests. 
From  the  Roman  times  it  has  been  recognized  that  the  excessive  felling  of  forests  exerts 
an  unfortunate  effect  upon  the  physical  condition  of  the  country  and  compromises 
the  health  of  the  inhal)itants.  Swamp  fevers  follow  deforestation  everj^where  in  the 
subtropical  zones.  On  the  other  hand,  forestation  accompanied  by  drainage  dries  up 
the  marshes  and  diminishes  sickness  in  fever  regions  such  as  the  Roman  Campagna 
certain  steppes  of  Russia,  Tuscan  Maremme,  in  the  Landes,  in  Poitou,  and  in  other 
places  less  known.  The  difference  between  sickness  and  health,  between  prosperity 
and  extreme  misery,  coincides  with  the  appearance  or  disappearance  of  the  arborescent 
mantle.  Such  are  the  contemporary  facts.  The  Belgians  celebrate  by  an  official 
fiesta  the  social  role  of  silviculture,  proclaiming  that  the  forests  exercise  the  most  healthy 
influence  on  chmate  and  public  hygiene.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  great  areas  of 
forest  to  manifest  its  curative  strength.  A  single  eucalyptus  tree  may  drain  the  excess 
water  from  one-quarter  of  an  acre.  In  Algeria,  a  hedge  several  yards  in  length  .  .  . 
may  guarantee  all  the  occupants  of  a  house  against  swamp  wet  soils  so  conducive  to 
malaria.  Thousands  of  examples  prove  it.  The  marsh  of  Bonfarick,  one  of  the  un- 
healthiest  localities  in  Algeria,  has  been  transformed  by  planting  into  one  of  the  health- 
iest colonies  in  France.     In  30  years  the  pineries  have  made  healthy,  fertile,  and  rich 

2  This,  of  course,  is  an  exceptional  instance  of  profitable  private  forestry.  Here  worth- 
less sand  wastes  were  made  to  yield  a  handsome  revenue  (see  p.  183). 


386  APPENDIX 

the  Sologne  which  exaggerated  deforestation  had  reduced  to  a  state  of  pestilential  fever. 
Formerly  unsalable,  the  Landes  of  Gascogne  are  now  worth  193  million  dollars  or  more. 
A  region  formerly  unhealthy  because  of  fever  has  to-day  the  name  which  is  doubly 
merited  of  Cote  d' Argent;  formerly  devastated  by  sickness,  the  population  now  hves 
in  perfect  health  in  what  is  actually  a  health  resort.  Forests  are  a  potent  obstacle  to 
the  spread  of  certain  diseases.  Not  only  is  the  air  free  from  deleterious  gas,  but  there 
is  no  dust  or  nocturnal  dampness,  but  the  acid  of  forest  soil  kills  the  germs  of  cholera, 
typhus,  the  bacilli  of  tetanus.  .  .  .  The  forestation  of  watersheds  gives  a  guarantee 
of  purity.  Often  a  sequence  of  deforestation  is  a  decrease  in  population.  It  is  some- 
thing that  has  happened  in  most  of  the  Mediterranean  islands,  as  well  as  in  the  Azores 
and  in  the  Canaries.  When  the  Venetians  ruined  the  forests  of  Dalmatia,  three-quarters 
of  the  inhabitants  were  compelled  to  leave.  In  France,  the  thirty  departments  where 
there  is  the  most  deforestation  have  a  depopulation  seven  times  as  rapid  as  the  fifty- 
seven  departments  where  the  forests  are  maintained.  Not  only  does  the  birth  rate 
diminish  and  the  mortality  increase  in  the  deforested  departments,  but  the  inhabitants 
still  emigrate.  They  go  in  search  of  a  living.  .  .  .  Forests  precede  people,  deserts 
succeed  them.  .  .  .  Deforestation  has  transformed  Turkestan  into  a  desert,  where 
it  was  formerly  fertile.  Deforestation  has  destroyed  its  equable  climate,  its  former 
ferility,  and,  in  consequence,  its  population.  .  .  .  Since  the  planting  near  Sologne, 
the  local  population  has  increased  2,250  per  cent.  The  examples  are  too  numerous  to 
enumerate.  A  Servian  proverb  summarizes  the  problem:  'He  who  kills  a  tree  kills 
a  man.' 

".Esthetic.  —  That  is,  the  material  side  of  the  forest;  but  that  is  not  the  only 
question  to  consider.  ...  In  the  spring  the  forest  is  an  enchantment  for  the  eyes. 
One  sees  the  bare  forest  clothe  itself  from  branch  to  branch.  .  .  .  Nature  is  irre- 
sistible. Artists  feel  the  seduction  of  the  forest  and  found  colonies  in  it  as  at  Barbi- 
zon.  .  .  .  The  first  homage  of  man  was  addressed  to  the  great  forests,  eternal  and 
immovable,  which  cover  all  parts.  .  .  .  The  forests,  according  to  Chateaubriand, 
were  the  early  temples.  This  rehgion  was  that  of  all  the  peoples  of  antiquity:  The 
forest   is   sacred.     .     .  It  was   worshipped   by   numberless   tribes.     .     .     .     The 

disappearance  of  the  forests  on  the  plateau  of  Central  Asia  made  it  so  uninhabitable 
that  whole  tribes  and  races  who  occupied  it  were  forced  to  emigrate.  .  .  .  Manon 
had  in  his  laws  (the  most  ancient  of  the  world) :  '  Defend  the  forest  against  destruction. 
One  finds  in  any  of  the  old  religions,  the  myth  of  the  sacred  tree,  the  gods  assembled 
imder  its  shade.  .  .  .  The  imagination  of  the  Greeks  and  of  the  Romans  was  peopled 
with  sylvan  deities.  .  .  .  Almost  always  the  temples  were  surrounded  by  sacred 
forests.  It  was  often  in  the  forests  that  the  gods  spoke  through  oracles.  ...  In 
Ceylon,  in  Spain  and  Persia,  and  in  Manila,  the  trees  are  still  worshipped.  Saint 
Valery,  fighting  against  paganism,  turned  his  anger  against  the  nymphs  of  the  forest 
and  the  fountains.  ...  We  know  now  that  the  disappearance  of  the  forest  de- 
stroys the  equilibrium  of  natural  forces  and  makes  for  disastrous  chmatic  changes,  sub- 
stituting sterility  for  richness,  the  desert  for  abundance,  death  for  hfe.  As  though  crazy, 
mountaineers  often  say:  'After  us  the  deluge,'  without  realizing  that  the  forest  means 
water  and  freshness  so  necessary  for  pasturage.  .  .  .  The  existence  of  man  is 
coupled  with  the  existence  of  the  forest,  moreover  the  forest  is  the  index  of  public 
welfare  and  the  richness  of  a  people.  It  is  necessary,  then,  that  each  man  become 
a  friend  of  the  trees  and  that  our  laws  and  our  hearts  protect  this  arborescent  vegeta- 
tion without  which  our  civilization  would  perish.  Against  the  savage  violence  of  the 
torrent  or  the  deadly  menace  of  the  avalanche  we  must  oppose  the  serene  strength  of 
our  great  benefactress  —  the  forest.  Child  of  Nature  itself,  it  shields,  with  its  pro- 
tective cover,  children  of  humanity.     The  present  children  need  it  with  its  hving  force 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  387 

which  maintains  the  activity  of  the  entire  world  under  the  beneficence  and  splendor 
of  its  shade. 

"As  the  centuries  roll  by,  let  us  unite  in  reflecting  on  the  instinctive  sentiment  of  the 
ancients  for  inviolable  forests  and  the  cultivation  of  the  tree." 


APPENDIX  C 

SILVICS   OF  IMPORTANT  FOREST   SPECIES.    LISTS   OF  TREES,    SHRUBS, 
AND  PLANTS  USED  IN  REFORESTATION  IN  THE  MOUNTAINS 

FRENCH  SILVICS   OF  PEDUNCULATE  OAK 

(Quercus  pedunculatay 

Size.  —  Quercus  robur.^  Under  this  name  Hooker,  De  Candolle,  and  other  eminent 
authorities  include  Quercus  pedunculata  (peduncled  oak)  and  Quercus  sessihflora 
(English  oak),  the  British  representative  of  the  species. 

Pedunculate  oak  is  a  species  which  reaches  considerable  dimensions.  During  youth, 
and  up  to  40  to  50  years  of  age,  it  has  an  irregular  bole  but  later  on  the  shaft  becomes 
straight,  cylindrical,  sometimes  with  a  clear  length  of  65  feet.  This  tree  may  reach  a 
height  of  from  131  to  147  feet  and  even  190  feet  in  a  few  instances;  thanks  to  its  very 
great  longevity  it  reaches  large  diameters.  The  Montravail  oak,  near  Saintes  (Charente 
Inferieure  Department),  is  between  6.6  and  7.6  feet  in  diameter  at  breast  height;  its 
main  branches  have  a  diameter  of  3.3  feet  at  their  base;  the  total  height  is  65.6  feet,  the 
crown  width  131.7  feet,  and  it  is  estimated  to  be  some  2,000  years  old. 

Habit.  —  The  crown  of  pedunculate  oak  is  formed  of  a  few  irregularly  bent  and 
twisted  main  branches;  the  foliage  is  very  unevenly  distributed  in  tufts  with  wide  and 
numerous  openings.  .  .  .  The  foliage  is  incomplete  and  less  thick  than  that  of 
sessile  oak. 

Leaves.  —  Pedunculate  oak  leaves  (more  so  than  those  of  Quercus  sessiliflora)  dry 
up  at  the  end  of  autumn  and  drop  off  immediately,  except  those  of  coppice  shoots  and 
suckers  which  are  semi-persistent.  Of  a  light  green  color,  sometimes  reddish  or  yellow- 
ish at  the  beginning  of  summer,  the  leaf  is  moderately  shiny  or  quite  dull;  it  is  of  a 
somewhat  sea  green  (glaucous)  hue;  frequently  it  is  undulated,  more  seldom  flat.  .  .  . 
If  green  and  gathered  during  September,  it  has  an  average  weight  as  compared  to  sessile 
oak  leaves  as  34  is  to  40.  (A.  Mathieu.)  When  used  dry  as  agricultural  manure  300 
to  350  pounds  is  equal  to  100  pounds  of  straw.  Pedunculate  oak  is  .  .  .  much 
less  suitable  than  se.ssile  oak  for  pure  plantations,  since  it  has  a  lighter  foliage  and 
yields  less  litter.  This  is  why  coppice-under-standards  composed  of  pure  sessile  oak 
yields  a  fair  stand  while  the  same  cannot  be  said  to  be  true  of  pure  pedunculate  oak. 

This  species  seems  eminently  suitable  for  coppice-under-standards  on  clayey,  moist 
soils  and  for  high  forests  when  mixed  with  tolerant  species;  sessile  oak,  however,  should 
be  preferred  to  it  whenever     .     .     .     pure  forestation  is  attempted. 

Seed  Capacity.  —  Pedunculate  oak  bears  acorns  from  60  to  100  years  of  age,  accord- 
ing to  whether  grown  single  or  in  close  stand.  Sprouts  bear  acorns  as  early  as  20  years, 
and  even  before;  but  plentiful  seed  crops  occur  only  3  to  4  years  and  even  8  to  10  years 
according  to  whether  the  climate  is  more  or  less  favorable.  An  absolute  failure  of 
acorns,  such  as  happens  with  beech  between  crops,  is  rare;  some  few  are  always  to  be 
found  on  isolated  or  border  trees. 

1  Based  on  a  free  translation  from  French  authors. 

2  See  also  Chapter  V. 


388  APPENDIX 

Germination.  —  The  germination  of  acorns  is  quick  and  takes  place  at  a  low  tem- 
perature, from  3  to  4  degrees  C.  (37  degrees  to  39  degrees  F.)  above  zero;  they  are 
difficult  to  preserve  even  till  spring.  A  bushel  weighs  about  40  pounds  on  an  average 
and  contains  approximately  from  8,000  to  9,300  seeds. 

Rooting.  —  The  tap  root  of  pedunculate  oak  is  developed  first;  at  one  year  of  age 
it  is  often  12  inches  in  length.  Only  when  about  6  to  8  j^ears  old  does  it  produce  a  few 
laterals;  but  at  60  to  70  years  the  laterals  are  dominant  and  the  tap  root  becomes  of 
secondary  importance  and  seldom  reaches  below  3  to  5  feet.  Stump  and  root  wood, 
with  12-inch  stumps,  represents  14  per  cent  to  17  per  cent  of  the  total  cubic  volume. 

Shoots  and  Suckers.  —  Dormant  buds  keep  alive  a  long  time  and  retain  great 
reproductive  power  to  an  advanced  age;  per  contra,  it  means  that  standards  are  liable 
to  have  numerous  root  suckers  after  the  coppice  has  been  felled.  Pedunculate  oak  is 
therefore  more  liable  to  have  epicormic  branches  than  its  associate  sessile  oak. 

Adventitious  buds  are  but  rarely  formed  and  only  in  very  fertile  soils;  they  produce 
poorly  attached  shoots  which  wind,  snow,  and  hoarfrost  easily  cause  to  break.  Stump 
shoots  root  but  superficially  and  do  not  require  deep  soil. 

Bark.  —  The  bark  is  smooth,  shiny,  and  silver-gray  up  to  20  to  30  years  .  .  . 
after  that  age,  a  brown  bark  with  longitudinal  flakes  which  becomes  thicker  and 
thicker.     .     .     . 

Geographical  Distribution.  —  The  habitat  of  pedunculate  oak  is  very  extensive. 
It  is  found  between  east  and  west  longitude  65  degrees,  from  the  Ural  Mountains  and 
the  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  southern  limit  is  from  southern 
Spain,  at  a  point  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  south  of  Sicily,  Italy,  Greece,  thence  through 
Minor  Asia  as  far  as  the  Eastern  Caucasus.  The  northern  limit  starts  from  Scotland, 
goes  to  63d  latitude  in  Norway  and  thence  southeastward  through  St.  Petersburg  to 
Orenburg,  in  the  Ural.     It  thus  extends  through  about  26  degrees  of  latitude. 

Location.  —  The  pedunculate  oak  prefers  the  plains  and  the  valley  bottoms,  but  it 
is  found  in  the  hills  and  even  reaches  as  high  as  3,280  feet  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees. 

Soil.  —  Pedunculate  oak  does  not  show  any  particular  preference  as  regards  the 
mineral  nature  of  the  soil  provided  it  is  sufficiently  moist,  and  deep.  Sandy-clay  soils, 
even  if  occasionally  flooded,  suit  it  especially  well;  it  is  a  serious  error  to  drain  them. 

Tolerance.  —  Pedunculate  oak  is  a  hght  demanding  species.  In  order  to  grow,  it 
requires  at  least  four  months  of  uninterrupted  vegetative  activity  with  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  12.25°  C.  (54°  F.),  provided  no  protracted  drought  intervenes;  in  order  that 
acorns  may  mature  a  total  temperature  varying  (south  to  north)  from  28.75°  to  20.20°  C. 
(83.75°  to  68.50°  F.)  is  necessary.  The  maximum  temperatures  that  it  can  stand  are, 
in  the  south,  44°  C.  (111°  F.);  in  the  north,  37°  C.  (98°  F.).  When  in  vegetative  ac- 
tivity, it  is  easily  affected  by  cold;  young  shoots,  leaves  and  flowers  will  usually  die  if, 
during  spring,  the  thermometer  falls  below  0°  C.  (32°  F.). 

Timber.  —  It  yields  primarily  building  timber.  The  sapwood  is  white  and  clearly 
defined;  the  more  active  the  vegetation  the  wider  is  the  sapwood.  According  to  the 
Nancy  Forest  School  collection  the  total  thickness  of  sapwood  is  from  0.63  to  3.0  inches; 
the  total  number  of  annual  rings  36  to  7.  The  density  for  timber  completely  air  dried 
is  from  0.647  (Forest  of  Haye,  Nancy)  to  0.906  (Adour  oak),  with  average  yearly  incre- 
ments of  0.186  of  an  inch. 

Uses.  —  ...  The  wood  is  especially  prized  for  ship  building. 

Fuel  Value.  —  Its  fuel  value  (based  on  calorific  power)  averages,  as  compared  with 
beech,  91/100,  according  to  G.  L.  Hartig;  85/100,  according  to  Worneck. 

The  market  value  of  firewood  is  below  this  because  pedunculate  oak  crackles  while 
burning,  requires  a  strong  draught,  and  the  coals  do  not  hold  the  fire  well.  There  is  a 
great  difference  as  to  quality  in  this  respect.     Bark  from  mature  trees,  on  the  other 


GENERAL   SALES   PROCEDURE  293 

According  to  Article  19,  forest  boundary  stones  must  be  of  good  quality 
and  for  the  outside  boundary  of  the  forest  must  be  31  inches  high  and 
8.7  by  7.1  inches  square.  They  extend  14  inches  above  the  ground  and 
are  engraved  with  letters  3.1  inches  high.  Boundary  pillars  of  felling 
areas  are  24  inches  high  by  7.9  by  5.9  inches  square.  They  extend  7.9  to 
9.9  inches  above  the  ground,  and  have  numbers  painted  in  black  2  to 
2.4  inches  high. 

Maps.  —  Separate  maps,   issued  for  each  State  forest,   rarely  give 

contours  but  include  roads,  trails,  towns,   villages,   houses,  telephone 

lines,  ranger  stations,  fire  lines,  boundaries  of  forest,  working  groups 

and  compartments,  names  of  border  forests,   areas  of  compartments, 

alienations,  ponds  and  streams.     The  usual  scale  is  1/20,000  or  even 

larger.^^ 

SALE  OF  TIMBER 

General  Sales  Procedure.  —  There  are  five  main  steps  necessary 
before  French  timber  under  forest  management  can  be  cut: 

(1)  The  working  plan  prescribes  the  area  to  be  cut  over  in  final  fell- 
ings. Frequently  the  working  plan  also  indicates,  in  the  order  of  im- 
portance, when  stands  of  timber  should  be  cut,  but  considerable  leeway 
is  left  to  the  local  officer  in  charge,  since  a  good  deal  depends  upon  seed 
years,  the  reproduction,  weed  growth,  windfall,  and  other  unforeseen 
accidents. 

(2)  The  trees  on  the  area  where  the  cutting  is  to  be  made  are  care- 
fully marked,  usually  under  the  supervision  of  an  officer  of  the  rank  of 
deputy  supervisor  (assistant  inspector)  or  forest  supervisor  (inspector). 
After  the  marking  in  any  forest  is  completed  the  local  inspector  makes 
a  formal  report  showing  the  number,  size,  and  volume  of  the  different 
species  marked,  and  the  approximate  value.  A  tninimutn  price  is  always 
established. 

(3)  Announcement  is  made  when  an  auction  will  be  held  and  a  detailed 
description  of  the  timber  to  be  sold  is  printed  for  general  distribution. 
The  data  furnished  include  the  location,  the  estimated  products,  bound- 
aries, method  of  removal,  and  assessed  road  charges,  if  any. 

(4)  At  the  time  appointed  for  the  auction  the  bidders  assemble  and 
each  lot  or  sale  is  auctioned  off  by  calling  the  maximum  possible  price 
for  the  lot  first  and  gradually  reducing  the  price  until  a  bidder  calls 
"I  take  it." 

(5)  After  the  sale  is  made  and  all  charges  paid  in  advance,  cutting  is  al- 
lowed after  certain  formalities  (see  contract  clauses)  have  been  completed. 

The  French  sale  on  the  stump  is  in  reality  a  sale  for  a  lump  sum  on 
the  basis  of  the  scale  of  the  standing  timber. 

The  French  consider  that  their  method  of  selling  timber  standing  is 
35  For  grazing,  dune,  and  reforestation  betterments  see  Chapters  VI,  VII,  and  VIII. 


294      FEATURES  OF   FRENCH    NATIONAL   FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

more  economical  and  suits  the  timber  purchaser  better  than  the  Ger- 
man method  of  selling  in  the  log,  since  he  can  get  the  lengths  that  he 
prefers  and,  as  he  is  in  close  touch  with  his  local  market,  his  judgment 
is  hkely  to  be  correct.  (See  Appendix,  page  498.)  SeUing  the  timber 
standing  after  the  marking  is  completed  is  certainly  cheaper,  simpler, 
and  better  than  to  have  the  exploitation  by  day  labor  under  State  con- 
trol. The  only  disadvantage  appears  to  be  the  danger  of  having  some- 
what more  damage  done  in  the  woods,  since  it  is  often  difficult  to 
supervise  a  large  number  of  small  operations  going  on  at  the  same  time. 
For  this  reason  the  contract  clauses  are  very  specific,  particularly  where 
they  provide  for  damages  in  case  sales  methods  are  departed  from  (see 
also  Chapter  X,  "Protection").  Upon  the  day  and  hour  announced 
for  the  auction  the  proper  officials  assemlile  and  the  presiding  officer 
explains  the  conditions  of  the  sale.  If  the  price  bid  goes  below  the 
estimated  value  then  the  bidding  is  stopped  and  the  lot  auctioned  at 
a  later  sale.  In  the  auction  at  Pontarlier  (held  July  4,  1912),  the  prices 
for  State  timber  were  2.45  per  cent  above  their  estimated  value  and 
the  communal  sales  12  per  cent  above.  If  the  value  of  the  timber  is 
estimated  at  7,000  francs  the  bidding  will  be  started  at,  say  13,000  francs, 
the  price  being  gradually  decreased  until  one  of  the  bidders  exclaims 
"I  take  it."  Where  there  is  competition  for  timber  the  shouting  often 
begins  before  the  price  is  actually  read,  and  where  there  is  a  tie  the 
bidding  is  started  over  again,  or  the  successful  bidder  may  be  chosen  by 
drawing  lots.  Immediately  after  the  public  auction  each  bidder  signs 
an  agreement  to  purchase.  The  sureties  are  usually  looked  up  and  ex- 
amined as  to  solvency  prior  to  the  auction.  This  sale  of  $115,800  worth 
of  timber  in  102  lots  at  Pontarlier  was  conducted  in  less  than  an  hour's 
time.  Practically  and  theoretically  this  method  of  sale  seems  to  pos- 
sess a  great  many  advantages  where  the  amounts  sold  are  small,  where 
there  is  keen  competition,  and  where  the  utilization  is  intensive. 

Individual  contracts,  such  as  are  used  for  large  timber  sales  by  the 
United  States  Forest  Service,  reciting  in  great  detail  the  special  felling 
rules  for  each  individual  sale,  are  unnecessary  for  the  small  French 
sales.  The  expense  of  repeating  the  rules  and  regulations  would  prove 
too  great.  Instead  there  are  certain  general  rules  which  apply  to  the 
whole  of  France,  with  special  clauses  to  cover  necessary  departures  in 
each  conservation.  This  is  a  simple  and  economical  method  which 
could  be  well  copied  to  some  extent  in  the  United  States  after  our  sales 
methods  are  standardized  for  each  locality.  For  small  sales  the  French 
Forest  Service  has  a  printed  form  of  contract  which  only  requires  the 
addition  of  routine  data. 

Estimate  and  Appraisal.  —  In  estimating  a  fair  price  for  timber  the 
government  allows  a   10  per  cent  contractor's  profit  under  ordinary 


ESTIMATE   AND   APPRAISAL  295 

conditions  and  up  to  20  per  cent  where  the  risk  is  greatly  increased. 
Although  the  sale  is  made  by  estimate  and  it  is  considered  essential 
that  very  accurate  estimates  be  made  of  the  timber  marked  for  cutting, 
based  on  a  tree-to-tree  count,  yet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  errors  in  estimat- 
ing occur.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  a  loss  to  the  State,  since 
bidders  usually  re-estimate  lots  they  intend  to  bid  on;  a  low  estimate 
by  the  State  merely  means  that  the  bid  is  that  much  higher  per  cubic 
meter  or  stere  and  the  error  in  calculating  the  presumed  products  is  thus 
discounted.  All  the  State  guarantees  is  that  the  number  of  trees  in 
the  size  classes  is  accurate.  Since  the  demand  for  timber  is  greater 
than  the  supply  the  competition  for  State  and  communal  sales  is  suffi- 
cient to  make  the  price  depend  upon  competitive  bid  rather  than  on  the 
minimum  estimated  price  based  on  the  costs  of  logging,  transport,  and 
allowed  profits  subtracted  from  the  estimate  sales  price  of  the  product.^^ 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  large  sales  in  the  Pyrenees,  timber  sales 
are  in  small  lots  usually  with  intensive  market  conditions.  The  location 
of  sales  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  demands  of  the  purchaser  but  is 
planned  in  the  working  plan  according  to  the  needs  of  intermediate 
cuttings  and  regeneration.  If  the  boundaries  of  sales  do  not  correspond 
to  compartments  the  lines  are  clearly  marked  with  paint.  When  there 
are  extensive  windfalls  or  where  there  are  insect  attacks  special  fellings 
are  authorized.  In  communal  forests  special  sales  are  often  allowed  to 
provide  mainly  for  special  improvements,  such  as  a  school  house  or 
town  hall.  It  is  as  if  the  forest  were  a  communal  bank,  safe-guarding 
the  reserve  capital  of  the  inhabitants. 

There  are  three  main  methods  of  selling  timber:  (1)  By  the  lot  on  the 
stump ;  such  sales  are  the  rule  in  France  for  saw  timber  sales  and  for  cop- 
pice.    (2)  By  unit  of  product;  intermediate  fellings  are  sometimes  sold 

2^  A  sample  appraisal  follows :  Francs 

Building  material :  60  cubic  meters  at  45  francs 2,700 

13  cubic  meters  at  35  francs 455 

Building  material  (small  size) :  300  cubic  meters  at  25  francs 7,500 

119  cubic  meters  at  17  francs 2,023 

Fire  wood:    45  steres  at  7  francs 315 

297  steres  at  5  francs 1,485 

Charcoal :  126  steres  at  3  francs 378 

Total 14,856 

From  which  must  be  deducted  the  following: 

Contractors'  15  per  cent 2,228.40 

Felling  trees 732.00 

Cutting  of  branches 412.50 

Fuel  and  charcoal  at  2  francs  per  stere 936.00 

Special  work 450.00 

Fuel  for  local  officers 108.00 

Special  registration  fees 25.00 

Total 4,891.90 

Net  value  of  timber  (14,856.00  -  4,891.90) 9,964.10 

Less  5  per  cent  for  special  costs 499.00 

Net  total  value 9,465.10 


296     FEATURES  OF   FRENCH   NATIONAL   FOREST   ADMINISTRATION 

on  the  basis  of  the  material  cut  and  stacked,  since  it  is  often  difficult  to 
estimate  the  product  accurately  in  advance.  (3)  By  unit  of  product  after 
the  timber  has  been  exploited  by  the  State;  this  method  is  rarely  used. 

Before  any  timber  sale  is  made  it  is  customary  to  advertise  the  lots 
very  widely,  and  there  are  strict  laws  against  combinations  or  agree- 
ments to  eliminate  competition.  The  method  of  describing  the  lot  to 
be  sold  differs  somewhat  in  the  different  conservations,  and  according  to 
the  material  to  be  disposed  of,  but  as  a  rule  the  purchaser  is  given  an 
exact  and  complete  description  of  the  product,  the  conditions  he  must 
work  under,  and  his  obligations  for  road  repair  or  other  charges.^^ 

Orders  have  been  issued  to  make  small  sales,  because  if  large  only  a 
few  of  the  larger  manufacturing  companies  can  compete.  The  writer 
attended  the  sale  of    102  lots  (each  a  separate  small  timber  sale)  at 

37  Two  examples  of  the  data  furnished  purchasers  are  given  below: 

(1)  In  the  Oloron  inspection  a  sale  of  timber  to  be  removed  in  thinning  was  described 
as  follows: 

Thinning  on  4.9-1  hectares,  including  the  felling  of  stems  designated  or  to  be  desig- 
nated. 

Estimated  product  —  1  cubic  meter  of  building  material,  8  cubic  meters  of  small 
building  material,  80  steres  of  cordwood,  150  fagots. 

Boundaries  —  Correspond  to  the  compartment. 

Logging  — -  Existing  roads. 

Estimated  prices  —  12  francs  per  cubic  meter  of  building  material,  6  francs  per 
cubic  meter  of  small  building  material,  1.50  francs  per  stere  of  firewood,  2  francs  per 
100  fagots. 

(2)  In  the  Saint  Die  inspection  even  more  data  were  given  in  the  booklet  describing 
a  regeneration  felling. 

Art.  49  —  Forest  of  Moyenmoutier  (first  working  group),  Balthazard  Canton, 
Compartment  13  (Lot  No.  1),  Beat  of,  etc. 

Regeneration  felling,  98  trees  and  16  poles,  to  wit : 

Diameters:  20,    25,    30,    35,    40,    45,    50,  55,    60,    65,    70,    75,    80,    85,    90 

64  spruce:      2,                      3,      3,      4,      6,  5,    10,      9,      8,      7,      3,      .3,      1 

33  beech:       9,      2,      2,      4,      3,      9,      1,  3, 
1  oak:                            1 

Estimated  product  —  Fir,  261  meters  of  sawlogs,  39  steres  of  fuel;  beech,  61  steres; 
oak  and  miscellaneous,  3  steres. 

Boundaries  —  North  Com.partment  12,  east,  same,  south,  second  lot,  west,  comnmnal 
forest  of  Raon-l'Etape. 

Sawmill  —  Use  of  the  Federal  sawmill  Brisegenoux  commencing  with  the  day  after 
the  sale  of  December  31,  1910. 

Francs 
Charges  —  1 .    Maintenance  of  roads 250 

2.  Cutting  back  beech 10 

3.  Furnishing  16  steres  of  beech  fuel  for  the  forest  house  at 

Balthazard,  making  and  transport  being  estimated  at  a 
value  of 45 

Total  charges 305 

Cleaning  —  Estimated  at  5  steres  of  first-class  fuel. 
Number  of  trees  to  limb  before  felling,  23. 
Etival  railroad  station,  6  kilometers. 


CUTTING  AND  LOGGING  RULES  297 

Pontarlier  (Jura)  July  4,  1912,  composed  of  dry,  diseased,  and  wind- 
fallen  trees.  At  this  auction  the  lot  estimates  averaged  253  cubic  meters 
(about  60,000  feet  board  measure  and  30  cords)  and  $1,099.33,  with 
average  charges  for  road  upkeep,  etc.,  of  $41.69.  In  this  case  it  is  noted 
that  the  "charges"  amounted  to  about  one-twenty-sixth  of  the  sale 
value;  in  other  words,  a  tax  of  about  J^.  per  cent  to  be  added  to  the  sale 
price;  but  the  bid  is,  in  theory,  4  per  cent  lower.  This  method  of  mak- 
ing a  charge  on  the  purchaser  for  the  upkeep  of  roads,  for  the  delivery 
of  fuel,  etc.,  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  requirements  made  on  the  U.  S. 
Forest  Service  purchasers  for  piling,  scattering,  or  pulling  brush  on 
timber-sale  areas;  the  difference  is  that  in  France  the  "charge"  is  on 
the  purchaser,  so  he  bids  that  much  less,  while  in  the  United  States  the 
charge  is  figured  in  the  appraisal.  Out  of  65  lots  on  other  forests  in 
the  inspection  of  Pontarlier  regular  fellings  the  largest  sale  made  was 
for  747  cubic  meters  —  the  minimum  89  cubic  meters  and  the  average 
289  cubic  meters.  In  the  inspection  of  Saint  Die  the  first  50  sales  made 
on  October  2,  1910,  averaged  221  cubic  meters,  with  the  maximum  at  370 
and  the  minimum  at  116.  The  material  sold  both  at  Pontarlier  and  at 
Saint  Die  was  almost  entirely  fir.  In  the  inspection  of  Oloron,  with  oak 
and  beech  as  the  chief  species,  in  sales  made  in  1911  the  average  number 
of  cubic  meters  in  any  one  sale  (there  were  11  sales  that  only  included 
cordwood)  amounted  to  157  cubic  meters,  with  a  maximum  of  732  cubic 
meters  and  a  minimum  of  6  assigned  from  those  sales  where  there  was 
nothing  but  fuel  cordwood.  This  shows  clearly  how  the  pohcy  of  small 
sales  is  encouraged  in  France  where  conditions  make  this  method  possible. 
Cutting  and  Logging  Rules.  —  With  the  sale  of  timber  on  the  stump  it 
is  essential  that  the  purchaser  be  given  very  minute  directions  how  the 
exploitation  should  be  conducted.  The  central  office  at  Paris  accord- 
ingly issues,  from  time  to  time,  a  printed  circular  giving  clauses  and 
conditions  that  govern  sales  procedure  and  exploitation.  The  last 
revision  was  made  May  11,  1912,  following  closely  the  issue  of  June  22, 
1903,  and  May  27,  1909.  Part  III,  "Exploitations,"  of  this  circular  is 
of  interest,  and  cutting  on  any  timber  sale  must  conform  to  these  general 
conditions  unless  the  local  conservation  in  which  the  sale  is  made  has 
issued  ^^  modifications  (see  p.  298)  to  the  general  rules;  the  essentials 
are  as  follows: 

Payments  must  be  made  in  advance  of  cutting;  partial  payments  are  only  allowed  on 
long-term  sales.     Before  cutting  begins  the  ranger  must  be  shown  the  payment  receipt. 

Estimates.  —  If  the  purchaser  can  show  an  error  in  the  number  of  trees  advertised 
he  is  given  a  pro-rata  reduction. 

General  conditions.  —  Timber  cannot  be  piled  outside  the  sales  boundaries  without 
special  permission,  nor  is  grazing  allowed  within  the  felling  area.  Sawdust  and  bark 
must  be  disposed  of  as  directed. 

5^  See  also  the  different  methods  in  long-term  sales,  p.  301. 


298    FEATURES   OF  FRENCH   NATIONAL   FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

Stumps  must  be  cut  with  an  axe  in  coppice  fellings  so  that  water  cannot  gather  on  the 
stump  to  cause  rot,  and  in  high  forests  the  stumps  must  be  sawed  or  chopped  level  with 
the  ground.     Where  the  stumps  are  removed  the  holes  must  be  filled  up. 

Surface  of  the  ground.  —  D6bris  must  be  removed  or  burned  as  directed  and  cord- 
wood  stacked  as  the  cutting  proceeds.  Areas  occupied  by  buildings  must  be  leveled 
and  reforested. 

Damage  to  regeneration  and  to  the  stand.  —  Trees  so  designated  must  be  topped  and 
limbed  before  felling  and  must  be  thrown  up  hill  so  as  to  cause  the  least  possible  damage. 
In  coppice  stands  old  stumps  and  weed  growth  must  be  cut  level  with  the  ground. 
Peeling  of  timber  while  standing  is  not  allowed  nor  can  debris  or  wood  be  left  or  piled 
on  regeneration  or  against  standing  timber,  nor  can  standing  timber  be  damaged  in 
any  way. 

Penalties.  —  If  reserved  trees  are  damaged  or  destroyed  by  the  exploitation  they 
can  be  replaced  by  similar  trees  marked  for  cutting,  or  the  purchaser  may  be  required 
to  pay  cash  at  the  rate  of  3  cents  to  9  cents  per  inch  of  circumference  for  standards, 
or  3  cents  to  11  cents  for  high  forest  trees,  but  the  timber  so  paid  for  remains  the  property 
of  the  State  or  commune. 

SeasoJis  of  cutting.  —  Cutting  must  be  completed  by  April  1  and  corded  by  June  1; 
logging  by  April  15,  except  for  trees  peeled,  which  must  be  cut  by  July  1  and  corded 
by  July  15.     Necessary  extensions  of  time  may,  for  a  nominal  charge,  be  granted. 

Protection  of  forest  betterments.  —  Roads  must  be  maintained  and  kept  free  from 
debris  and  manufactured  products,  and  all  damage  to  any  forest  betterment  must  be 
repaired  or  paid  for. 

Protection  of  cutting  area.  —  Buildings  or  betterments  made  necessary  by  the  sale 
must  be  built  only  on  approval  of  the  forest  officers,  and  spark  arresters  are  always 
required  on  smokestacks,  the  purchasers  being  held  responsible  for  damage. 

Logging  restrictions.  —  Hauling  must  be  over  designated  roads  and  timber  cannot 
be  skidded  on  roads,  rolled  or  slid  down  slopes,  nor  should  logs  or  squared  timbers  be 
skidded  on  the  felling  areas. 

Miscellaneous  provisions.  —  Three  days  before  the  check  of  the  felling  area  pur- 
chasers must  place  stakes  near  all  trees  felled  to  facilitate  inspection,  the  "A.  F.," 
imprint  must  show  upon  all  stumps  or  roots. 

Foreign  labor.  —  Only  a  specified  percentage  of  foreign  labor  can  be  employed  on 
government  sales. 

In  unit  of  product  sales  the  same  rules  apply  and  in  addition  the  product  must  be 
piled  by  the  price  classes  agreed  upon  when  a  joint  scale  is  made;  removal  is  only  after 
specific  authorization.  In  case  wood  is  removed  illegally,  double  the  stumpage  price 
can  be  levied  and  in  addition  punitive  damages  assessed.  Extensions  of  time  for  logging 
costs  1.6  per  cent  the  purchase  price  of  the  material  not  logged  for  each  ten  days. 

Supplemental  to  these  general  rules  each  conservation  issues  special 
clauses  or  modifies  general  rules  which  cannot  be  applied  locally.  For 
example,  in  the  ninth  conservation,  which  includes  the  fir  and  spruce 
forests  of  the  Vosges,  the  use  of  the  saw  is  authorized  for  cutting  coppice 
when  the  stump  measures  more  than  59  inches  in  circumference.  Con- 
tractors are  not  obliged  to  top  and  cut  the  branches  from  designated 
trees  before  felling  if  they  are  willing  to  pay  all  damage  for  trees  injured 
in  any  way.  Felling  of  cordwood  may  take  place  at  any  time  during 
the  year  and  for  any  species  in  the  inspection  of  Saint  Die,  Fraize,  Sen- 
ones,  and  Remiremont,  and  in  these  districts  the  time  for  the  removal 


CUTTING   AND  LOGGING  RULES  299 

of  the  wood  is  extended  to  May  10,  of  the  second  year  following  the  sale. 
The  right  to  bark  trees  is  granted  in  all  fellings,  but  peeling  trees  stand- 
ing is  tolerated  only  under  special  conditions.  Firewood  coming  from 
felled  trees  must  be  made  up  within  48  hours  after  felling.  Sliding  logs 
can  be  authorized  by  the  conservator  under  exceptional  circumstances 
when  it  is  necessary,  but  special  care  must  be  taken  to  protect  the  public 
and  to  assume  responsibility  in  case  of  accident.  The  contractor  is 
held  responsible  for  all  damage  to  unmarked  timber.  The  fuel  to  be 
delivered  to  forest  employees  or  to  communes  must  be  stacked  by 
June  1  following  the  sale.  Foreign  laborers  can  be  employed  only  up 
to  a  proportion  of  20  per  cent.  When  government  saw  mills  are  used 
special  permit  is  necessary  and  the  contractor  must  be  responsible  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  houses  and  for  all  equipment.  Payments  for 
the  use  of  sawmills  are  made  monthly  and  the  contractor  cannot  claim 
any  reduction  in  price  because  of  fire  or  any  other  act  of  Providence. 
The  contractor  who,  without  special  authorization,  permits  manu- 
factured material  to  remain  more  than  10  days  around  the  sawmill 
will  be  fined  58  cents  a  day  for  each  day  thereafter. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  similarity  in  the  special  clauses  issued  by 
each  conservation,  so  these  will  not  be  repeated  unless  the  wording 
is  of  special  interest.  In  the  twenty-second  (Pau)  conservation,  which 
includes  the  western  Pyrenees,  the  right  to  add  windfalls  or  damaged 
trees  to  current  sales  is  reserved,  provided  the  total  windfall  does  not 
exceed  one-tenth  the  total  original  sale.  If  it  does  exceed  10  per  cent 
the  contractor  can  refuse  to  accept  the  windfall  wholly  or  in  part.  In 
the  high  forest  fellings  it  is  provided  that  the  trees  marked  for  cutting 
can  be  barked  standing.  The  sliding  of  the  logs  is  permitted  only  in 
the  felling  areas  designated  as  ''mountain  felling."  Proper  precautions 
to  avoid  accidents  or  damage  must  be  taken  by  the  contractor.  In 
the  coppice  fellings  the  beech  shoots  (see  p.  94)  shall  be  cut  above  the 
stump  of  the  last  felling.  Contractors  may  bark  coppice  trees  stand- 
ing provided  they  make  a  circular  incision  at  the  foot  of  each  stem  at 
least  4  inches  above  the  root  collar.  Special  provisions  are  also  made 
for  delaying  the  clean-up  on  the  felling  areas  to  suit  local  conditions. 
When  sales  are  made  by  unit  of  product  the  contractor  must  have  the 
material  ready  for  scaling  within  2  months  after  the  feUing  is  completed. 
The  fire  wood  for  forest  employees,  mayors,  schools,  etc.,  will  be  piled 
by  steres  and  by  bunches  of  50  fagots  for  scaling  by  the  local  ranger 
not  later  than  Jun^e  1  of  the  year  following  the  auction.  The  reforesta- 
tion of  areas  occupied  by  huts,  workshops,  and  charcoal  pits  need  not 
be  carried  out  unless  specially  provided  for  in  the  auction  announce- 
ment. This  work  will  be  done  according  to  the  methods  suggested 
and  at  the  time  fixed  by  the  local  ranger  and  in  the  presence  of  the  local 


300    FEATURES  OF  FRENCH  NATIONAL  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

guard.  Not  more  than  60  per  cent  of  foreign  workmen  can  be  used  in 
the  mountain  feUing  (see  p.  302)  and  not  more  than  10  per  cent  for  the 
other  feUings. 

In  the  thirty-second  conservation,  at  Vesoul,  the  special  clauses  are 
even  more  minute. 

According  to  Article  2: 

"Peeling  oak.  —  Permission  to  peel  is  granted  in  all  oak  fellings.  Peeling  standing 
is  only  permitted  if  a  circular  incision  is  first  made  around  each  stump  5  inches  above 
the  soil  and  provided  that  the  felling  keeps  pace  with  the  peehng.     .     .     ." 

According  to  Article  3 : 

"Method  of  felling.  —  Fellings  shall  be  made  level  with  the  ground  except  for  clumps 
of  beech  stool  shoots  which  must  be  cut  in  accordance  with  the  direction  of  the  local 
agent.  The  use  of  the  saw  is  authorized  in  high  forest  fellings  for  all  trees  and  in  cop- 
pice fellings  for  trees  measuring  more  than  59  inches  in  circumference  at  breast  high. 
The  local  agent  can  authorize  stump  extraction  in  the  reserve  fellings  on  condition  that 
the  resulting  excavations  shall  be  carefully  filled  and  leveled,  that  these  areas  shall  be 
planted  before  the  first  of  April  .  .  .  with  the  species  suitable  for  the  soil,  at 
the  rate  of  two  per  square  yard,  in  accordance  with  the  directions  of  the  forest  agents  " 

According  to  Article  4: 

"Cleaning,  extraction  of  weeds,  arrangement  of  brush.  —  In  the  high  forest  fellings, 
the  contractor  must  cut  level  with  the  ground  not  later  than  the  first  of  November  of 
the  year  following  the  sale  ...  in  accordance  with  the  demand  of  the  local  ranger 
all  trees  damaged,  bent,  or  injured  by  feUing.  .  .  .  The  branches  from  peeled  oak 
may  be  scattered  over  the  felling  area  between  the  stumps  in  accordance  with  the 
instructions  from  the  local  agents.  In  aU  the  felling  areas,  the  heather  and  weeds  (if 
there  are  any  designated  in  the  marking  record)  shall  be  hoed  up  before  the  fifteenth 
of  April  of  the  year  following  the  auction,  except  in  the  selection  fellings  and  thimiings." 

Special  provision  is  made  for  the  pruning  of  branches  on  the  trunks 
of  coppice  standards,  which  must  be  done  before  May  15  of  each  year. 
Logs  or  trees  can  be  dragged  only  in  the  interior  of  felling  areas  and 
not  on  roads  paved  or  unpaved  except  with  the  express  permission  of 
the  local  ranger.  Areas  covered  with  huts  or  workshops  must  be  leveled 
and  planted  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor  before  April  1  of  the  year 
in  which  the  sale  is  terminated.  Not  more  than  20  per  cent  of  foreign 
labor  can  be  employed  in  the  felling  areas.  Withes  will  be  paid  for  at 
the  rate  of  58  cents  per  thousand. 

Very  detailed  directions  are  given  for  the  classification  of  fuel  to  be 
delivered  to  the  Federal  and  communal  emploj^ees. 

"The  fagots  must  be  4.36  feet  in  length  and  32.5  inches  in  circumference.  .  .  . 
Each  fagot  must  be  composed  of  10  billets  having  a  minimum  diameter  of  2  inches; 
fagots  may  be  substituted  by  stacked  billets  having  at  least  8  inches  circumference 
at  the  small  end  of  beech,  or  hornbeam  at  the  rate  of  3  steres  (3.6  steres  —  1  cord) 
per  100  fagots.     .     .     . 

In  the  twelfth  conservation  (Besangon),  which  includes  part  of  the 
valuable  Jura  region,  trees  can  be  peeled  standing  and  the  contractor 


EXAMPLE  OF  A  LONG-TERM   SALE  301 

"may  leave  standing  parts  of  the  felling  area  difficult  to  log"  after 
designation  by  a  forest  officer.  Unmerchantable  debris  is  burned  if  in 
regeneration  fellings,  elsewhere  it  is  scattered.  In  coppice  stands  "oak, 
beech,  ash,  and  maple  seedlings  over  2.5  inches  in  diameter  must  be  pro- 
tected." Here,  bordering  Switzerland,  one-third  foreign  labor  is  allowed. 
Cleanings  are  Umited  as  follows: 

"Art.  15.  —  The  cleanings  specified  by  Art.  52  (see  Appendix)  of  the  general  ex- 
ploitation rules  only  pertains  to  stems  at  least  8  inches  in  diameter  on  the  stump;  the 
products  of  these  operations  shall  be  removed,  corded,  and  stacked  without  delay  at 
the  designated  places;  they  shall  be  dehvered  to  the  highest  bidders  at  the  price  fixed 
by  the  contract,  and  in  the  absence  of  special  stipulations  at  the  price  of  39  cents  per 
stere  and  58  cents  per  100  fagots." 

Such  minute  and  specific  directions  for  all  details  of  forest  exploitation 
can  of  course  be  worked  out  only  after  years  of  experience.  Specifica- 
tions are  so  well  known  by  local  contractors  and  lumber-jacks  that  it 
is  hardly  necessary  for  them  to  refer  to  written  specifications  which  are 
part  of  their  trade  education. 

The  utilization  of  timber  sales  naturally  varies  with  the  difficulty  of 
transportation  and  with  the  local  demand  for  by-products.  In  the  Pyre- 
nees, on  ground  difficult  to  log  and  with  an  expensive  haul,  defective 
trees  (such  as  would  be  logged  in  a  government  timber  sale  in  the  western 
United  States)  are  merely  girdled  to  make  room  for  new  growth,  but  may 
be  left  standing.  Logs  half  or  one-third  merchantable  are  often  left  to 
rot.  Even  in  the  Landes  where,  during  the  war,  saw  timber  stumpage 
prices  rose  to  $16  to  $30  per  thousand  feet  board  measure,  the  tops  were 
usually  left  in  the  woods,  since  there  was  no  local  cordwood  market  and 
transport  was  impracticable;  the  same  conditions  prevailed  during  peace 
times.  In  most  parts  of  France  every  portion  of  the  tree  has  a  market. 
For  example  (according  to  Captain  Kittredge)  in  the  Cote  d'Or  the  market 
is  intensive: 

"The  trees  over  about  10  inches  in  diameter  are  cut  into  shingle  logs,  full  length  to 
a  top  diameter  of  4  to  6  inches.  The  stems  are  hauled  off  the  forest  in  this  form.  The 
material  in  the  coppice  and  in  the  tops  from  3  to  6  or  8  inches  in  diameter  is  cut  usually 
into  52-inch  lengths  and  piled  for  cordwood.  The  smaller  stems  and  branches  from 
three-fourths  inch  to  3  inches  in  diameter  are  cut  into  26-inch  length  sand  piled.  Later 
this  wood  is  usually  converted  into  charcoal  right  on  the  ground  or  hauled  to  a  nearby 
hardwood  distillation  plant.  The  twigs  below  three-fourths-inch  diameter  are  bound 
into  bundles  with  limber  twigs  and  hauled  away  for  local  use  as  kindling." 

Example  of  a  Long-term  Sale.  —  The  sale  of  236,000  cubic  meters 
(about  66,000,000  feet  board  measure)  extending  over  a  period  of  14 
years,  made  by  the  Inspection  at  Oloron  in  1908,  called  for  deviations 
from  the  regular  sales  methods  of  France.  It  is  typical  of  methods  used 
in  Corsica  in  similar  sales.  Even  before  the  timber  was  marked  and  more 
than  two  years  before  the  bidding  was  called  for,  the  local  inspector  ad- 


302     FEATURES  OF   FRENCH   NATIONAL  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

dressed  circular  letters  to  possible  purchasers  in  order  to  interest  them 
in  the  details  of  the  proposed  sale.  He  called  attention  to  the  necessity 
for  a  personal  study  of  the  timber  and  explained  that  after  the  marking  a 
detailed  synopsis  of  the  estimated  volume  would  be  furnished  them, 
showing  the  proportion  between  sawlogs  and  cordwood.^^  After  the  esti- 
mate was  made  the  material  to  be  sold  was  divided  into  "lots"  and  the 
amount  of  beech  and  fir  in  cubic  meters  was  listed  separately.  The  stand 
in  each  lot  was  carefully  analyzed  as  follows : 

Situation,  altitude,  area. —  These  forests  occupy  slopes  and  are  on  fairly  level  ground. 
The  slope  facihtates  logging.  The  total  area  is  estimated  at  14,209  acres  at  an  altitude 
between  1,640  and  4,921  feet. 

Sizes  of  the  trees.  —  Ninety  per  cent  of  the  trees  included  in  this  sale  are  more  than 
21.5  inches  in  diameter  and  10  per  cent  from  12  to  21  inches.  In  the  forest  of  Laune, 
there  are  very  few  fir  that  measure  less  than  2.5.5  inches  in  diameter  and  there  are  some 
as  large  as  63  inches.     The  height  of  the  saw  timber  varies  from  30  to  60  feet. 

Oivnership.  —  All  of  the  forests  are  conmiunal. 

Rights  of  v:aij.  — There  are  no  rights  of  way  which  must  be  bought.  The  roads 
belong  to  the  forests  and  all  the  bordering  ground  belongs  to  the  communes. 

Logging.  —  The  purchasers  can  establish  such  roads  as  they  deem  necessary  under 
the  direction  and  with  the  approval  of  the  Forest  Service.  This  approval  will  not  be 
refused.  The  alignment  of  the  roads  v/ill  be  indicated  by  the  Forest  Service.  More- 
over, the  successful  bidder  can  install  necessary  railroads  but  must  negotiate  with  the 
communes  for  the  right  of  way  outside  the  forest. 

The  sale.  —  The  sale  will  be  made  by  public  auction. 

Contract  conditions.  —  The  contract  will  follow  the  general  rules  (see  p.  297)  of  the 
Forest  Administration  sul^ject  to  certain  modifications;  special  clauses  will  be  drawn 
up  to  cover  the  sale. 

Pnce.  — The  estimated  value  of  the  timber  is  as  follows:  Lot  No.  1,  a  maximum 
of  1.15  francs  per  cubic  meter  (about  78  cents  per  thousand  board  feet).  Ijot  No.  2,  a 
maximum  of  1.50  francs  per  cubic  meter  (about  .SI. 01  per  thousand  board  feet).  Lot  No. 
3,  a  ma.ximum  of  1.25  francs  per  cubic  meter  (about  83  cents  per  thousand  board  feet). 

Cost  of  logging.  —  Unfortunately  lumber-jacks  will  have  to  be  imported  since  there 
is  no  local  labor  available.  It  is  estimated  that  the  cost  of  felling  will  be  about  19 
cents  per  tree  with  an  addition  of  19  cents  per  stere  for  cordwood.  Unfortunately 
fire  wood  is  not  in  demand  locally,  but  perhaps  small  quantities  can  be  sold  at  6.50 
francs  per  stere  delivered  (about  $4.50  per  cord).  Therefore  the  balance  of  the  wood 
will  have  to  be  made  into  charcoal.  Probalily  sufRcient  labor  can  be  imported  from 
Spain  or  from  the  Vosges. 

Cost  of  transportation.  —  Much  of  the  transport  in  the  forest  can  be  by  nmles,  oxen, 
and  cattle.  The  ox  is  better  for  road  work  and  the  cattle  better  for  work  in  the  forest 
itself.  The  exact  cost  of  transportation  will  vary  according  to  the  distances,  the  roads, 
difficulties  of  ground,  etc.,  so  no  further  exact  data  can  be  given.  A  good  cow  suitable 
for  logging  purposes  costs  locally  from  $58  to  $68,  while  a  mule  costs  $77  to  $87. 

Merchaiitahle  material.  —  Fir  is  in  great  demand  and  brings  good  prices,  since  Ray- 
onne  is  only  87  miles  from  Oloron  by  railroad.     At  Oloron  the  local  price  is  50  francs 

39  In  this  locality  it  was  estimated  that  100  cubic  meters  of  fir  would  equal  86  cubic 
meters  of  building  material  and  21  steres  of  fuel;  100  cubic  meters  of  beech  would  equal 
82  cubic  meters  of  building  material  and  27  steres  of  fuel.  To  reduce  round  timber  to 
square  timber  purchasers  were  advised  to  multiply  by  0.7854.  It  is  likely  that  the 
policy  of  making  large  long-term  sales  will  be  abandoned  by  the  French  government. 


EXAMPLE  OF   A  LONG-TERM   SALE  303 

per  cubic  meter  au  carree  ($23  per  thousand  board  feet).  The  beech,  which  is  gener- 
ally used  for  ties,  sells  at  Oloron  or  at  Mauleon  at  48  cents  each  or  25  francs  per  cubic 
meter  for  squared  timber  (SI  1.50  per  thousand  feet).  There  is  a  good  export  demand 
in  Spain  where  the  beech  is  usually  sent  to  Barcelona,  the  center  of  the  industry.  De- 
tailed data  can  be  secured  at  this  point. 

Profits.  —  As  already  explained,  the  maximum  price  will  probably  be  1.15,  1.50,  and 
1.25  francs  for  the  three  lots,  or  an  average  of  1.28  francs  per  cubic  meter  (85  cents  a 
thousand  feet).  The  material  being  about  two-fifths  fir  and  three-fifths  beech.  Con- 
sidering 86  per  cent  of  the  fir  and  82  per  cent  of  the  beech  as  building  material,  this 
means  a  net  cost  of  30  cents  per  cubic  meter  of  saw  timber  or  38  cents  for  squared 
lumber  which  would  bring  at  Oloron  or  Mauleon  an  average  of  about  $6.76. 

These  calculations  upon  which  the  estimated  profit  and  stumpage 
price  is  based  seem  simple  and  primitive  compared  with  the  minute  calcu- 
lations in  the  United  States  National  Forest  appraisals.  Nothing  is  said 
of  the  cost  of  equipment,  interest  on  the  capital  used,  depreciation  of 
equipment,  nor  cost  of  supervision.  Rule-of -thumb  methods  are  followed, 
and  in  the  appraisal  the  contractor's  profit  was  figured  at  20  per  cent. 

This  sale  was  finally  made  in  1908,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
sale  price  was  19  cents  per  cubic  meter  (about  67  cents  per  thousand 
board  feet)  instead  of  the  25  cents  (85  cents  per  thousand)  estimated  in 
the  appraisal.  According  to  the  special  contract  conditions  the  sale,  as 
finally  made,  covered  10,089  acres,  comprising  first-class  merchantable 
material,  but  in  part  defective,  damaged,  diseased,  or  dying  trees  which 
were  marked  for  removal  for  the  improvement  of  the  stand.  These  de- 
fective trees  were  partly  girdled  and  partly  felled  in  the  actual  operations, 
the  choice  being  left  to  the  purchaser.  As  in  small  sales  in  France,  all 
the  marking  was  completed  prior  to  the  formal  auction.  The  sale  was 
made  in  one  lot,  with  provision  for  the  division  of  the  proceeds  between 
the  various  communes  interested,  based  on  the  volume  of  merchantable 
material  marked  in  the  forests  owned  by  each,  prorated  according  to  the 
average  rate  received  in  each  forest.  At  the  auction  the  minimum  pur- 
chase price  was  placed  at  $37,635  and  was  decreased  by  jumps  of  $193 
until  a  bidder  took  it.  The  payment  was  made  as  follows : 
'  Within  10  days  of  the  auction  the  successful  bidder  had  to  pay  10  per 
cent  of  the  total  purchase  price  and  the  remainder  in  twenty-four  equal 
installments  payable  quarterly  on  March  31,  June  30,  September  30, 
and  December  30  of  each  year,  beginning  with  September  30,  1908,  and 
ending  June  30,  1914,  inclusive.  A  discount  of  1^  per  cent  per  year  was 
provided  for  if  payments  were  made  in  advance  of  their  being  called  for. 
The  final  date  for  removal  of  the  timber  was  fixed  at  December  31,  1922. 
The  compartments  could  be  cut  over  in  the  order  desired  by  the  con- 
tractor, and  more  than  one  compartment  could  be  cut  at  one  time. 
Three  years  were  allowed  for  felling  each  compartment  after  cutting  once 
began.  If  the  imprint  of  the  official  marking  hatchet  shows  a  tendency 
to  disappear  toward  the  end  of  the  sale  the  trees  already  marked  will  be 


304    FEATURES   OF   FRENCH   NATIONAL   FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 


re-marked  by  the  Forest  Service  in  collaboration  with  the  contractor  or 
his  representative.  Special  timber  not  included  in  the  sale  and  used  for 
logging  was  to  be  charged  for  at  the  sale  rate  of  19  cents  per  cubic  meter 
(67  cents  per  thousand  feet).  No  claim  can  be  allowed  for  ground  which 
proves  impracticable  to  log.  Wood  used  for  improvement  of  the  roads  or 
any  other  logging  purpose  must  be  purchased  at  the  regular  price.  The 
contractor  must  within  6  months  after  the  expiration  of  the  sale  remove 
all  machinery  and  furnishings;  but  houses,  workshops,  or  permanent 
betterments  will  become  the  property  of  the  communes  upon  whose 
ground  they  are  situated.  No  allowances  were  to  be  made  for  windfalls 
or  other  damages  which  may  occur  during  the  duration  of  the  sale. 
Special  charges  aggregating  $6,214.60  were  made  for  improvements  and 
roads  used  by  the  contractor  and  he  had  to  deliver  about  18  cords  of 
fuel  per  year  to  the  local  commune.  There  are  certain  features  of  this 
sale  which  should  be  emphasized: 

(1)  The  stumpage  price  of  67  cents  per  thousand  is  far  less  than  the 
stumpage  for  similar  timber  in  the  western  United  States. 

(2)  The  methods  of  logging  were  wasteful;  the  French  policy  was  that 
the  timber  had  been  sold  and  the  purchaser  could  use  it  or  waste  it  as  he 
desired.     Marked  unmerchantable  trees  could  l)e  merely  girdled. 

(3)  Permanent  improvements,  after  the  sale  is  completed,  become  the 
property  of  the  commune. 

(4)  No  attempt  was  made  to  adjust  the  stumpage  price  during  the  sale 
period  of  14  years;  the  price  of  67  cents  held  during  the  entire  period. 
The  French  felt  that  rise  in  timber  values  would  mean  proportionately 
higher  operating  costs. 

(5)  The  contractor's  profit  allowed  was  20  per  cent  as  contrasted  with 
10  per  cent  in  ordinary  sales. 

Stumpage  Prices.^"  —  The  stumpage  values  in  France  under  the 
intensive  management  that  exists  are  of  interest  to  the  American  forester 
because  they  give  a  rough  indication  of  the  prices  that  may  be  secured 
in  this  country  after  the  supply  of  cheap  virgin  timber  is  exhausted.     But 

«  The  prices  paid  for  manufactured  lumber  by  the  French  Woods  Service  during 
1918-19  were  approximately  as  follows: 


Species 

Class  of  product 

Francs  per 
cubic  meter 

Dollars  "  per 
thousand 
board  feet 

Boards,  etc 

1S0± 
160± 
140± 

79 

701 

Pine 

6H 

"  Exchange  at  5.45  francs  to  $1. 
But  to  secure  offerings  at  these  low  prices  the  product  had  to  be  requisitioned  for 


STUMPAGE  PRICES 


305 


in  making  the  comparison  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  no  one  can  pre- 
dict what  the  future  conditions  will  be,  and  whether  changes  in  building 
methods  will  materially  modify  the  demand  for  lumber,  wood  products, 
and  timber.  Then,  too,  what  will  be  our  cost  of  production  and  carrjdng 
charges?  It  is  most  surprising  to  find  French  communes  prior  to  1912 
selling  good  saw  timber  in  the  Pyrenees  at  67  cents  per  thousand  hoard  feet, 

Army  use.  According  to  the  French  Forest  Service  the  correct  commercial  prices  in 
March,  1919,  were  as  follows: 


Species 

Class  of  product 

Francs  per  cubic 
meter 

Current  dollars  <» 

per  thousand 

board  feet 

Fir-spruce 

Poplar 

Oak 

Beech 

Ash 

Elm 

Boards  and  dimension 
Boards  and  dimension 
Boards  and  dimension 
Boards  and  dimension 
Boards  and  dimension 
Boards  and  dimension 

250-300 

225 
300-350 

250 
350-400 
200-220 

100-132 

99 

132-154 

110 
154-176 

88-97 

"  Exchange  at  5.45  francs  to  $1. 

These  prices  are  excessive  and  are  due  to  an  acute  shortage  and  to  speculation,  but 
in  1920  were  still  higher. 

The  approximate  prices  a.sked  by  the  American  E.  F.  on  the  Hquidation  of  its  stocks 
in  France  are  as  given  in  the  table  below.  The  main  reasons  for  these  comparative 
low  prices,  in  the  face  of  a  large  demand  and  acute  shortage,  were  because  of  (1)  need 
for  quick  sale,  (2)  difficulty  of  transportation,  and  (3)  faulty  manufacture  as  judged 
by  French  standards. 


Product 

Unit 

Price  at 

railroad, 

francs  per 

unit 

Approximate  equivalent 

dollars  "  per  thousand 

board  feet 

Hardwood  logs 

Spruce  and  fir  logs,  poles,  and 

piles 

Spruce  and  fir  boards 

Pine  logs 

Pine  lumber 

Pine  props 

Standard-gauge  hardwood  ties.. 
Standard-gauge  softwood  ties... 

Hardwood  fuel 

Softwood  fuel 

Cubic  meter 

Cubic  meter 

Cubic  meter 

Cubic  meter 

Cubic  meter 

Linear  meter 

Each 

Each 

Stere  

Stere 

82 

75 

160 

55 

130 

0.90 

10.40 

6.50 

25 

15 

52i 

48 
70 
35 
57 
0.049per  linear  foot 
57 
36 

16  per  cord 
10  per  cord 

"  Exchange  at  5.45  francs  to  $1. 

In  the  final  settlement  these  prices  were  reduced  10  to  20  per  cent  (or  more  for  fuel), 
but  even  as  they  stand  they  are  low  even  for  very  large  wholesale  operations.  Until 
the  market  becomes  stabilized  by  steady  imports  the  f)rices  will  vary,  owing  to  short- 
age of  supply  and  to  speculation.  In  France  the  stumpage  price  represents  a  larger 
proportion  (often  one-third  to  one-half)  of  the  final  market  price  than  it  does  in  the 
United  States. 

See  also  "  Private  Forestry  in  France,"  page  320,  for  additional  data  on  stumpage  prices. 


306     FEATURES   OF   FRENCH   NATIONAL   FOREST   ADMINISTRATION 

simply  because  the  logging  and  transportation  was  difficult,  when  similar 
timber  in  the  Vosges  and  Jura  on  accessible  forests  was,  in  1912,  worth  $9 
to  $12  and  more.  Such  a  divergence  in  price  seems  extraordinary  when 
one  compares  this  price  of  67  cents  in  the  Pyrenees  near  a  good  market 
with  the  $2  to  $3  received  for  accessible  timber  difficult  to  log  in  our 
western  National  Forests.  Perhaps  the  American  has  solved  the  prob- 
lem of  cheap  large-scale  railroad  logging  better  than  the  French. 

As  already  emphasized  in  other  chapters,  cordwood  values  of  two  cen- 
turies ago  have  decreased  and  saw  timber,  especially  softwoods  and  oak, 
has  increased.  During  the  war  there  was  much  speculation  in  timber- 
lands,  labor  was  abnormally  high,  the  value  of  the  franc  ^^  had  deprecia- 
ted, and  transportation  was  extremely  difficult,  there  was  no  real  compe- 
tition with  import  timber  from  foreign  markets  because  it  could  not  be 
transported;  all  tonnage  was  requisitioned  by  the  Allies  solely  for  war 
needs.  Then,  too,  many  French  merchants  wanted  to  have  their  capi- 
tal in  timberlands  rather  than  in  currency  or  loans. 

Before  reviewing  average  local  prices  it  is  well  to  emphasize  some  of  the 
shortcomings  and  difficulties  of  giving  average  price  figures.  As  in  other 
countries  there  are  "variables"  which  affect  the  price  of  all  classes  of 
timber  —  distance  from  market,  cost  and  difficulty  of  logging,  kind  of 
cutting  (clear  cutting  or  light  thinnings),  cultural  and  betterments  costs, 
other  economic  difficulties  and  expenses,  species,  size,  quality,  local  and 
general  demand  as  compared  with  the  local  and  general  supply,  and  cost 
of  imported  timber.  Then,  too,  abnormal  or  unusual  sales,  such  as  occur 
after  heavy  windfall,  bring  less  than  regular  sales.  Quite  frequently  a 
local  shortage,  as  in  Haute-Savoie  during  the  war,  leads  to  unusual  values  ^^ 
because  in  France  there  are  distinct  local  markets.  This  is  surprising 
considering  the  small  size  of  the  country  and  the  comparatively  short 
hauls  necessary  to  enter  the  general  market.  It  is  partly  due  to  the 
effect  of  permanent  forest  production  which  protects  and  maintains  small 
local  industries  and  prevents  the  local  market  from  being  exhausted. 
Under  normal  conditions  the  price  of  French  stumpage  is  the  market  price 
for  the  manufactured  product  less  the  cost  of  cutting,  logging,  transporta- 
tion, manufacture,  and  contractor's  profit.  In  most  sales  the  auction 
price  must  be  increased  by  so-called  charges  for  road  repair  and  damage  to 
other  forest  betterments  and  growing  stock,  which  in  the  aggregate  aver- 
ages 5  per  cent  of  the  stumpage  cost.  The  French  usually  chstinguish 
three  classes  of  product:  (1)  Fuel,  (2)  saw  timber,  and  (3)  miscellaneous 
products  (such  as  bark).     The  price  of  cordwood  depends  on  its  size;  the 

*i  With  a  gold  reserve  of  only  16  per  cent  the  French  paper  currency  is  really  promis- 
sory notes  issued  by  the  French  Government  with  no  date  set  for  liquidation. 

^  Spruce  and  fir  timber  on  steep  rocky  slopes,  difficult  to  log  sold  in  1918  for  over 
100  francs  per  cubic  meter  or  over  $63  per  thousand  feet  board  measure  for  the  stump- 
age secured. 


STUMPAGE  PRICES 


307 


standard  length  is  now  1  meter  (3.4  feet).     While  diameter  classes  may- 
differ  in  various  parts  of  France  the  following  is  the  usual  classification: 


Class 

Size  and  specification 

Usual  price 

ratio  "  on 

basis  of 

stere 

Quartier 

Over  4.7  inches  in  diameter  outside  bark  at  small  end. 

100 

Rondin  * 

Charbonnette 

Fagots 

P>om  1.97  inches  to  4.7  d.o.b.     Round 

From  0.98  inches  to  1.97  d.o.b.     Round 

Less  than  0.98  inches  d.o.b.     Small  branches 

66 
33 

Charcoal 

Made  mostly  from  charbonnette 

"  Subject  to  wide  variation. 

*  Sometimes  two  classes  of  rondin  are  distinguished  (a)  small  rondin  and  (b)  large 
rondin. 

The  price  of  saw  timber  (bois  d'oeuvre)  also  varies  according  to  the 
classification  of  the  product: 


Class 

Size  and  specification 

Usual  price 

ratio  on  basis 

cu.  m. 

Bois  de  Service  or  construction 

(See  footnote  45) 

00 

(See  footnote  45) 

50 

Bois  chauffage 

(See  preceding  table) 

15 

The  minimum  diameter  of  saw  timber  varies  considerably.  Oak  and 
beech  is  used  to  9.8  inches  for  ties,  softwoods  to  5.9  for  saw  timber,  and 
2.7  to  3.1  inches  for  mine  props. 

In  the  ''log"  and  lumber  market  prices  are  usually  for  round  logs 
(grume  or  au  reel)  but  may  also  be  for: 

Squared  timber  with  some  wane  (au  carree)  equal  cubic  volume  of  round^^  log 
X  0.7854. 

Squared  timber  normally  without  wane  or  sap  (au  ^  e  deduit)  equal  cubic  volume 
of  round  log  X  0.5026. 

Squared  timber  without  wane  but  with  some  sap  (au  ^  e  deduit)  equal  cubic  vol- 
ume of  round  log  X  0.5454. 

Squared  timber  without  wane  but  with  all  sap  {k  vive  arete)  equal  cubic  volume  of 
round  log  X  0.6366. 

The  ratios  between  the  different  methods  of  commercial  sales  are  as 
follows :  ^ 

^2  "Volume  grume"  is  the  cubic  volume  of  a  round  log  based  on  a  cylinder  with  the 
diameter  equal  to  the  middle  circumference  of  the  log;  it  is  also  called  "au  r^el"  when 
referring  to  standing  timber  or  stumpage.  For  further  details  see  Cubage  des  Bois. 
R.  Roullean.,  Paris,  1905. 

^*  Carnet  —  Agenda  du  Forestier,  Besangon,  1902,  p.  92. 


308    FEATURES   OF   FRENCH   NATIONAL  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 


From 

Au  i  sans 
deduction 

Au  i  sans 
deduit 

AuJ 
deduit 

Grume 

(logs) 

A  vive 
arete 

Meter  cube  grume  (round  logs) .  .  . 
Meter  cube  grume  au  j  sans  deduit 

Meter  cube  grume  au  i  deduit 

Meter  cube  grume  au  J  deduit 

0.7854 

lAiob 
1.5625 
1.2337 

0.5454 
0.6944 

'o'0851 
0.8567 

0.5027 

0.6400 
0.9216 

0^7896 

'l2732 
1.8335 
1,9895 
1.5708 

0.6366 
0.8106 
1 . 1672 
1.2665 

In  other  words  100  cubic  meters  of  logs  are  equal  to  78  cubic  meters  of 
logs  squared  according  to  the  j  rule,  or  54  cubic  meters  by  the  |  rule. 
Inspector  Montrichard  has  invented  a  shde  rule  by  which  can  be  read  the 
contents  of  a  log  (a)  grume,  (h)  au  |,  (c)  au  ^,  or  (d)  au  I  of  known 
diameter  or  circumference  and  length.  The  principle  of  a  comparison  of 
log  rules  by  the  use  of  a  slide  rule  has  wide  application  in  the  United 
States. 

There  are  frequent  misunderstandings,  however,  because  in  one  lo- 
cality logs  are  sold  round  (or  "  au  reel ")  while  elsewhere  the  prices  quoted 
are  for  squared  timber  '^au  carree,"  and  because  of  different  methods  of 
measurements  (see  p.  207).  Thus  to  speak  of  French  stumpage  rates  in 
exact  terms  it  would  be  necessary  to  give  at  least  the  data  enumerated 
below;  obviously  in  general  averages  such  minute  data  are  out  of  the 
question:  (1)  Region  (and  forest),  (2)  haul,  (3)  species,  (4)  kind  of  fell- 
ing (and  area  to  be  cut  over),  (5)  charges,  (6)  size  of  trees,  (7)  per  cent 
(a)  saw  timber  and  (b)  cordwood. 

The  forests  of  the  Vosges,  Jura,  and  Savoie  are  comparable  to  the 
coniferous  forests  of  Vermont  and  northern  New  Hampshire  except  that 
(1)  the  road  system  in  French  forests  is  already  constructed  and  logging 
is  therefore  that  much  cheaper,  (2)  the  cutting  removes  a  smaller  per- 
centage of  the  stand,  and  (3)  there  is  a  better  market  and  therefore  more 
competition  for  the  stumpage.  To  secure  an  exact  line  on  French  stump- 
age  rates  on  timber  in  these  fir-spruce  forests  logs  were  scaled  on  timber 
sales  in  1912,  resulting  as  follows: 


(a)  In  a  good  stand  of  silver  fir  (final  felling)  1.1  miles  haul  to  tramway  and  10.5 
miles  from  Pontarlier,  ten  logs  averaging  16  inches  d.  i.  b.  and  13|  feet  in  length  sold 
for  28  francs  per  cubic  meter;  6.6  cubic  meters  sold  for  $36;  the  scale  of  these  logs  by 
the  Scribner  Decimal  C  rule  amounted  to  1,350  board  feet  or  $26  per  thousand  feet 
board  measure  on  the  stump.  Adding  5  per  cent  for  all  charges  the  rate  is  $27.30  per 
thousand  feet  board  measure. 

(b)  In  the  forest  of  Gerardmer  with  a  wagon  haul  of  3  to  4  miles  to  a  broad-gauge 
station  three-fourths  spruce  and  one-fourth  fir  (intermediate  fellings)  brought  only  18 
francs  per  cubic  meter.  The  sale  of  a  representative  mmiber  of  logs  (averaging  6  to 
11  inches  d.  i.  b.)  by  the  Scribner  Decimal  C  rule  netted  $21.40  per  thousand;  which 
increased  5  per  cent  for  charges  is  $22.47  per  thousand  feet  board  measure.     In  other 


STUM  PAGE   PRICES  309 

sales  in  the  same  forest  the  rates  (based  on  an  actual  scale  of  the  logs)  were  (1)  (average 
d.  i.  b.  4.4  to  15.6  inches)  $22.17  per  thousand  feet  board  measure  or  $23.27  with  5  per 
cent  added  for  charges;  (2)  (average  d.  i.  b.  6.4  to  11.5  inches)  $19.73  and  with  5  per 
cent  added  $20.72. 

(c)  In  the  rich  fir  forest  of  Noir^mont  secondary  fellings  brought  $21.62  per  thou- 
sand feet,  or  $22.70  with  the  5  per  cent  added.  Here  the  haul  was  longer  than  in 
Gerardmer. 

(d)  In  the  Jura  (forest  of  Frivelle)  small  pulpwood  on  the  stump  from  thinnings 
was  $3.47  per  cord. 

(e)  In  the  forest  of  Risol  (Jura)  stumpage  was  about  $19.30,  or  with  5  per  cent 
added  $20.26. 

(/)  In  the  forest  of  Mouthe  (Jura)  fine  timber  near  the  road  cut  in  final  fellings 
brought  $27.50  per  thousand  feet  board  measure,  or  with  5  per  cent  added  $28.87. 

(g)  In  the  forest  of  Chotel  (with  a  26-mile  downhill  haul  for  the  lumber)  the  price 
for  fir  was  $24  to  $25.20  a  thousand.  This  high  price  was  due  to  competition  between 
local  mills. 

From  the  foregoing  figures  it  is  safe  to  say  that  in  1912  the  best  fir-spruce 
stumpage,  easy  to  log,  sold  for  $20  to  $25  a  thousand  feet  board  measure 
or  four  to  five  times  the  then  current  price  in  northern  New  England 
which  was  between  $4  and  $8  per  thousand  feet  board  measure.  Since 
the  war  stumpage  prices  in  France  have  increased  to  a  greater  degree  than 
in  the  United  States. 

A  comparison  of  stumpage  rates  *^  in  the  various  regions,  on  the  basis 
of  average  sales  gives  a  lower  price  and  is  less  exact  but  nevertheless  of 
interest.  In  the  table  which  follows  the  ratio  between  thousand  feet 
board  measure  and  cubic  meters  has  been  varied  according  to  the 
estimated  size  of  the  timber;  this  explains  why  60  francs  per  cubic 
meter  of  fir  is  less  than  60  francs  per  cubic  meter  of  oak  and  why  55 
francs  per  cubic  meter  in  the  Cevennes  is  more  than  55  francs  in  the 
war  zone.  Maritime  pine  which  takes  4  cubic  meters  to  the  thousand 
board  feet  is  relatively  more  expensive  (per  cubic  meter)  than  fir  which 
takes  3  cubic  meters  to  the  thousand.  The  same  applies  to  small 
Scotch  pine. 

^«  For  statistical  purposes  it  is  presumed  that  in  mature  conifer  stands  cordwood  will 
comprise  10  per  cent  of  the  yield  (under  French  logging  conditions)  and  in  mature  hard- 
wood forests  20  per  cent;  the  amount  of  cordwood  varies,  but  to  simplify  the  calculations 
the  average  saw  timber  rates  have  been  merely  increased  10  per  cent  and  20  per  cent; 
this  provides  for  the  loss  in  saw  timber  but  allows  nothing  for  the  10  per  cent  to  20  per 
cent  of  cordwood  stumpage  received  by  the  purchaser  in  lieu  of  that  much  saw  timber. 
The  normal  rate  of  exchange  has  been  used. 

"Boise  d'Oeuvre"  or  timber  included:  (1)  "Bois  de  service  or  de  construction" 
includes  (a)  "Charpente"  or  construction  timber  of  considerable  size,  the  exact  dimen- 
sions varying  with  the  different  markets;  (6)  ties;  (c)  telegraph  poles;  mine  props. 
(2)  "Boise  d'Industrie  ou  de  Travail  "  may  be  (a)  "sciages,"  boards,  and  scantlings  of 


310    FEATURES   OF  FRENCH   NATIONAL  FOREST   ADMINISTRATION 

TABLE  24.  —  COMPARISON  OF  PRE-WAR  AND  WAR  STUMPAGE 
PRICES"  FOR  SAW  TIMBER   PAID   BY   THE  A.   E.    F. 


Regi( 


Vosges .... 

Jura 

Central 

Plateau. 
Ivandes .  .  . 
C^vennes. 
Brittany. . 
Allier 

C^vennes. 
Brittany . . 
Allier.*... 
War  Zone. 


Chief  of  species 


Conifer 
Spruce. 
Fir 


Fir 

Maritime  pine. 

^Scotch  pine. . . 

Broadleaves  — 


Oak  —  beech, 


Average 
pre-war 
prices, 
francs 
per  cubic 
meter 


15 


30  to  45 


Approximate 
dollars  per 
thousand 


14.00 

12.75 


11.45 
9.30 


12.70 


24  to  36 


Average  war  prices 
1918-19 


Francs 

per  cubic 

meter 


Approximate 
dollars  per 
thousand 


34.75 

37.00 

23.50 
24.00 
28.00 
28.70 
25.50 


47  to  32 


"Based  on  data  collected  by  the  American  Delegate,  Interallied  Timber  Executive 
Committee,  Paris,  France. 

*  Chiefly  Haute-Marne,  Meuse.  In  this  connection  see  the  stumpage  rates  given  on 
p.  320,  Chapter  XL 

It  is  especially  with  hardwood  logs  that  the  price  per  cubic  meter 

varying  length,  width,  and  thickness  according  to  local  species  and  market;  (6)  "Bois  de 
fente"  cooperage  stock,  etc. 

As  an  illustration  of  French  lumber  grades  the  following  "Sciages  du  Jura" 
is  given: 


French  term 

Width,  inches 

Thickness,  inches 

12.80 
11.71 
10.65 
4.26-  7.48 
4.26-12.80 
4.26-12.80 
8.74-12.80 
4.26-  7.48 
8.74-12.80 
4.26-  7.48 

0.98-1.08 

0.98-1.08 

0.98-1.08 

Planches  alignes,  first  class 

Planches  alignes,  second  class                      .    .  . 

0.98-1.08 
0.98-1.08 

Planches  alignes,  rejects 

Lambris  alignes  (renf.)  first  class  Recette.  . . 
Lambris  alignes,  second  class  (large  etroite) .  . 
liambris  alignes  (minces)  first  class  Recette .  . 

Lambris,  second  class  (large  6troite) 

Lambris-rivages  (bords  non  parallelles) 

0.98-1.08 
0.71 
0.71 
0.52 
0.52 

0.42-0.71 

Planches  brutes 

1  08-1.60 

Lambris  brutes 

0  52-0.71 

Dauves  de  long  de  2  pi  (0.65)  a  4  pi  (1 .30) 

Lettes  et  liteaux      Long  3a  12  pieds 

3.1^  5.32 
0.71-  1.60 

0.71-0.98 
0  71-1.08 

Types  les  plus  usit^s:  8/18,  12/8,  12/12,  12/15, 
12/18  etc 

0.04-  0.07 

0.71-1.08 

STUMPAGE  PRICES 


311 


varies  widely  with  the  size.     For  example  the  official  price  for  oak  in  the 
Meuse  department  in  October,  1918,  was  as  follows: 


Diameter,  breast  height,  inches 

Francs  per  cubic  meter 

Approximate  dollars 
per  thousand 

7^11 

24 
36 
54 

72 

21 

11-17 

26 
36 
42 

17-24 

Over  24 

These  prices  are  about  30  per  cent  to  50  per  cent  over  the  pre-war  rate. 
The  price  of  beech  is  usually  about  two-thirds  that  of  oak  and  the 
larger  the  size  the  more  marked  is  the  difference  in  price. 

Before  the  war  cordwood  was  difficult  to  dispose  of  and  all  the  small 
material  (charbonnette)  was  made  into  charcoal  before  it  could  be  moved 
from  the  forest.  During  the  war  the  coal  shortage  doubled  and  tripled 
prices.  In  the  Haute-Marne  the  averages  for  all  State  hardwood-fuel 
sales  on  the  stump  were  as  follows : 


1914 

1917 

1918 

Class  of  product 

Francs 
per 

stere 

Approx. 
dollars 
per  cord 

Francs 
per 

stere 

dollars' 
per  cord 

Francs 
per 
stere 

Approx. 
dollars 
per  cord 

Quartier 

Rondin 

Charbonnette 

5.30 
3.10 
0.35 

3.70 
2.10 
0.24 

7.80 
5.70 
1.20 

5.40 

4.00 
0.83 

15.00 
11.00 
5.00 

10.40 
7.60 
3.50 

These  prices  are  typical  of  average  conditions  in  France;  most  of  the 
salable  fuel  comes  from  the  tops  of  hardwood  trees  or  from  coppice. 
Softwood  cordwood  has  but  little  value  in  the  Landes  or  in  the  mountains. 
Near  the  large  towns  the  prices  in  the  above  table  may  be  largely  ex- 
ceeded. The  American  E.  F.  settled  most  of  its  cordwood  purchases 
from  State  or  communal  forests  at  9  francs  per  stere  for  quartier,  6  francs 
for  rondin,  and  3  francs  for  charbonnette.  A  large  purchase  in  the  Cote 
d'Or  was  recommended  for  settlement  at  a  flat  rate  of  5.50  francs  per 
stere  ($3.80  per  cord).     This  was  about  double  the  1914  rates.''^ 

There  has  been  much  speculation  regarding  future  French  prices. 
Unquestionably  in  the  general  market  prices  will  fall  to  the  level  estab- 
lished by  the  cost  of  imports  and  will  be  below  war  rates,  but  much 

«  It  should  be  noted  that  the  early  1919  exchange  rate  was  5.80  francs  to  one  dollar; 
toward  the  end  of  1919  it  was  10  to  113^  francs  to  the  dollar,  but  all  conversions  have 
been  made  on  the  normal  value  of  the  franc,  19.3  cents. 


312    FEATURES  OF  FRENCH   NATIONAL  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

higher  ^"^  than  the  1912  price  level  because  the  demand  for  timber  will 
exceed  the  supply  for  years  to  come.  For  the  next  few  years  the  prices 
may  go  even  higher  because  of  the  depreciation  of  the  franc  and  because 
of  unrestrained  speculation. 

Additional  original  data  on  stum  page  prices  during  the  past  century 
has  been  supplied  (March  27,  1920)  by  the  Directeur  General  des  Eaux 
et  Forets,  from  the  official  archives  at  Paris,  but  M.  Dabat  states  in  his 
letter  of  transmittal: 

".  .  .  .  I  must  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  since  the  price  of  timber  is 
not  under  official  control,  the  figures  below  have  only  a  relative  value  .  .  .  they 
only  indicate  ....  and  are  not  exact  data  on  the  price  variations  during  the  long 
period  examined." 

^'  According  to  data  furnished  by  Colonel  Sutherland,  C.B.E.,  the  average  market 
price  of  pitwood,  "ex  ship  Cardiff"  has  been  as  follows: 


Year 

Dollars  per  ton 

Year 

Dollars  per  ton 

1910 

4.70 

1915 

8.76 

1911 

5.31 

1916 

11.22 

1912 

5.39 

1917 

16.79 

1913 

5.49 

1918 

15.86 

1914 

5.56 

1919 

15.86  to  13.42 

The  dollar  has  been  figured  at  the  normal  rate  of  $4.87  to  20  shillings.  It  is 
significant  that  the  English  coal  mines  are  withholding  their  orders  and  are  now  re- 
fusing to  pay  the  high  war  rates,  and  on  January  1,  1920,  report  the  market  "  glutted." 
A  ton  is  equal  to  about  one  cubic  meter;  it  takes  3.6  stacked  cubic  meters  to  make 
one  cord.  The  relative  imports  (chiefly  from  France)  from  the  "  board  of  trade  returns 
of  imports  of  pitprops  and  pitwood "  in  million  carloads  are  as  follows: 


Year 

Million  loads 

Year 

Million  loads 

1902 

2.0 

1911 

2.9 

1903 

2.3 

1912 

2.9 

1904 

2.3 

1913 

3.45 

1905 

2.1 

1914 

2.5 

1906 

1915 

2.1 

1907 

2.4 

1916 

2.0 

1908 

3.0 

1917 

1.0 

1909 

2.6 

1918 

0.7 

1910 

2.8 

1919 

1.5 

STUMPAGE  PRICES  313 

(a)  State  Forest  of  Trongais  (Allier),  oak  saw-timber  stumpage  prices: 


Francs  per  cubic 

Approx.  dollars  per 

meter 

1,000  board  feet 

1820 

34.00 

26.00 

1830 

36.50 

28.00 

1840 

43.00 

33.00 

1850 

30.00 

23.00 

1860 

51.00 

39.00 

1870 

53.00 

40.75 

1880 

32.00 

24.50 

1890 

42.00 

32.25 

1900 

60.00 

46.00 

1910 

70.00 

53.75 

1920« 

170.00 

130.50 

Estimated. 


(6)  State  Forest  of  Ban  d'fitival  (Vosges)  fir  saw-timber  stumpage 
prices: 


Year 

Francs  per  cubic 
meter 

Approx.  dollars  per 
1,000  board  feet 

1835-1870 
1871-1889 
1890-1899 
1900-1909 
1910-1913 
1918 

10.00 
13.50 
15.00 
20.00 
22.00 
60.00 

7.00 
9.50 
10.50 
14.00 
15.50 
42.25 

(c)  state   Forest   of   Gerardmer    (Vosges),   fir   saw-timber   stumpage 
prices : 


Year 

Francs  per  cubic 
meter 

Approx.  dollars  per 
1,000  board  feet 

1870-1879 
1880-1889 
1890-1899 
1900-1909 
1910-1913 
1918 

9.50 
11.00 
11.50 
14.00 
20.00 
60.00 

6.75 
7.75 
8.00 
9.75 
14.00 
42.25 

314    FEATURES  OF  FRENCH   NATIONAL  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

(d)  Gerardmer    Region     (Vosges),     hardwood    cordwood    stumpage 
prices : 


Year 

Francs  per  stere 

Approx.  dollars  per 
cord 

1830-1839 

5.00 

3.50 

1840-1849 

6.00 

4.20 

1850-1859 

5.50 

3.85 

1860-1869 

5.50 

3.85 

1870-1889 

6.00 

4.20 

1890-1899 

6.00 

4.20 

1900-1909 

5.60 

3.92 

1918 

16.00 

11.20 

(e)  Port  of  Clamecy  (Yonne),  coppice  cordwood  ready  to  load  on  canal 
boats: 


Year 

Francs  per  stere 

Approx.  dollars  per 
cord 

1817-1827 
1837-1847 
1857-1867 
1877-1887 
1897-1907 
1913-1918 

10.30-14.50 
11.00-  8  00 
10.00-  9.00 
12.00-11.00 
10.00-12.50 
9.50-25.00 

7.21-10.15 
7.70-  5.60 
7.00-  6.30 
8.40-  7.70 
7.00-  8.75 
6.65-17.50 

A  study  of  these  figures  shows: 

(1)  There  have  always  been  higher  saw-timber  stumpage  prices  during 
and  after  great  wars;  and  that  investors  who  placed  their  money  in  forests 
in  1914  would  have  been  spared  the  losses  due  to  the  depreciation  of 
French  currency. 

(2)  Stumpage  values  for  saw  timber  during  the  past  century  have  about 
doubled  and  since  the  war  have  been  almost  three  times  the  pre-war 
value. 

(3)  Stumpage  values  for  cordwood  have  remained  s^ont  the  same  for 
the  past  100  years,  but  during  the  war  they  almost  tripled  owing  to  the 
shortage  of  coal  throughout  France. 

(4)  The  prices  charged  the  American  E.  F.  by  the  French  Government 
(see  p.  310)  were  much  less  than  the  current  commercial  average  rates. 
Some  of  the  difference  in  price  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  timber  cut  by  the 
American  E.  F.  took  fewer  cubic  meters  to  the  thousand  board  feet  than 
that  sold  the  average  customer. 


CHAPTER  XI 
PRIVATE  FORESTRY  IN  FRANCE 

General  Discussion  (p.  315).  Trend  of  Private  Ownership,  Areas  and  Systems  of 
Management,  Legislation  Against  Deforestation,  Forestry  as  an  Investment,  Money 
Yields  from  Public  Fir  Forests  (Jura-Doubs),  Drawbacks  and  Advantages  to  Forest 
Investments,  Indirect  Benefits. 

Examples  of  the  Best  Private  Forestry  (,p.  323).  Three  Notable  Forests,  The 
Grand  Domaine  of  Arc-et-Chateauvillain  (Haute-Marne),  Forest  of  Amboise  (Indre- 
et-Loire),  A  Fir  Forest  (Vosges),  Conclusions. 

GENERAL  DISCUSSION 

Trend  of  Private  Ownership.  —  In  1912,  when  the  last  statistics  were 
compiled,  seven-tenths  of  the  forest  area  in  France  was  privately  owned 
and  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Landes  and  Gironde  this  forest 
area  was  largely  in  small  holdings.  Out  of  ten  departments,  taken  at 
random,  there  were  97,710  owners,  each  with  less  than  25  acres  of  forest, 
the  average  holding  being  3.2  acres.  In  the  Puy-de-Dome  department 
101,510  acres  were  in  the  hands  of  32,684  persons,  and  around  Paris  31,085 
owners  divided  50,787  acres.  In  all  France  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there  are 
less  than  100  families  that  own  more  than  5,000  acres  each.  From  the 
national  and  political  standpoint  this  era  of  small  forest  holdings  is 
beneficial.  It  has  been  stated  that  social  upheavals  will  be  prevented  by 
this  division  of  forest  and  agricultural  land.  But  other  things  being 
equal  forests  divided  into  small  ownerships  benefit  a  nation  but  deterio- 
rate the  stand.  The  reason  is  that  the  peasant  cuts  spasmodically  to 
satisfy  his  needs  in  the  village  or  farm,  to  realize  on  his  capital,  or  to 
allow  an  estate  to  be  settled.  The  large  owner  on  the  contrary  can  afford 
to  employ  a  competent  forester  and  can  manage  his  forest  as  a  permanent 
producing  business,  based  on  a  sustained  annual  yield.  Or,  better  than 
this,  the  rich  landlord  may  increase  his  growing  stock  and  improve  a  de- 
teriorated stand.i  The  kings  and  nobles  formerly  owned  the  best  high 
forests  in  France  and  to-day  the  best  of  the  private  forests  are  unquestion- 
ably in  the  hands  of  the  old  nobility  and  the  new  industrial  millionaire. 

1  The  Count  de  Grancey,  the  largest  private  owner  in  the  Cote  d'Or,  had  increased  his 
coppice  rotations  and  was  increasing  the  number  of  standards.  It  was  unfortunate  that 
some  of  his  best  stands  had  to  be  requisitioned  and  cut  for  the  A.  E.  F.  fuel  supply. 

315 


316  PRIVATE  FORESTRY  IN  FRANCE 

But  nevertheless  many  of  the  great  forest  properties  are  disappearing  ^ 
because  the  higher  cost  of  operation  usually  reduces  the  return  to  less  than 
3  per  cent. 

Areas  and  Systems  of  Management.  —  No  less  than  15,988,857  acres 
of  forest  (out  of  a  total  of  24.4  million  acres)  are  in  private  ownership.  Of 
this  610,901  acres  are  unproductive;  4,856,214  acres  in  coppice;  5,856,947 
acres  in  coppice-under-standards;  106,314  in  conversion;  and  less  than 
one-third,  or  4,558,481  acres,  in  high  forest.  In  other  words  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  private  forests  are  in  coppice  or  coppice-under-standards, 
and  in  1912  less  than  1  acre  in  100,000  was  being  converted  to  high  forest. 
The  individual  clearly  wants  his  forest  to  yield  returns  frequently  and  he 
desires  but  a  small  amount  of  capital  tied  up  in  growing  stock.  Therefore 
it  is  only  when  local  conditions  almost  force  the  high  forest  on  the  private 
owner  that  he  holds  this  class  of  stand.  In  the  Landes  and  Gironde,  in 
parts  of  the  Sologne,  in  mining  districts  where  there  is  a  great  demand  for 
props,  and  in  the  mountains  where  coppice  will  not  thrive,  he  must  fall 
back  on  the  high  forest.  In  order  to  still  further  reduce  the  capital  tied 
up  in  growing  stock  the  private  owner  invariably  chooses  shorter  rotations 
than  does  the  technically  trained  State  forester.  It  is  not  infrequent 
that  private  coppice  is  managed  under  a  6-  to  18-year  rotation,  whereas 
the  State  forest  coppice  would  be  at  least  25  to  40  years.  For  spruce  or 
fir  the  public  forest  rotation  would  be  120  to  180  years  and  the  private 
forest  30  to  120.  A  similar  difference  exists  in  pine  stands,  although  this 
difference  is  less  marked  with  maritime  pine  than  with  Scotch  pine. 

Legislation  Against  Deforestation.  —  All  through  the  later  forest 
history  of  France  the  Government  has  always  tried  to  restrain  the  private 
owner  and  force  him  to  conserve  his  property.  "  The  files  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  are  full  of  projects  that  menace  forest  property," 
wrote  Bonnevoy,  the  Rhone  deputy,  in  commenting  on  proposed  con- 
servation laws.  Yet  from  1815  to  1870  the  State  itself  sold  no  less  than 
871,401  acres  3  of  public  forest  for  $59,251,000! 

With  the  necessity  for  restraining  the  private  owner  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  there  should  be  a  stringent  law  against  the  "clearing  of 
private  timber"  revised  and  reenacted  in  1859  (see  p.  263). 

The  owner  is  given  an  opportunity  to  present  his  argument  at  a 
public  hearing.  It  is  my  impression  that  the  law  is  leniently  apphed 
but  in  notable  instances  large  properties  have  been  held  to  be  essential 
forest  land  and  could  not  be  clear  cut.  Most  French  laws  benefit  and 
protect  the  private  owner,  especially  against  theft,  trespass,  and  fire. 

-  The  great  forest  of  Eu-et-Aumale  was  sold  in  1912  for  $1,883,500  to  a  company  which 
was  preparing  to  clear  cut.  This  tlie  Government  was  unwilling  to  allow  and  was,  there- 
fore, planning  to  purchase  it  as  a  State  forest. 

3  Du  Retabhssement  de  Nos  Fordts,  par  Ch.  Broilliard.     Besan9on,  1910. 


FORESTRY  AS  AN   INVESTMENT 


317 


Where  the  owner  of  land  has  mismanaged  it  and  allowed  erosion  or 
drifting  sand  to  destroy  its  value,  even  then  the  State  must  buy  the 
land  before  reclaiming  it,  notwithstanding  the  resulting  common  good  for 
the  community.  If  land  is  being  damaged  by  overgrazing  it  can  be 
reserved  from  further  use,  but  during  a  10-year  period  the  value  of  the 
rental  must  be  paid  the  owner,  and  if  after  that  period  forestation  is 
deemed  necessary,  exappropriation,  with  payment,  is  obligatory. 

The  dunes,  as  well  as  the  mountain  reforestation  areas  which  have 
been  restocked,  are  exempt  from  taxation  for  a  period  of  30  years.  Other 
plantations  are  exempt  for  20  years  only  and  this  applies  also  to  the 
restocking  of  blanks  which  have  existed  for  at  least  10  years  before  the 
passage  of  the  law.^  Even  during  the  war,  where  the  power  of  Army 
requisition  had  been  extended  to  cover  standing  timber  needed  by  the 
Allies  as  well  as  by  the  French  people,  the  rights  of  the  individual  were 
fully  protected.  In  fact  an  individual  with  political  power  could  some- 
times evade  the  requisition.  The  conclusion  is  that  the  property  rights 
of  the  individual  are  practically  free  from  obnoxious  State  control,  and 
that  in  fact  every  encouragement  is  given  the  private  owner  to  practice 
forestry. 

Forestry  as  an  Investment.  —  Many  writers  (even  such  an  eminent 
authority  as  Broilliard)  have  argued  that  money  in  savings  banks  paying 
only  2|  to  3  per  cent  interest  ^  had  better  be  invested  in  producing 
forests.  In  forest  valuation  it  is  customary  to  use  low  interest  rates  for 
calculations.  Certainly  one  reason  why  this  is  done  is  because  usually 
if  rates  of  4  per  cent  or  more  are  adopted  for  the  basic  interest  rate  the 
forest  investment  shows  a  decided  loss.  Yet  even  here  there  are  notable 
exceptions  as  in  the  Landes  where  it  was  estimated  that  by  sowing  sand 
wastes,  soil  formerly  worth  an  average  of  77  cents  per  acre  is  now  selling 
at  $54  to  $93  per  acre.    We  know  that  it  cost  some  10.3  million  dollars 


^  L'Impot  sur  le  revenu  des  Forets,  S.  F.,  XI,  5,  pp.  372-375. 

5  The  interest  rates  paid  by  the  French  Government  have  varied  from  a  maximum 
of  8.6  per  cent  (in  1816)  to  a  minimum  of  3  per  cent,  the  prevailing  rate  in  1901.  Not- 
able variations  in  these  rates,  due  to  wars  and  revolutions,  are  shown  in  the  following 
table  (after  Huff  el)  for  100  years: 


Year 

Per  cent 

Year 

Per  cent 

Year 

Per  cent 

Year 

Per  cent 

1816 

8.60 

1832 

5.06 

1854 

7,8H 

1870/ 

4.95 

1818 

7.52« 

1841 

3.13* 

1855 

4.61 

1870 !? 

7.42 

1821 

5.79 

1845 

3.95 

1859 

4.83 « 

1871 

6.23 

1823 

5.58 

1847 

3.88 

1861 

4.32 

1886 

3.75 

1828 

3.87 

1848 

5.00^ 

1863 

4.50 

1901 

3.00 

1830 

3.92 

1868 

4.32 

1918 

6.83 

"and  7.45,  *and  3.50,  ^and  6.64,  '^and  4.69,  «and  4.00,  ■'"Aug.,  ^Oct. 


318  PRIVATE   FORESTRY  IN  FRANCE 

to  reforest  1.6  million  acres,  or  about  $6.41  per  acre.  As  a  national 
investment  this  has  certainly  paid.  It  has  created  enormous  wealth  in  a 
region  formerly  poverty  stricken  and  unhealthy.  But  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  individual  to-day  the  investment  is  not  so  attractive,  because, 
if  the  sale  value  is  compared  with  the  revenue  it  is  seen  that  land  worth 
(with  its  growing  stock)  perhaps  $54  per  acre  nets  year  in  and  year  out 
about  $2.22,  or  about  4.1  per  cent.  According  to  HuffeP  the  average 
returns  from  private  forests  were,  in  1892,  1.16  cubic  meters  (about  two- 
thirds  to  three-fourths  of  this  is  fuel)  worth  67  cents  per  acre  per  year 
(2.90  cubic  meters  and  16.80  francs  per  hectare).  If  we  place  a  soil  and 
growing  stock  value  of  only  $30.88  per  acre  (400  francs  per  hectare) 
the  net  return  is  about  4  per  cent.  The  return  is  probably  less  than  this. 
According  to  French  data  the  lower  the  soil  values  the  better  the  forest 
investment  but  the  higher  the  risk  from  fire,  fungus,  insects,  and  acts 
of  Divine  Providence.  This  seems  logical  because  the  risk  in  the  manage- 
ment of  maritime  pine  on  Landes  sand  is  unquestionably  greater  than  in 
the  thrifty  coppice  of  the  Cote  d'Or  on  rich  well  watered  soil. 

According  to  Huff  el's  definition  the  soil  or  "fonds"  includes  everything 
that  remains  in  a  forest  after  it  is  completely  clear  cut :  the  unmerchant- 
able part  of  the  stumps,  roots,  seed,  humus,  dead  leaves,  boundaries, 
roads,  management  divisions,  drainage  ditches,  fire  lines,  forest  houses, 
and  all  other  betterments.  Any  study  of  soil  values  shows  the  advantage 
of  reforesting  cheap,  so-called  waste  land;  proof  is  abundant  in  French 
forest  history — -the  Landes  Sands  (where  values  increased  from  77  cents 
to  as  many  dollars  per  acre),  the  uncultivated  land  in  Champagne  (which 
sold  at  $1.50  to  $4.50  until  planted  to  Austrian  pine,  when  soil  values 
increased  to  $10  or  more,  because  it  could  produce  $60  per  acre  from 
timber  crops  on  a  short  rotation) ;  similar  advantages  occurred  to  foresting 
cheap  waste  soils  in  the  Central  Plateau,  Sologne,  and  elsewhere.  But 
the  State  had  to  prove  the  way.  Values  are  created;  for  before  the  for- 
estation  the  value  of  the  soil  is  the  local  sale  value,  while  after  the  pioneer 
has  created  the  forest  the  value  is  based  on  what  the  soil  can  produce.  It 
has  been  made  revenue-producing,  and  the  pioneer  reaps  the  profit. 

A  good  illustration  may  be  taken  from  the  sale  of  stock.  Let  us  as- 
sume that  a  Avire  company  sells  its  stock  at  par,  or  $100  a  share,  and  pays 
8  per  cent  (in  accordance  with  1920  rates).  The  concern  prospers,  earns 
and  pays  12  per  cent.  Capital  values  have  been  created  by  its  earning 
capacity  and  the  stock  sells  at  $150  a  share  instead  of  $100.  The  same 
increase  in  values  occurs  when  barren  soil  is  made  to  produce  salable 
forests. 

*ficonomie  Forestiere,  Vol.  I,  p.  407.  G.  Huffel,  1904.  Some  craters  claim 
a  return  of  6  to  7  per  cent  on  timber  investments  in  the  Landes.  See  also  Chapter 
VIII. 


FORESTRY  AS  AN   INVESTMENT 


319 


French  writers  are  apt  to  make  excessive  claims  for  forest  investment 
returns,  Risler/  director  of  the  Institut  Agronomique,  claiming  5  to  10 
per  cent  for  conifer  plantations.  For  a  pine  plantation  near  Selongey 
(Cote  d'Or)  a  return  of  5.7  per  cent  was  claimed  ^  for  a  30-year  rotation 
on  soil  worth  $7.72  an  acre  (100  francs  per  hectare).  For  a  larch  stand 
at  Boisy  near  Geneva,  Barbey  claimed  a  return  of  6.30  per  cent.  And  it 
was  said  that  "a  private  owner  in  the  Pyrenees  spent  10,000  francs  on 
reforesting  uncultivatible  slopes  worth  20,000;  forty-five  years  later  he 
left  to  his  children  a  property  worth  270,000  francs."  Cases  such  as  this 
are  numerous  where  the  owner  reaped  good  returns  by  reforesting  ground 
which  he  would  have  held  anyway. 

The  following  returns  are  cited  for  plantations  of  broadleaf  species, 
such  as  chestnut: 


Soil 

Soil  cost 
per  acre 

Cost  of 

plantation 

per  acre 

Return 

at  end 

of  rotation 

Rotation 

Rate  of 
return, 
per  cent 

Mediocre 

$3.86 
9.65 
19.30 

$7.72 
9.65 
11.58 

$  93 
193 
386 

35 
40 
50 

6   25 

Quite  good 

6.00 

Very  favorable 

5.12 

For  a  fir  stand  in  the  Doubs  on  poor  soil  an  average  annual  revenue  of 
$8.96  per  acre  was  secured  (116  francs  per  hectare)  but  there  are  no  exact 
data  on  the  soil  and  growing  stock  values.  Extraordinary  yields  a;re 
often  cited  for  this  region.  Mangenot  owned  9.1  acres  which  in  1868 
were  estimated  to  have  1,510  trees  or  667  cubic  meters  worth  9,265  francs. 
From  1868  to  1890  he  cut  498  trees  or  604  cubic  meters  and  sold  at  9,650 
francs;  in  1890  he  still  had  1,600  trees  estimated  at  660  cubic  meters  and 
worth  9,165  francs.  These  exact  data  cited  by  Schaeffer  ^  were  equal  to 
a  net  annual  yield  of  about  $9  per  acre  per  year.  The  growing  stock  per 
acre  was  worth  in  round  figures  $199  and  the  soil  at  least  $10,  so  this  return 
of  $9  per  acre  was  only  4.3  per  cent  on  the  invested  capital  in  a  favorable 
forest  region  and  with  rapidly  growing  fir,  spruce,  and  beech.  But  it 
should  be  noted  that  if  this  property  had  been  held  until  1918  and  then 
clear  cut  down  to  a  low  diameter  limit  he  would  have  doubled  his  money 
because  of  the  high  prices  prevailing  during  1918  and  because  the  French 
currency  had  depreciated.  But  this  introduces  a  new  feature  — a 
speculative  one  —  which  is  present  in  all  forest  investments,  namely,  the 
sporadic  increase  in  stumpage  values  with  occasional  very  high  levels. 

^  Placements  Financiers  en  Bois.     A.  Jacquot. 

8  In  the  State  forest  of  Levier  the  gross  returns  have  been  as  high  as  $15.90  per  acre, 
according  to  an  engineer  officer  writing  in  American  Forestry  (p.  1537),  1919. 

9  Quelques  Conseils  aux  Sylviculteurs  du  Chablais.     A.  Schaeffer,  Annecy,  1894. 


320 


PRIVATE   FORESTRY  IN   FRANCE 


Much  of  this  increase  may  be  due  to  the  decrease  in  the  purchasing  power 
of  money  in  addition  to  an  increasing  shortage  of  supply.  In  the  State 
and  communal  forests  under  the  inspector  at  Lorient  (Morbihan)  the 
average  price  per  cubic  meter  for  commercial  sales  ^^  was  as  follows: 


Year 

Total  sales, 
cubic  meters 

Average  price,  francs 
per  cubic  meter 

Price 
per  thousand  feet 
board  measure*^ 

1890 

12,749 

10.99 

$11.31 

1900 

16,932 

13.34 

13.73 

1910 

21,211 

14.78 

15.22 

1912 

41,338 

8.58 

8.83 

1913 

25,365 

11.90 

12.25 

1914 

18,586 

10.70 

11.02 

1915 

23,560 

14.28 

14.70 

1916 

25,822 

14.69 

14.86 

1917 

23,353 

23.16 

23.84 

1918 

25.032 

29.54 

30.41 

«  This  is  only  approximate  since  these  prices  were  averages  including  cordwood.  To 
reduce  to  dollars  per  thousand,  the  average  price  figure  has  been  increased  33|  per  cent 
and  four  cubic  meters  counted  to  the  thousand  board  feet. 

These  original  data  show  how  the  private  owner  could  have  taken  ad- 
vantage of  the  prevaiHng  high  prices  in  1917  and  1918  and  could  have 
profitably  reduced  his  growing  stock.  They  also  show  a  steady  increase  in 
price  since  1890,  with  the  probability  of  much  higher  prices  even  after 
the  abnormal  war  conditions  are  passed.  Under  such  conditions  the  new 
owner,  who  has  bought  at  the  higher  price  level,  may  be  influenced  to  cut 
and  sell  at  the  new  price  level. 

The  forest  investment,  even  after  stumpage  values  increase,  is  much 
the  same  because  the  capital  values  of  the  land  and  growing  stocks  have 
increased  in  the  same  proportion;  but  it  is  during  such  times  that  the 
incentive  to  liquidate  the  investment  is  greatest. 

Money  Yield  from  Public  Fir  Forests  (Jura-Doubs).  —  It  is  interesting 
to  compare  the  returns  from  the  private  forests  just  reviewed  with  those 
from  public  forests  which  are  perhaps  more  conservatively  managed. 
Table  25  which  follows"  shows  the  basic  data: 

Much  can  be  learned  from  a  study  of  the  following  table,  for  the  past 
history  of  four  important  State  and  communal  fir  and  spruce  forests  in 
the  Jura  Mountains  can  be  accurately  analyzed,  (a)  The  average  ro- 
tation is  150  years;  in  other  words  it  takes  150  years  to  grow  (Jura)  fir  and 
spruce  22.8  inches  in  diameter  breast-high.     (6)  The  average  stand  (mean 

10  The  low  price  in  1912  was  due  to  windfall;  the  low  price  in  1914  was  due  to  the  un- 
settled conditions  prevalent  during  the  initial  period  of  the  war. 

"  From  original  data  prepared  by  Inspecteur  Devarennes.  Such  detailed  data  on 
managed  French  forests  have  never  before  been  made  public  in  the  United  States. 


MONEY   YIELD  FROM   PUBLIC  FIR  FORESTS 


321 


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322  PRIVATE   FORESTRY   IN   FRANCE 

per  working  group)  over  the  whole  area  of  8,294  acres  is  over  31,000  board 
feet  per  acre.  This  was  secured  by  natural  regeneration,  (c)  The 
average  working  group  is  1,037  acres  (see  p.  226).  {d)  The  gross  yield 
per  acre  is  $11.18  and  the  net  yield  about  $10.68;  this  =  for  mountain 
land  unquestionably  unsuited  to  agriculture.  The  average  price  for 
saw  timber  prior  to  1911  was  $8.70  per  thousand  feet  board  measure  on 
the  stump.  The  local  stumpage  prices  are  now  three  to  five  times  that 
figure,  (e)  These  fir-spruce  forests  averaged  2.4  per  cent  in  gro^vth  and 
the  prescribed  yield  was  2.8  per  cent  of  the  growing  stock  —  a  little  more 
than  the  growth  so  as  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  overmature  timber.  (/) 
In  1908-1911  the  capital  invested  was:  Timber  growing  stock  $4,063,902; 
empirical  soil  value  (estimated),  $153,108;  total,  $4,217,010. 

The  gross  annual  revenue ^^  from  timber  sales  was:  $119,125;  annual 
cost  of  administration  and  taxes,  $4,147;  annual  net  return,  $114,978. 

This  is  about  2.7  per  cent  net  on  the  invested  capital  ^^  for  the  period 
prior  to  1908-1911,  or  perhaps  2|  per  cent  on  a  conservative  basis.  It 
should  be  noted  that  this  is  less  than  secured  by  private  owners  who  use 
shorter  rotations  and  do  not  allow  excess  growing  stock  to  accumulate. 

Drawbacks  and  Advantages  to  Forest  Investments.  —  Many  forest 
owners  were  almost  ruined  when  the  demand  for  charcoal  and  cordwood 
was  largely  reduced  by  coal  production.  It  is  only  too  common  that 
much  of  the  growing  stock  (conifers)  is  wiped  out  by  fire,  by  disease  or 
by  insects.  Considerable  losses  are  frequent  from  windfall  and  even  in 
France  with  a  good  market  20  to  50  per  cent  drops  in  stumpage  values 
are  common  when  considerable  areas  of  windfall  are  suddenly  placed  on 
the  market.  Like  farming  land  forest  property  is  apt  to  deteriorate  un- 
less the  owner  gives  it  his  personal  attention  and  exercises  good  technique. 

Some  advantages  of  owning  forest  property  as  a  long-term  business 
investment  in  pai't  compensate  for  its  low  financial  returns  as  an  invest- 
ment in  permanent  forest  production  are:  (1)  Stumpage  prices  are  in- 
creasing, especially  in  countries  where  the  virgin  timber  is  being  ex- 
hausted. After  the  virgin  timber  is  cut  then  stumpage  must  be  based 
on  the  cost  of  production  or  import,  but  even  then  prices  will  increase  as 
the  intensity  of  population  increases.  (2)  With  inflated  or  depreciated 
currency  forest  values  increase  and  forest  property  can  be  sold  at  a  profit. 
(3)  In  countries  like  the  United  States,  where  the  essential  technique  of 
forest  valuation  is  not  widely  known,  the  values  placed  on  unmerchant- 
able young  timber  are  usually  below  the  market  —  hence  private  owners 

1-  Compare  with  the  figures  for  La  Joux  (2  per  cent)  given  in  the  Appendix,  p.  514. 

13  According  to  Huff  el,  Vol.  II,  Page  VII  of  preface:  "Exploitations  .  .  .  which  are 
organized  with  a  view  to  producing  saw  timber  of  large  size  always  yield  small  returns; 
they  hardly  yield  1  or  2  per  cent  on  the  invested  capital  in  the  case  of  oak  high  forest  with 
long  rotations." 


GRAND   DOMAINE  OF  ARC-ET-CHATEAUVILLAIN  323 

can  often  acquire  cut-over  land  at  very  reasonable  rates.  (4)  Where 
land  values  are  generally  low  forest  property  often  acquires,  as  the  coun- 
try develops,  a  greatly  enhanced  sales  price  for  other  uses. 

Indirect  Benefits.  —  In  France  it  is  especially  true  that  the  individual 
owns  forests  for  indirect  benefits  as  well  as  for  an  investment.  The  owner- 
ship of  forests  gives  the  landowner  a  certain  prestige.  The  average  coun- 
try estate  or  chateau  loses  half  its  value,  or  more,  unless  there  is  surround- 
ing forest.  For  the  rich,  the  management  of  a  forest  property  in  France 
is  an  occupation  which  has  advantages  difficult  to  find  elsewhere.  Shoot- 
ing, a  rich  man's  pastime,  requires  a  forest.  To-day  every  great  family 
in  France  has  its  country  estate  with  some  forest,  but  within  the  past  30 
years,  it  should  be  again  emphasized,  there  has  been  a  decided  tendency 
to  dispose  of  large  estates.  The  same  is  true  in  England.  To-day  M. 
Hirsch  and  his  near  relations  own  more  forest  and  better-managed 
forest  than  any  other  family  in  France  —  notably  the  forests  of  Amboise 
(Indre-et-Loire)  and  Dreux  (Eure-et-Loire).  The  forests  of  the  Due  de 
Penthievre  in  the  Haute-Marne  are  being  improved  by  A.  Gazin,  a  not- 
able private  forester.     But  these  are  exceptions. 

EXAMPLES  OF  THE  BEST  PRIVATE  FORESTRY 

Three  Notable  Forests.  —  It  was  found  exceedingly  difficult  to  secure 
authoritative  data  on  the  management  of  private  forest  properties. 
Many  owners  did  not  possess  accurate  and  complete  records  while  others 
hesitated  to  give  freely  to  a  stranger  more  or  less  private  information  on 
costs,  revenues,  and  methods  of  management.  But  French  foresters 
were  in  accord  that  (a)  the  Arc-et-Chateauvillain  Forest  (Haute-Marne) 
(b)  Amboise  Forest  (Indre-et-Loire)  and  (c)  the  Forest  of  X  (Vosges) 
were  three  examples  of  the  best  private  forestry  in  France  and  represen- 
tative of  entirely  different  problems ;  (a)  is  chiefly  a  poor  coppice-under- 
standards  and  mediocre  high  forest,  (b)  is  a  rich  coppice-under-standards, 
and  (c)  is  a  rich  stand  of  silver  fir.  Some  day  the  writer  hopes  to  secure 
private  forest  data  on  mountain  forests,  on  Scotch  pine,  and  on  the  Landes 
maritime  pine. 

The  Grand  Domaine  of  Arc-et-Chateauvillain  (Haute-Marne).  —  This 
forest  property  is  being  conservatively  administered  and  the  rotations 
lengthened  ^^  notwithstanding  the  small  investment  returns.  The 
forest  contains  some  28,000  acres  intact,  and  the  Due  de  Penthievre  is 
improving  his  property,  under  the  able  direction  of  M.  Gazin  ^^  by  (1) 
reforesting,  (2)  by  increasing  the  rotations,  (3)  by  increasing  the  age 

"  Un  Grand  Domaine  Forestier,  par  A.  Gazin.     Besangon,  1910. 
16  The  total  receipts  and  expenses  for  1911  for  the  property  managed  by  Gazin  were  as 
follows: 


324 


PRIVATE   FORESTRY   IN   FRANCE 


of  the  reserves  in  coppice-under-standards,  (4)  by  developing  a  road 
system,  (5)  by  securing  a  better  range  force  through  increasing  their 
pay. 

The  property  was  bought  in  1693  by  Louis- Alexandre  de  Bourbon, 
Count  of  Toulouse;  his  son  Louis  de  Bourbon,  Duke  of  Penthievre,  in- 
herited it.     It  was  sequestered  during  the  revolution  but  was  restored  to 


Receipts 


Wood 

WindfaU. . . . 
Rock,  etc. .  . 
Grazing .  . .  . 
Indemnities . 
Trespass. . .  . 

Rights 

Hunting. . .  . 


Francs 
119,900.00         Salaries. 


Expenses 


Farms  (net). 


1,647 

10 

1,161 

01 

76 

00 

273 

80 

10.00 

700 

00 

32,000 

00 

152 

20 

155,920 

11 

49,400.00 

Totals. 


205,320.11 


Clothing 

Office 

Cost  of  making  sales .  . 
Road  maintenance .... 

Plantations 

Pruning  reserves 

Private  logging 

Maintenance  of  houses. 

Stamp  (tax) 

Lawsuits 

Policing  game  rights. . . 

Advertising,  etc 

Horses  and  stable 
(19/20  to  "forests").  • 

Insurance 

Pensions 

Taxes 

Stamps  for  pensions.  . . 
Totals 


Francs 

29,199.64 

1,140.90 

246.48 
4,920.90 
2,008 . 185 
1,049.585 

870.50 

168.19 

2,249.20 

6.20 


200.00 
707.592 

1,799.22 

22.60 

928.75 

24,263.86 

33.75 

69,804.952 


These  figures  simply  serve  to  illustrate  the  low  net  returns  for  large  forest  estates  in 
France.  The  percentage  return  on  the  investment  cannot  be  computed  but  it  is  cer- 
tainly less  than  2  per  cent.     The  taxes  eat  up  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  gross  receipts. 

Gazin's  budget  is  divided  into  six  chapters  followed  by  a  general  summary:  (1) 
Forests;  (2)  houses  and  farms;  (3)  sawmills;  (4)  chateaux  and  parks;  (5)  hunting 
and  fishing;  (6)  pensions;  (7)  recapitulation.  The  estimate  signed  December  18,  1912, 
and  approved  by  the  Due  de  Penthievre,  is  as  follows: 


Receipts, 

Expenses, 
francs 

Taxes, 
francs 

1 

188,320 

3,753 

5,913 

1,500 

32,100 

67,405.40 

13,348.00 

55,500.00 

13,815.96 

1,000.00 

5,245.05 

3,051.09 

159,365.50 
Net,  72,220.50 

23,826.25 

2 

1,018  00 

3 

4 

5 

1,756.00 

6 

Miscellaneous 

231,586 

26,600.25 

The  cost  of  administration  totaled  3.40  francs  per  hectare  per  year;  maintenance 
0.98;  cost  of  making  sales,  0.60;  total  of  4.98  francs,  excluding  taxes  (34  cents  per  acre). 
The  coppice  in  1865  sold  for  95,000  francs;  in  1866,  152,000;  in  1870,  120,000;  and  in 
1913,  16,000  francs,  or  only  about  10  per  cent  gross  receipts.  This  illustrates  the  loss  to 
forest  owners  in  P'rance  through  the  discovery  and  use  of  coal. 


GRAND   DOMAINS  OF  ARC-ET-CHATEAUYILLAIN  325 

the  daughter  of  the  duke  in  1814  who  had  married  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
It  was  finally  left  to  a  nephew  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  the  Prince  of 
Joinville.  In  1852  it  was  again  confiscated  and  sold  to  the  Societe 
Passy  but  in  1873  the  Prince  of  Joinville  bought  it  back.  At  the  death 
of  this  Prince  on  June  16,  1900,  his  son  Pierre  d'Orleans,  the  present 
Duke  of  Penthievre,  inherited  it.  After  such  changes  of  ownership  it 
is  not  surprising  that  the  forest  needed  betterments. 

The  total  area  of  the  property  amounts  to  27,866  acres  divided  as  fol- 
lows: Forest  (including  212  acres  reforested),  26,309  acres;  deer  park 
around  chateau,  608  acres;  small  park,  77  acres;  chateau  park,  178  acres; 
saw  mill,  etc.,  15  acres;  farms  and  meadows,  679  acres.  It  is  situated 
in  the  department  of  the  Haute-Marne  almost  at  the  center  of  the  tri- 
angle formed  by  the  towns  Chaumont,  Langres,  and  Chatillon-sur-Seine. 
The  mean  altitude  is  1,148  feet,  the  lowest  elevation  722  and  the  highest 
1,312  feet.  The  climate  is  severe  and  grapes  cannot  be  cultivated  ex- 
cept on  the  south  exposure  of  walls.  In  certain  parts  of  the  forest  frost 
occurs  almost  every  month  of  the  year.  The  variations  in  the  climate 
and  the  permeability  of  the  limestone  soil,  coupled  with  spring  and  fall 
frosts,  makes  the  climate  unfavorable  for  good  growth.  Considerable 
damage  is  also  done  by  game  with  which  the  forest  is  stocked.  The  soil 
is  generally  dry  and  of  mediocre  quality.  The  species  are  principally 
oak,  beech,  and  hornbeam.  Hornbeam  forms  63  per  cent  of  the  coppice 
stands,  while  in  the  coppice-under-standards  there  is  almost  twice  as 
much  oak  among  the  standards  as  there  is  beech  or  hornbeam.  There 
are  some  33.5  miles  of  paved  roads  on  the  property  maintained  in  good 
condition.  An  administrator  (Gazin)  has  charge  of  the  property  and  is 
resident  at  Arc-en-Barrois.  The  force  includes  seventeen  men  divided 
into  three  ranger  districts,  each  guard's  beat  averaging  about  1,850  acres. 
It  is  interesting  that  all  employees  are  housed  and  furnished  free  heat,  a 
uniform,  pension,  and  medical  care.  The  salary  paid  rangers  and  guards 
in  1912  was  as  follows:  Rangers,  first  clasS:  $270;  second  class,  $232; 
guards,  exceptional  class,  $193;  first  class,  $174;  second  class,  $154;  be- 
sides they  are  paid  a  bonus  of  24  cents  per  day  when  they  are  engaged  in 
manual  labor.  The  pension  begins  when  they  are  55  years  old  and  is 
one-sixtieth  of  the  salary  of  each  year  of  service.  For  example,  if  a  man 
has  worked  30  years  with  an  average  yearly  salary  of  $200  he  would  re- 
tire when  he  was  55  with  an  annual  pension  of  $100.  It  is  now  planned 
to  regulate  the  salary  of  the  guards  according  to  the  size  of  their  famihes 
—  the  more  children  the  larger  salary.  In  addition  the  guards  and 
rangers  receive  supplementary  pay  for  killing  destructive  animals  and  a 
bonus  for  each  head  of  game  killed.  The  forest  is  well  stocked  with  game 
and  during  a  10-year  period  the  average  annual  kill  was  10  stags,  30  deer, 
87  roebuck,  50  wild  boar,  and  14  hare.     During  1908  the  right  to  hunt 


326  PRIVATE   FORESTRY   IN   FRANCE 

was  leased  to  a  club  at  23  cents  per  acre  per  year.  This  club  charged  its 
members  the  following  premiums:  Club  members  who  shoot  on  this 
forest  pay  in  addition  (35  per  cent  of  which  goes  to  the  rangers  and  beaters 
and  65  per  cent  to  the  guards) :  Roe-buck  48  cents  per  head  for  the  first  50 
killed;  $1.93  for  the  following  150;  $2.89  for  the  rest.  Stags,  $3.86  per 
head  for  the  first  10;  $5.79  for  the  10  following;  $7.72  for  the  third  10; 
$9.65  for  the  fourth  10;  $11.58  for  the  fifth  10;  $13.51  for  the  rest.  Deer, 
$3.86  per  head.  In  addition  the  club  paid  the  following  rewards  for 
killing  beasts  of  prey:  Fox,  $1.16;  badgers,  $1.35;  wild  cats,  $2.90;  martins 
and  pole  cats,  $1.16;  domestic  cats  caught  in  the  forest,  58  cents;  martins, 
fur  species,  $3.86;  weasels,  58  cents;  ermine,  97  cents;  buzzards,  19  cents. 
The  pelts  were  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  club.  For  the  discovery  of 
poachers  the  club  paid  $7.72  for  those  caught  during  the  day;  $15.44  for 
poachers  caught  during  the  night,  and  $1.93  for  dogs  caught  in  the 
forest. 

The  forest  yields  truffles  in  considerable  quantity.  Practically  all 
sawlog  material  is  exported  and  firewood  in  small  amounts  is  used 
locally.  Mine  props  are  exported  to  the  northern  part  of  France  and 
Belgium,  the  wood  and  charcoal  to  Paris.  The  average  prices  secured 
are  as  follows:  Oak,  first  quality  (20  inches  in  diameter  and  better), 
$6.76  per  cubic  meter  in  the  log;  second  quality  (12  inches  to  19  inches 
in  diameter),  $4.83;  third  quality  (8  to  11  inches  in  diameter),  $2.32. 
Beech  logs  bring  about  $2.90  per  cubic  meter  on  the  average;  mine  props, 
53  cents  per  stere  (0.277  cord) ;  firewood,  48  cents  per  stere;  and  charcoal 
made  of  branch  wood,  5  cents.^^ 

Management.  —  The  system  of  coppice-under-standards  is  applied 
to  the  nineteen  working  groups  of  the  forest  and  the  rotation  averages  from 
25  to  30  years.  The  rotation  has  been  lengthened,  however,  and  owing  to 
the  small  value  of  fuel  and  the  increasing  value  of  sawlogs,  is  now  27  to 
32  years.  In  the  past,  with  the  rotation  25  to  30  years  and  because  the 
reserves  were  insufficient,  the  yield  averaged  0.32  cubic  meters  of  sawlogs 
per  acre  and  1  cubic  meter  of  firewood.  The  price  of  charcoal  has  dropped 
from  58  cents  to  5  cents  per  stere  on  the  stump  (3.6  steres  to  a  cord). 
The  objection  to  converting  this  coppice-under-standards  to  high  forest 
is  that  it  would  take  too  long  and  cost  the  owner  too  much.  There  is  so 
much  game  in  this  forest  that  the  conversion  would  be  difficult,  especially 
if  fir  were  planted.  The  number  of  reserves  is  to  be  increased  to  such  an 
extent,  however,  that  the  coppice-under-standards  will  resemble  an 
open  high  forest.  There  are  also  objections  to  lengthening  the  rotation: 
(1)  The  necessary  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  oak;  (2)  the  impossibility 
of  securing  the  full  value  of  the  reserves  which  become  ripe,  decayed,  or 
overmature;  (3)  the  decrease  in  the  growth  of  the  reserves,  since  the 
1^  These  prices  were  prior  to  1912. 


FOREST  OF  AMBOISE  327 

greatest  development  comes  during  the  10  years  following  the  cutting 
of  the  coppice.  This  last  may  be  in  part  compensated  for  by  the  increase 
in  value  of  the  coppice  felling  because  of  the  increasing  price  for  large 
mine   props. 

Growth.  —  It  is  the  policy  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  growth  of 
the  reserves  in  the  coppice-under-standards.  All  these  reserves  (first- 
class  standards)  are  numbered  and  measured  at  the  time  of  the  coppice 
fellings  and  at  all  subsequent  stocktakings.  According  to  data  secured 
the  oak  takes  20  years  to  grow  from  one  2-inch  class  into  another  and 
15  years  for  the  beech;  on  an  average  the  growth  for  the  oak  is  2.5  per 
cent  and  for  the  beech  3.5  per  cent.  According  to  the  marking  made  on 
about  1.977  acres  in  1907-1908,  23.6  cubic  meters  were  left  and  18.4  cubic 
meters  of  reserves  cut. 

Yield.  —  For  the  years  1907  1908  (976  acres  were  cut  over  each  year) 
the  final  yield  from  the  reserves  was  5.2  cubic  meters  of  sawlogs  per  acre 
and  6.8  cubic  meters  of  fuel  —  12  in  all,  while  the  coppice  yielded  a  cut 
of  22  cubic  meters  of  fuel,  charcoal,  and  mine  props.  For  the  2  years 
the  final  yield  was  $22.13  per  acre  for  the  high  forest  and  $7.34  for  the 
coppice,  an  average  of  $1.91  per  cubic  meter  for  the  high  forest  systems, 
branches  included,  and  but  33  cents  per  cubic  meter  for  the  coppice.  This 
illustrates  very  vividly  the  great  advantage  of  growing  saw  timber  instead 
of  cordwood.  The  net  yield  on  the  investment  is  probably  1 .5  to  2.0  per  cent. 

Forestation.  —  The  first  plantations  date  from  1838  to  1848,  when  the 
Vendue  and  Essarts  farms  were  forested  with  Scotch  pine  and  oak,  with 
avenues  of  spruce  and  pine  along  the  boundaries.  This  planting  has  been 
very  profitable.  Some  of  the  spruce  is  now  more  than  27  inches  in 
diameter  and  is  growing  rapidly.  Planting  in  the  blanks  has,  on  the 
whole,  given  excellent  results.  The  popular  species  used  lately,  planted 
in  groups  of  about  2^  acres  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  are 
spruce,  Scotch  pine,  Corsican  pine,  Austrian  pine,  larch,  and  beech. 
Some  fir,  as  well  as  white  pine,  Douglas  fir,  and  Japanese  larch  has  been 
planted.  Since  the  soil  is  limestone  it  is  likely  that  this  last  species  will 
give  mediocre  results. 

The  House  of  Orleans  deserves  a  great  deal  of  credit  for  its  conservative 
treatment  of  this  forest,  and,  as  Broilliard  has  said,  "The  owner  who 
conserves  his  forest  is  continually  working  for  the  country;  he  is  essentially 
a  benefactor. " 

Forest  of  Amboise  (Indre-et-Loire).  —  The  forest  of  Amboise  was 
bought  from  the  Emperor  of  Bulgaria  by  M.  Hirsch,i^  then  an  inspector  in 

"  Through  the  courtesy  of  M.  Hirsch  the  writer  obtained  access  to  his  private  forest 
records  and  was  enabled  to  visit  the  forest  with  the  owner.  Unfortunately  much  of  the 
best  saw  timber  and  cordwood  was  requisitioned  and  cut  by  the  A.  E.  F.  during  the 
Great  War. 


328  PRIVATE  FORESTRY  IN  FRANCE 

the  "Waters  and  Forests  Service,  stationed  at  Paris.  The  domain  formed 
part  of  the  royal  forests  until  1761,  when  it  was  given  to  the  Duke  of 
Choiseul  by  Louis  XV;  in  1784  it  was  purchased  by  the  Duke  of  Pen- 
thievre.  After  suffering  confiscation  at  the  French  Revolution  it  be- 
came the  property  of  Louis  XVIII,  who  gave  it  to  the  Duchess  of  Orleans, 
who  later  became  Queen  Marie  Amelie.  When  Louis  Philippe  divided  his 
possessions  the  forest  of  Amboise  fell  to  Princess  Louise,  the  Queen  of 
Belgium.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  some  4,942  acres  were  con- 
fiscated and  sold  so  that  at  the  restoration  in  1872  but  10,378  acres 
remained.  In  1874  the  remnant  was  ceded  to  the  Princess  Clementine 
and  the  Duke  of  Wartenberg;  it  finally  was  acquired  by  the  Prince  of 
Bulgaria  and  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha. 

The  forest  is  situated  15  miles  east  of  Tours,  between  the  Cher  and  the 
Loire  rivers.  The  historic  town  of  Amboise  is  directly  north  and  Blere 
is  to  the  south.  The  forest  contains  10,691  acres  and  varies  from  0.62 
to  3  miles  in  width  and  is  10  miles  long.  The  soil  is  a  deep  clay,  often 
sandy  in  character,  quite  compact,  and  yet  the  roots  penetrate  quite 
easily.  Usually  there  is  a  good  humus.  The  chmate  is  mild  in  winter 
and  quite  hot  in  summer;  the  snow  remains  only  a  few  days  at  a  time. 
The  annual  rainfall  varies  from  20  to  24  inches.  The  stand  is  almost  pure 
oak,  half  sessile  and  half  pedunculate,  with  scattering  beech,  hornbeam, 
birch,  chestnut,  acacia,  and  aspen,  with  Scotch  pine  and  maritime  pine 
which  have  been  introduced  artificially.  The  regeneration  of  the  oak  is 
very  easy  because  of  its  aljundant  seed  crops;  its  quality  is  first  class. 
The  conifers  have  not  as  yet  proved  especially  successful.  There  are  no 
rights  or  servitudes,  the  boundaries  are  well  established,  and  a  fairly 
complete  system  of  main  and  secondary  roads  already  exists.  The  local 
force  in  1912  comprised  a  ranger  ($232),  two  head  guards  ($174),  and  six 
guards  and  one  road  guard  ($135  each).  The  force  is  lodged  and  has  the 
privilege  of  a  2^-acre  garden,  2h  cords  of  fuel,  and  100  fagot  bundles  per 
year. 

Treatment.  —  The  forest  is  divided  into  seventeen  working  groups 
varying  in  size  from  376  to  791  acres,  with  the  exception  of  the  section, 
''Les  Bertherelles "  which  has  only  113  acres.  Two  working  groups, 
903  acres,  have  not  been  regularly  cut  since  1883,  but  153  acres  (Scotch 
pine)  were  burned  over  in  1893;  with  the  exception  of  113  acres  under 
high  forest  the  remainder  is  under  compound  coppice.  There  are  no 
blanks  of  any  size  and  the  whole  forest  is  in  good  condition.  The  Waters 
and  Forests  Service,  which  administered  the  forest  from  1851  to  1873, 
began  a  conversion  to  high  forest  and  this  accounts  for  the  high  forest  on 
113  acres.  The  present  owner  has  accordingly  changed  three  working 
groups  with  20-year  rotations  to  two  working  groups  with  30-year  rota- 
tions.    In  addition  he  has  an  extra  working  group  for  remnants.     He 


FOREST  OF  AMBOISE  329 

will  gradually  realize  on  the  bit  of  high  forest  and  turn  it  into  coppice- 
under-standards.^^ 

Products.  —  The  products  are  logs  and  firewood.  The  coppice  yields 
charcoal,  fagots,  fagot  bundles,  and  bark;  the  high  forests  yield  sawlogs 
and  additional  fuel. 

The  shooting  rents  for  $1,737  per  year  and  includes  deer,  wild  boar, 
hare,  and  pheasants.  The  fishing  is  worth  $193  a  year  with  an  additional 
$135  average  from  special  sales  of  fish. 

The  average  revenue  for  the  years  1897  to  1908  was:  Wood,  $24,358; 
shooting,  fishing,  etc.,  $2,818,  or  a  total  of  $27,175;  but  from  this  must  be 
deducted  $9,540  for  taxes,  administration,  and  patrol,  leaving  a  net 
revenue  of  only  $17,636. 

An  average  year  (1906)  showed  the  following  detailed  receipts  and 
expenses : 

RECEIPTS 

Sales  of  wood $25,057 .  19 

Hunting $1737.001  i  7«i.  or 

Rents 28.95/ l,/65.95 

Withes 364.45] 

Pruning 53 .  90    574 .  84 

Wood  over  quarries 156 .  49 

Grass 64.06 

Stone 120 .  38    237  03 

Seed 52.59J 


Cutting  penalti 

Other  penalties 

Miscellaneous  receipts . 

Trespass  damages .... 

Total 


22.58 

89.17 

6.72 

0.60 

$27,754.08 
$  3,779.53 

EXPENSES 

Taxes  of  all  kinds 

Force  salary $3094 .  27 ) 

Lodging 266.50  q  no  «q 

Bureau 52.15    ^,oiy.»y 

Doctor,  etc 106.97) 

Cost  of  advertising  sales 965 .  48 

Maintenance  roads 1020.76] 

Houses 295 .  14 

Pruning  reserves 145 .  21     1,536 .  39 

Park  and  Chateau 54 .  29 

Trimming  along  roads 20 .  99  J 

Insurance 14 .  80 

Trespass  cost 0 .  48 

Reforestation 12 .  16 1 

Construction  of  three  stalls. . .  25.52  ono  ns 

Special  construction 9.65  | ^uy .ud 

Extra  guard 161 .73  J 

Unforeseen  expenses 109.70 

Total $10,135 .  33 

Revenue  (net) 17,531.88 

Gross  revenue $27  667 .  21 " 

"These  totals  did  not  balance  with  the  gross  receipts  in  the  original  tables. 

i^ITirsch  believes  in  accurate  valuation.  He  marks  three  rotation  standards  with 
three  red  circles  and  with  serial  number  at  d.  b.  h.,  2R  standards  with  two  red  circles  and 
serial  number,  while  IR  standard  (baliveau)  with  red  circle  but  no  number  at  all.  This 
work  costs  onlv  $80  a  year. 


330  PRIVATE   FORESTRY  IN   FRANCE 

Growth.  —  From  the  measurement  of  selected  plots  over  a  period 
of  14  years  it  appears  "that  the  average  annual  growth  on  the  circum- 
ference is  0.0153  per  tree  and  that  the  volume  increases  each  year 
by  0.0233."  These  figures  apply  to  the  trees  15  inches  and  over  in 
diameter.  There  are  no  figures  for  trees  less  than  this  but  the  growth 
is  estimated  at  3  per  cent.  For  the  conifers  the  growth  per  cent  was 
fixed  at  0.025.  The  amount  to  cut  each  year  is  therefore  obtained  by 
multiplying  the  volume  in  each  diameter  class  (above  or  below  15  inches 
in  diameter)  by  the  per  cents  given  above.  The  coppice  is  worked  by 
area. 

For  each  of  the  seventeen  groups  is  given  a  digest  of  the  growing  stock 
divided  into  coppice  cuttings.  For  example :  for  the  third  working  group 
Chanteloup,  754  acres,  24  coupes;  Coupe  No.  1,  area  47  acres;  age  of 
coppice  end  of  1907,  19  years;  volume  of  oak  (reserves),  under  15  inches 
96.47;  over  15  inches,  181.62  cubic  meters;  volume  of  conifers,  274.30 
The  total  volumes  are  then  footed  and  the  following  calculations  made 
growth  of  the  oak,  below  15  inches,  5,546  cubic  meters  X  0.03  =  166.38 
above  15  inches,  2,439  cubic  meters  X  0.023  =  56.97;  total,  223.35 
Growth  of  the  pine,  below  15  inches,  2,300  cubic  meters  X  0.025  =  57.5 

This  growth  would  sell  as  follows:  223  cubic  meters  at  $6,  -11,291 
branches,  223  steres  at  77  cents,  $172;  pine,  86  steres  at  97  cents,  $93 
total  $1,546.     $1,546  capitaHzed  at  4  per  cent  equals  $38,600. 

"The  product  of  the  (coppice)  felhng  area  when  ripe  is  estimated  at 
$45  per  acre.  The  net  value  per  acre  of  the  soil  and  of  the  coppice 
amounts  then  to  $30.  This  amount  capitalized  at  4  per  cent  represents 
a  value  of  $23,558  for  the  whole  working  group."  A  resume  of  all  the 
working  groups  is  shown  in  Table  26  on  opposite  page. 

The  "Domain  of  Rouillardiere,"  added  to  the  forest  of  Amboise  in 
1885,  comprises  126  acres.  It  consists  of  a  magnificent  coppice  and 
compound  coppice.     As  a  final  valuation  the  forest  is  put  at: 


Amboise 

Rouillardiere. . 
Jameau  ponds 
Miscellaneous. 


$893,937.40 

7,720.00 

3,377.50 

285.64 

$905,320.54 

The  following  deductions  can  be  drawn  from  the  foregoing 
data: 

(1)  The  net  income  for  1906  was  $10,135.34  on  a  capitalization  of 
$905,320.54.  This  shows  a  net  yield  of  only  1.9  per  cent,  but  it  should 
be  recalled  that  the  forest  is  being  built  up  by  the  reservation  of  large 
numbers  of  standards.     Hence  the  real  profit  is  1.9  per  cent  plus  the 


FOREST  OF  AMBOISE 
TABLE  26.  — VOLUME  OF  OAK:  IN  1907 


331 


.       No. 

Area, 
acres 

Below  15 
inches 

Above  15 
inches 

Reserves 

Values, 

soil, 
coppice 

Total  in 
even  figures 

1 

430 

481.89 

"5,918.92 

298.32 

$8,801 

$7,739 

$16,540 

2 

473 

574.40 

"6,706.27 
311.50 

9,968 

9,013 

18,981 

3 

779 

5,546.29 

2,438.98 
« 1,463.09 

38,600 

23,559 

62,159 

4 

753 

3,412.76 

2,806.18 

26,731 

13,351 

40,082 

5 

588 

2,555.78 

« 651.56 

2,344.29 

21,906 

14,157 

36,063 

"287.10 

6 

668 

4,807.88 

4,013.39 
"450.34 

38,957 

15,224 

54,181 

7 

667 

3,988.88 

4,580.86 

37,297 

15,694 

52,991 

8 

763 

4,786.16 

"577.46 

4,378.74 

40,530 

18,400 

58,930 

9 

547 

5,530.93 

5,322.78 

47,285 

14,309 

61,594 

10 

113 

4,890.09 

1,506.57 

25,573 

1,737 

27,310 

11 

790 

6,900.33 

8,116.53 

64,462 

22,633 

89,095 

12 

710 

8,898.92 

9,331.18 

78,744 

16,630 

95,374 

13 

449 

4,680.09 

3,738.60 

37,239 

13,390 

50,629 

14 

377 

2,509.01 

2,212.57 

"63.72 

20,670 

9,026 

29,696 

15 

636 

5,087.20 

4,061.81 

40,356 

17,854 

58,210 

16 

640 

5,483.62 

3,781.61 
"79.14 

41,177 

14,508 

55,685 

17 

485 

3,278.76 

2,154.95 

"278.02 

24,279 

9,223 

33,502 

18 

579 

6,106.56 

3,074.43 

41,668 

13,420 

55,088 

Total 

$894,110 

"  Conifers. 

average  yearly  value  of  the  increase  in  growing  stock.^^     The  owner 
estimated  his  real  return  at  4  per  cent. 

(2)  In  1906  the  expenses  (cost  of  operation)  were  37  per  cent  and 
the  taxes  13  per  cent  of  the  gross  revenue;  the  taxes  were  0.14  of  1  per 
cent  of  the  appraised  book  value. 

(3)  It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  receipts  for  hunting,  rents,  withes, 
pruning,  wood  cleared  at  quarries,  grass,  stone,  seed  cutting  penalties, 
miscellaneous  receipts,  and  trespass  were  about  one-ninth  the  receipts 
from  timber  and  coppice  sales. 

19  The  A.  E.  F.  purchased  $231,600  (1,200,000  francs)  worth  of  coppice  and  timber 
(18,760  cubic  meters  and  26,094  steres)  from  this  forest  during  1918-1919;  the  damages 
for  faulty  cutting  were  $1,930.  In  addition  these  high  sales  values  will  be  partly  bal- 
anced by  largely  increased  working  costs  for  a  number  of  years.  The  cut  in  1909  was 
4,489  cubic  meters  and  3,321  steres;  1910,  4,204  cubic  meters  and  2,697  steres;  1911, 
2,224  cubic  meters  and  2,887  steres.  Thus  the  A.  E.  F.  cut  about  5  years  of  timber  crops 
and  9  years  of  cordwood.  This  unquestionably  damaged  the  forest  from  the  standpoint 
of  permanent  management. 


332  PRIVATE  FORESTRY  IN   FRANCE 

(4)  To  calculate  the  yield,  rule-of-thumb  growth  per  cent  figures 
were  multiplied  by  the  growing  stock  to  obtain  the  yield  of  timber;  for 
the  coppice  an  average  per  acre  yield  figure  is  simply  estimated  as  a 
result  of  past  averages. 

A  Fir  Forest  (Vosges).  —  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  private  fir 
forest  in  France,  and  certainly  the  best  managed,  is  the  Forest  of  X, 
jointly  owned  by  ten  distinguished  French  foresters.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that  Gazin,  manager  for  the  Due  de  Penthievre  forest  properties,  and 
Schaeffer,  conservateur  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  are  two  of  the  ten  owners. 

The  forest  comprises  155  acres  and  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  from 
1,540  to  2,100  feet  in  the  lower  Vosges  Mountains  on  rather  rocky  sandy 
loam  (gres  vosien).  The  principal  stand  is  silver  fir,  with  some  Scotch 
pine  in  mixture,  and  perhaps  1  per  cent  of  beech.  The  property  was 
purchased  in  1906  for  $31,845,  but  really  cost  net  only  $19,300  because 
the  overmature  timber  was  at  once  sold  for  $12,545.  The  appraised 
book  value  is,  however,  $23,160  instead  of  $19,300  because  the  purchase 
price  was  less  than  the  full  value.  The  stumpage  values  were  15  francs 
per  cubic  meter  (about  $10.50  per  thousand  feet  board  measure)  in  1906, 
and  17  to  18  francs,  or  15  to  20  per  cent  more,  in  1913. 

The  stand  is  cut  over  every  5  years  and  is  completely  calipered.  The 
marking  is  under  the  personal  supervision  of  one  of  the  ten  owners  who 
receives  an  allowance  of  $9.65  for  his  work  as  director  of  marking,  but 
each  owner  manages  his  one-tenth  of  the  forest.  Thus  far  the  dividends 
have  been  3  per  cent  per  year.  They  are  now  hmited  to  4  per  cent  until 
the  original  growing  stock,  as  it  stood  after  the  removal  of  the  over- 
matured  timber,  has  been  increased  33  per  cent  by  saving  some  of  the 
growth  each  year.  Then  and  then  only  it  is  proposed  to  increase  the 
dividends  to  6  per  cent.  The  cost  of  the  original  working  plan  was 
$86.85  and  the  annual  expenses  for  marking,  taxes,  etc.,  have  been 
$185.63.  The  annual  taxes  were  $12.74  or  8  cents  per  acre.  The 
average  annual  cut  was  833  cubic  meters  (about  222,000  feet  board 
measure  or  1.4  thousand  feet  per  acre  per  year). 

The  aim  of  management  is  to  get  the  best  financial  returns,  and  the 
group  selection  system  is  applied  with  cleanings,  freeings,  and  thinnings 
every  5  years.  The  yield  is  regulated  by  the  Gurnaud  method.  With 
stocktaking  every  5  years  as  exact  data  are  secured  on  growth  as  if  the 
forest  were  a  sample  plot.  Thus  far  the  forest  has  netted  3.25  per  cent 
on  the  investment  (3  per  cent  dividend  and  0.14  of  1  per  cent  as  surplus 
bank  balance)  hut  in  addition  the  volume  on  the  ground  has  increased 
2,390  cubic  meters,^^  worth  in  1912  $8,072  (41,825  francs).  Thus  the 
actual  revenue  has  been  3|  per  cent  plus  an  annual  increase  in  capital 
of  $807,  or  3.9  per  cent  on  the  book  value  without  compound  interest  or 

2"  The  figures  in  proof  of  this  are  as  follows: 


CONCLUSIONS 


333 


deducting  any  share  of  annual  expense  which  the  marketing  of  this 
excess  reserve  might  have  entailed. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  thus  far  the  real  annual  revenue  has  been  close 
to  7  per  cent.  But  the  forester  must  realize  that  there  may  be  setbacks 
due  to  windfall,  disease,  and  unforeseen  acts  of  Providence,  so  the  board 
of  control  set  6  per  cent  as  their  maximum  interest  goal.  Anything 
above  this  will  at  present  be  held  as  a  reserve. 

Conclusions.  —  Writing  in  1910,  Broilliard,  perhaps  the  most  em- 
inent French  forester  of  our  times,  said:  "Bad  at  business  and  poor 
at  manufacturing,  the  State  is,  nevertheless,  the  best  forest  owner, 
able  to  assure  good  treatment  to  timber  of  all  species  .  .  .  ,"  and  he 
argued  for  more  State  forest  acquisition  and  especially  the  purchase 
of  forests  in  being  rather  than  land  that  requires  forestation.  This  is 
certainly  a  good  policy  for  the  United  States  to  follow,  because  a  study 
of  the  private  forests  of  France  leads  us  to  the  following  conclusions, 
which,  at  least,  have  a  bearing  on  what  the  United  States  should  do : 

(1)  Private  forests,  purely  as  permanent  investments,  would  be  largely 


Acres 

October,  1892 

October  31,  1912 

Serial  number 

Cubic  meters, 
total 

Cubic 
meters 
per  acre 

Cubic  meters, 
total 

Cubic 
meters 
per  acre 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

24.4 

7.8 
21.(3 

7.2 
15.0 
12.9 
18.0 
19.8 
17.1 
10.9 

1,673 

735 

1,529 

606 

1,175 

1,063 

1,606 

2,166 

1,293 

631 

68.0 
92.4 

70.0 
83.6 
77.2 
81.6 
88.4 
108.0 
74.8 
57.4 

2,695 

926 

2,214 

556 

826 

535 

1,819 

2,473 

1,864 

959 

109.4 
115.4 

100.1 
76.4 
53.6 
40.8 
100.0 
122.8 
106.4 
88.0 

Totals 

154.7 

12,477 

14,867 

Averages 

80.0 

94.8 

Thus  the  stand  has  increased  38  cubic  meters  per  hectare  or  15  per  cent  plus  per  acre. 
The  average  growth  per  cent  for  this  thrifty  fir  stand  has  been  6.  In  marking  the 
following  rule  has  been  adopted:  "In  each  age  class  it  seems  necessary  to  cut  at  least  10 
per  cent  of  the  stand  and  imprudent  to  cut  more  than  25  per  cent.  The  amount  to  be 
marked  from  the  (a)  small  (6)  average,  and  (c)  large  diameter  classes  is  always  de- 
cided before  the  marking  begins.  Nothing  has  ever  been  published  on  this  forest  of  X 
because  the  owners  prefer  to  keep  the  French  tax  assessors  ignorant  of  the  exact  returns, 
since  they  feel  that  taxation  should  not  be  increased  simply  because  of  their  good  man- 
agement. For  the  forest  student  this  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  demonstration 
forest  in  France. 


334  PRIVATE  FORESTRY   IN   FRANCE 

done  away  with  unless  there  were  laws  against  deforestation,  or  unless 
the  State  subsidized  forest  property. 

(2)  The  kind  of  forestry  on  private  land  that  is  forced  by  mandatory 
legislation  will  not  result  in  real  timber  production;  -^  it  will  entail  a 
waste  in  the  use  of  forest  soils. 

(3)  Private  forests  maintained  solely  for  revenue  cannot  afford  to 
produce  the  high-grade  timber  always  required  by  certain  industries. 

(4)  The  private  forests  of  France  rarely  yield  over  4  per  cent  as  a 
permanent,  investment  in  timber  production  on  the  capitalized  value  of 
the  soil  and  growing  stock.  Exceptions  occur  when  cheap  soil,  such  as 
sand  wastes,  can  be  cheaply  stocked  and  where  in  addition  taxes  may 
be  reduced  by  State  laws  and  the  owner  subsidized.  But  the  risk  is 
apt  to  be  correspondingly  greater. 

(5)  The  risk  from  windfall,  insects,  fungus,  fire,  and  changes  in  the 
wood  market  is  considerable.  An  investment  in  a  private  forest  cannot 
be  considered  as  safe  as  many  bonds  that  now  yield  7  per  cent  or  more 
semi-annually. 

(6)  During  eras  of  high  prices  the  private  forest  capital  or  growing 
stock  is  usually  greatly  reduced  because  of  the  opportunities  to  realize 
at  a  profit.  This  puts  a  premium  on  public  ownership  because  the  State 
can  then  supply  the  demand  for  raw  material  from  its  reserves. 

(7)  The  best  managed  private  forests  are  usually  owned  by  the  rich 
or  by  the  nobles  and  are  not  maintained  alone  for  the  money  they  return, 
but  for  the  dignity,  pleasure,  or  indirect  benefits  which  they  yield.  The 
farm  woodlot  is  an  indispensable  part  of  a  nation's  economic  forest 
wealth,  and  in  France  has  been  wretchedly  managed  through  lack  of 
free  technical  advice  and  propaganda.  The  small  owner  is  apt  to  use 
too  short  rotations  and  to  allow  his  forest  to  depreciate  in  value  and 
quality. 

(8)  The  ownership  by  the  public  should  be  increased  by  purchase 
from  owners  who  are  no  longer  able  to  maintain  their  forests  properly, 
and  in  addition  the  private  owner  should  be  assisted  financially  and 
technically  and  should  be  given  adequate  protection  from  trespass  and 
fire. 

(9)  Most  of  the  high-investment  returns  from  forest  properties  are 
really  due  to  speculative  increases  in  local  values ;  the  advantage  of  these 
high  prices  largely  disappears  when  the  property  is  held  as  a  permanent 
investment  because  the  soil  values  and  growing  stock  values  increase 
proportionately.  The  high  profits  from  buying  and  then  selling  at  higher 
prices  should  not  be  confused  with  the  business  of  permanent  forest 
production. 

21  The  timber-culture  act  in  the  United  States  certainly  never  resulted  in  forests. 


CONCLUSIONS  335 

It  must  therefore  be  concluded  that  forestry  is  a  poor  investment  for 
an  individual,  but  an  exceedingly  good  one  for  the  nation,  because  the 
nation  can  take  part  of  its  revenue  in  indirect  benefits, ^^  Under  a  democ- 
racy it  seems  better  for  the  State  to  acquire  cut-over  or  virgin  forest  soils 
rather  than  to  try  to  force  the  private  owner  to  practice  the  unprofitable 
business  of  permanent  forest  production  if  he  holds  his  forest  property 
solely  for  its  financial  returns.  But  while  the  temporary  owner  is  realizing 
on  his  investment  it  is  certainly  incumbent  upon  the  State  to  require 
that  the  forest  be  maintained  in  a  condition  that  will  not  menace  the  lives 
and  property  of  others.  But  professional  foresters  should  avoid  vague 
generalities;  the  time  has  come  for  details  about  the  forest  and  about 
the  forest  as  an  investment.  Be  frank  with  the  private  owner  and  tell 
him  what  to  expect. 

22  A  water  company  in  the  Unitpd  States  that  owns  its  watersheds  would  be  foolhardy 
if  it  did  not  practice  forestry.  Paper  companies  and  other  permanent  corporations, 
with  heavy  investments  in  machinery,  nmst  do  all  they  can  to  perpetuate  their  timber 
supply.  But  it  is  yet  to  be  proved  whether  they  would  not  be  better  off  buying  stumpage 
from  the  State  rather  than  owning  all  their  own  timber  supply.  Recent  increases  in 
pulp  stumpage  may  tend  to  confuse  the  issue,  namely,  permanent  forest  production,  as 
an  investment. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  AMERICAN  FOREST  ENGINEERS  IN  FRANCE 

By  W.  B.  Greeley 
Formerly  Lieut. -Col.  20th  Engineers,  A.  E.  F. 

Timber  in  Modern  Warfare  (p.  336).  The  Wood  Used  by  Two  Million  American 
Soldiers,  A  War  of  Transportation,  Forest  Preparedness  in  France. 

The  Organization  of  Forest  Engineers  (p.  338).  American  Woodsmen  Called  to 
the  Colors,  The  Man  Behind  the  Sawmills,  A  Division  of  Forestry  Troops. 

The  Forestry  Section  of  the  Expeditionary  Force  (p.  340).  Its  Military  Or- 
ganization, Geographical  Distribution  of  Forestry  Operations,  District  Managers,  The 
Headquarters  Staff  —  PJquipping  the  Sawmills,  Strategy  in  Military  Lumbering,  Sales 
and  Traffic  Department,  The  Timberland  Department. 

Sawmills  and  Logging  Equipment  (p.  343).  Early  Makeshifts,  The  Heavy  Saw- 
mill, The  Light  Sawmill,  The  Flying  Sawmill,  Heavy  and  Light  Artillery  in  Timber  War- 
fare, The  Transport  Problem,  Value  of  French  Highways,  Motor  Trucks  and  Caterpil- 
lars, Logging  Railways. 

The  Production  of  Fuel  Wood  (p.  347).  An  Enormous  Problem  in  Itself,  Fuel 
Wood  Cut  by  the  Forest  Engineers,  The  Special  Fuel  Supply  Service. 

What  the  Forest  Engineers  Accomplished  (p.  348).  The  Beginning  and  the  End, 
The  Spirit  of  the  Forestry  Troops,  Winning  the  War  with  Lumber. 

Cooperation  with  the  Forest  Agencies  of  France  (p.  351).  French  Organiza- 
tion of  Timber  Supplies  for  the  War,  Early  Negotiations  with  the  French  Government, 
The  Interallied  Timber  Committee,  Forest  Acquisition  in  the  War  Zone,  Scouting  France 
for  Timber,  Cutting  Requirements  Imposed  by  the  French,  Restrictions  Upon  the 
Amount  of  Timber  Cut,  Meeting  French  Foresters  on  Their  Own  Ground,  The  French 
View  of  American  Operations,  French  Difficulties  in  Supplying  American  Require- 
ments, Effectiveness  of  French  Cooperation. 

Forest  Troops  Loaned  to  French  and  British  Armies  (p.  357). 

What  the  American  Woodsmen  Learned  in  France  (p.  358). 

The  War  a  Vindication  of  French  Forestry  (p.  358). 

Timber  in  Modem  Warfare.  —  That  timber  is  an  essential  munition 
of  war  is  demonstrated  forcibly  by  the  enormous  quantities  of  wood  which 
were  required  by  the  allied  armies  in  almost  every  phase  of  military 
operations  in  France.  The  great  military  bases  behind  the  lines  con- 
sumed lumber  in  vast  amounts  for  camps,  hospitals,  shops,  and  ware- 
houses. No  advance  could  be  undertaken  without  large  supphes  of 
railroad  ties  for  extending  railheads  into  conquered  territory,  of  bridge 
timbers  and  road  plank  for  throwing  forward  quickly  built  roads  over 
streams  and  shell-torn  ground,  and  of  lumber,  logs,  and  pickets  for  con- 
structing fortifications. 

336 


FOREST  PREPAREDNESS   IN   FRANCE  337 

The  Wood  Used  by  Two  Million  American  Soldiers.  —  To  establish  the 
American  Army  as  a  fighting  unit  in  France  and  carry  its  operations  to  the 
end  of  the  war  required  450,000,000  board  feet  of  round  or  manufactured 
timber  and  650,000  cords  of  fuel  wood.  This  represented  a  ton  and  a  half 
of  wood  for  every  American  soldier  sent  overseas.  Much  of  this  material 
was,  of  course,  used  in  the  construction  of  depot  and  supply  facilities 
and  at  base  camps  behind  the  fighting  zone.  But  even  after  such 
structures  had  been  largely  completed,  the  two  million  American  troops 
in  France,  fighting  under  the  conditions  which  existed  from  the  beginning 
of  the  St.  Mihiel  offensive,  required  some  70,000,000  board  feet  monthly 
of  all  classes  of  timber  except  fuel  wood. 

Thirty-eight  and  one-half  per  cent  of  this  vast  quantity  of  timber  was 
required  in  the  form  of  lumber  in  small  dimensions  for  the  construction 
of  barracks,  hospitals,  and  warehouses  and  of  rough  field  shelters  and 
fortifications;  27  per  cent  was  fuel  wood;  railroad  ties  came  third,  with 
13^  per  cent;  about  9  per  cent  had  to  be  furnished  in  large  timbers  for 
building  docks,  barges,  trestles,  and  bridges.  The  most  difficult  require- 
ment to  fill  was  the  need  for  39,000  piles,  in  lengths  up  to  100  feet,  used 
chiefly  in  the  docks  built  by  American  engineers  at  various  French  ports. 
Six  per  cent  of  the  total  covered  the  demands  for  telephone  and  telegraph 
poles,  wire  entanglement  stakes,  and  pickets  for  supporting  camouflage 
nets. 

A  War  of  Transportation.  —  In  the  last  analysis,  the  war  of  1917  was  a 
war  of  transportation.  Nothing  illustrates  this  fact  better  than  the  means 
which  had  to  be  employed  to  obtain  the  enormous  quantities  of  wood 
required  by  the  armies  in  the  field  and  get  them  to  the  points  of  use. 
Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  ships,  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  timber  used  by 
the  American  forces  in  France  was  forwarded  from  the  United  States. 
The  difficulties  in  transporting  such  bulky  material  from  neutral  countries 
like  Norway  and  Switzerland  were  only  sHghtly  less  serious.  France 
herself  was  short  of  manufactured  products.  Hence  over  75  per  cent 
of  the  timber  required  by  the  American  Army  had  to  be  cut  from  French 
forests  by  our  own  engineer  troops. 

Forest  Preparedness  in  France.  —  That  France  was  able  to  supply 
these  vast  demands  was  a  factor  in  national  preparedness  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  the  allied  forces,  particularly  to  the  American  Army, 
which  was  compelled  to  operate  far  from  home.  If  France  had  set 
about  deliberately,  60  years  ago,  to  supply  the  armies  of  the  allied 
nations  with  timber  during  the  great  war,  she  could  hardly  have  built 
up  her  forest  resources  more  effectively  than  her  thrift  and  foresight  had 
actually  done.  France  contained  probably  150  billion  board  feet  of 
merchantable  timber  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  The  character  and 
distribution  of  her  forests  were  almost  ideal  for  the  military  requirements 


338  THE  AMERICAN   FOREST  ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 

which  actually  developed.  The  region  immediately  behind  and  adjoining 
the  American  sector  of  the  front  was  well  forested.  The  fir  and  spruce 
forests  of  the  Vosges  and  Jura  Mountains  furnished  ideal  timber  for  the 
manufacture  of  construction  lumber  as  well  as  the  large  timbers  and  long 
piling  which  proved  to  be  a  vital  necessity.  Even  lumbermen  from 
northwestern  America  took  off  their  hats  to  some  of  these  upland  stands 
of  silver  fir.  In  the  Besan^on  District,  the  American  Engineers  cut  as 
much  as  65,000  board  feet  of  saw  timber  to  the  acre.  The  largest  tree 
felled,  a  silver  fir,  had  a  cHameter  of  56  inches  and  contained  5,530  board 
feet.  The  logs  cut  in  these  softwood  forests  of  the  Eastern  Mountains 
averaged  6|  per  thousand  feet.  The  Vosges  afforded  operations  of 
special  military  value  because  they  were  within  a  stone's  throw  of  the 
American  First  and  Second  Armies  and  of  the  supply  facilities  just 
behind  them. 

A  second  important  forest  belt  was  traversed  by  the  main  line  of 
communications  of  the  American  Army,  through  the  Loire  River  Valley 
and  across  the  headwaters  of  the  Seine  and  Marne.  This  is  chiefly  an 
agricultural  region,  but,  as  in  most  of  France,  one  is  seldom  out  of  sight 
of  patches  of  woods.  Its  oak  forests  were  an  unfailing  supply  of  railroad 
ties,  road  plank,  and  large  timbers  for  the  construction  of  docks  and 
bridges.  Some  of  its  200  or  240  year  old  oak  timber  attains  fine  dimen- 
sions. A  60  inch  log,  the  largest  found  in  France,  was  cut  from  an  oak 
tree  near  Dijon.  At  the  large  operations  near  ficlaron  the  oak  logs 
averaged  ten  to  the  thousand  board  feet.  At  other  hardwood  camps 
the  average  was  fifteen  or  seventeen.  This  region  also,  with  its  exten- 
sive areas  of  hardwood  coppice,  seemed  almost  to  have  been  designed  in 
advance  as  the  principal  source  of  fuel  for  the  American  troops.  In  its 
many  plantations  of  Scotch  pine  it  also  furnished  ready  to  hand  material 
suitable  for  the  millions  of  wire  entanglement  stakes  and  small  poles 
required  in  modern  warfare.  A  third  important  forest  region,  the 
pineries  of  southwestern  France,  afforded  another  large  supply  of  rail- 
road ties,  lumber,  and  piling  which  proved  to  be  well  located  for  our 
great  cargo  ports  at  Bordeaux  and  other  large  American  installations. 
The  pitch  pine  of  this  region  resembles  the  shortleaf  pine  of  the  Southern 
States.  At  the  better  sets  it  averaged  seventeen  and  one-half  logs  per 
thousand  board  feet  and  yielded  a  fair  proportion  of  50  and  60  foot  piles. 
For  a  war  in  which  timber  played  such  a  striking  part,  France  was  indeed 
well  prepared. 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  FOREST  ENGINEERS 

American  Woodsmen  Called  to  the  Colors.  —  Soon  after  the  advance 
guard  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  landed  in  France  it  was 


THE   MEN   BEHIND   THE   SAWMILLS  339 

foreseen  that  to  supply  our  troops  with  timber  from  French  forests  would 
require  a  special  organization  of  engineers  experienced  and  equipped  for 
this  work.  In  fact  one  of  the  first  requests  for  help  from  the  United 
States  by  both  our  French  and  British  Allies  was  for  regiments  of  trained 
lumbermen.  The  organization  of  lumberjack  units  had  actually  been 
begun  in  May,  1917,  and  was  continued  until  March,  1918.  By  May, 
1918,  forty-eight  companies  of  forest  and  road  engineers,  each  250  men 
strong,  had  been  sent  to  France.  The  core  of  a  49th  Company  was 
obtained  subsequently  from  the  New  England  Sawmill  Units,  a  private 
organization  which  was  sent  to  Old  England  in  the  early  summer  of 
1917  to  cut  lumber  for  the  British  Government.  These  troops  repre- 
sented every  State  in  the  Union.  Practically  every  forestry  agency  in 
the  country,  together  with  many  lumber  companies  and  associations, 
helped  in  obtaining  the  right  type  of  men.  The  road  engineers  of  the 
United  States  took  hold  of  the  organization  of  the  twelve  companies  of 
troops  designed  for  road  construction  in  a  similar  spirit.  The  lumber 
units  were  officered  largely  by  picked  men  of  experience  in  the  forest 
industries  of  America,  and  the  road  units  by  road  and  construction 
engineers  of  exceptional  technical  ability. 

The  Men  Behind  the  Sawmills.  —  The  earlier  units  were  made  up 
entirely  from  volunteer  enlistments.  The  later  units  contained  a  large 
proportion  of  men  from  the  draft,  selected  for  forestry  work  mainly  on 
the  basis  of  their  former  occupations,  together  with  many  volunteers 
beyond  the  draft  age  from  among  the  experienced  loggers  and  sawmill 
mechanics  of  the  country.  But  there  was  no  distinction  between  vol- 
unteer or  drafted  soldiers  among  the  American  forest  engineers  in  France. 
These  men  represented  the  best  of  their  hardy  and  resourceful  profession 
in  the  United  States.  They  came  from  her  forests  and  sawmills,  trained 
in  her  woodcraft,  with  all  of  the  physical  vigor,  the  adaptability  to  life 
in  the  open,  and  the  rough  and  ready  mechanical  skill  of  the  American 
woodsman. 

Special  credit  is  due  to  the  officers  and  men  of  the  three  battalions, 
the  41st,  42d,  and  43d  Engineers,  which  were  organized  and  equipped 
for  road  construction  work  in  connection  with  forestry  operations. 
They  came  to  France  keen  to  take  up  this  task  for  which  they  too  had 
been  especially  fitted  by  training  and  experience.  But  the  necessities 
of  war  dictated  otherwise.  They  landed  in  France  to  find  the  under- 
manned Forestry  Section  struggling  to  keep  up  with  the  timber  needs 
of  an  army  already  twice  the  size  of  that  originally  intended.  It  was 
necessary  for  these  road  builders  to  turn  lumberjacks  themselves,  cutting 
fuel  wood,  piling,  or  entanglement  stakes  as  occasion  demanded  and 
manning  the  new  sawmills  which  were  installed  as  fast  as  they  arrived 
from  the  United  States.     The  road  companies  took  hold  of  this  work, 


340  THE   AMERICAN   FOREST  ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 

to  which  most  of  them  were  unaccustomed,  with  splendid  spirit  and  in 
the  end  some  of  their  mill  crews  made  off  with  the  laurels  of  certain  pure 
lumberjack  units,  in  the  records  of  the  operations  for  production. 

To  meet  the  growing  requirements  of  the  American  Army,  Engineer 
Service  battalions  were  rapidly  added  to  the  forestry  and  road  troops 
during  the  summer  and  fall  of  1918.  At  the  end  of  hostilities,  thirty-six 
Service  Companies  were  working  with  the  20th  Engineers.  The  first 
four  of  them  were  white  troops,  organized  as  the  503d  Engineers.  They 
contained  a  large  proportion  of  railroad  men  and  other  skilled  workers 
and  were  soon  in  the  mills  and  woods  and  on  railroad  jobs,  on  all  fours 
with  the  forestry  troops.  Upon  the  other  Service  Companies,  com- 
posed of  colored  troops,  fell  the  brunt  of  cutting  the  fuel  wood  which  the 
quartermaster  was  calling  for  by  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  cords. 
But  several  sawmill  crews  composed  largely  or  entirely  of  black  soldiers 
made  exceedingly  creditable  records. 

A  Division  of  Forestry  Troops.  —  By  the  date  of  the  armistice  the 
Forestry  Section  numbered  12,000  engineer  troops,  organized  in  the 
fourteen  Battalions  of  the  20th  Engineers,  and  9,000  service  troops. 
The  Section  operated  from  eighty  to  ninety  sawmills  during  the  last 
two  months  of  the  war  and  employed  some  3,600  draft  horses  and  mules. 
In  addition  to  this  vast  organization  about  10,000  service  troops  from 
the  Quartermaster  Corps  were  engaged  in  cutting  fuel  wood  under  the 
direction  of  forest  engineer  officers. 

THE  FORESTRY  SECTION  OF  THE  EXPEDITIONARY  FORCE 

Its  Military  Organization.  —  The  Forestry  Section  grew  with  the  size 
of  its  task  through  a  flexil^le  development  of  the  regimental  organization 
of  the  Army.  Its  engineer  troops  and  attached  service  companies  con- 
stituted a  single  regiment,  which  functioned  as  a  distinct  Supply  Service 
under  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Army.  Its  duty  was  to  keep  all  branches 
of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force,  from  the  base  ports  to  the  front, 
supplied  with  timber.  It  was  thus  one  of  the  far-flung  Services  of 
Supply,  "the  Army  behind  the  Army,"  the  vast  military-industrial 
organization  of  ships,  docks,  railroads,  factories,  bakeries,  repair  shops, 
distributing  depots,  and  training  camps  in  France,  which  did  not  fight 
battles  Imt  without  which  no  battles  could  have  l^een  won. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Forestry  Operations.  —  The  Forestry 
Section  resembled  a  large  lumber  corporation.  As  each  battalion  of 
troops  arrived  in  France  it  was  assigned  to  operations  at  points  where 
the  best  forests  were  available  and  where  the  production  of  lumber,  rail- 
road ties,  or  piling  was  most  needed  to  supply  the  growing  require- 
ments of  the  Army.     The  first  districts  to  be  operated  were  the  soft- 


DISTRICT   MANAGERS  341 

wood  forests  of  the  Jura,  directly  behind  the  American  Advance  Section 
and  near  the  great  distributing  station  at  Is-sur-Tille,  and  the  pineries 
of  the  Landes,  whose  timber  was  rushed  to  Bordeaux  to  build  the  first 
American  docks  in  France.  New  forestry  operations  followed  in  the 
Loire  River  Valley,  along  the  main  Hne  of  communications,  furnishing 
materials  for  the  large  depot  at  Gievres,  for  the  Air  Service  Shops  at 
Romorantin  and  the  Replacement  Depot  at  St.  Aignan.  A  little  later 
forestry  troops  were  assigned  to  the  fir  forests  of  the  Vosges  and  the  oak 
forests  of  the  upper  Marne,  their  operations  ultimately  extending  right 
up  to  the  American  front. 

As  the  war  progressed  more  and  more  sawmills  were  installed  in  the 
advance  zone,  near  Nancy,  Toul,  and  the  Alsatian  frontier,  where  their 
products  could  be  shipped  to  the  advance  railheads  with  a  minimum  of 
time  and  of  vital  transport  equipment.  During  the  last  two  months  of 
the  war  a  flying  squadron  of  small  mills  was  organized  to  take  to  the 
field  with  the  First  Army.  This  operated  under  the  engineer  officers  in 
charge  of  preparations  for  the  St.  Mihiel  and  Argonne  offensives,  supply- 
ing the  advance  engineer  dumps  from  day  to  day  with  bridge  timbers, 
railroad  ties,  bomb-proofing,  fortification  lumber  —  whatever  was  needed 
most  urgently  at  the  moment  and  could  not  be  forwarded  in  time  from 
the  rear.  Thirteen  of  these  advance  camps  were  operated,  at  times 
actually  under  shell-fire. 

The  quest  for  timber  also  necessitated  extending  forestry  operations 
into  the  northern  French  Alps  and  the  Central  Plateau  and  many  new 
sawmills  were  set  up  in  the  Landes  and  at  fresh  locations  along  the  main 
artery  of  American  traffic  through  central  and  northeastern  France. 

District  Managers.  —  The  operating  districts  were  readjusted  from 
time  to  time  as  new  battalions  and  sawmills  arrived  and  were  fitted  into 
the  general  plan.  Each  battalion  commander  was  a  district  manager, 
running  from  two  or  three  up  to  ten  or  twelve  mills,  with  his  own  person- 
nel and  supply  officers,  his  own  shipping  organization,  his  own  experts  on 
mill  and  logging  equipment  and  his  own  overhead  staff  of  millwrights  and 
mechanics.  The  battalion  office  received  its  cutting  orders  from  the 
regimental  headquarters  at  Tours  and  distributed  them  among  its  opera- 
tions to  fit  their  timber,  the  other  work  on  hand,  and  the  all-important 
problem  of  obtaining  the  quickest  and  shortest  transportation  of  the 
material  to  the  points  where  it  was  needed.  These  battalion  commanders, 
or  district  managers,  represented  the  stable  geographical  units  in  the 
forestry  organization.  Their  task  was  not  only  to  keep  their  mills 
producing  the  last  possible  foot  of  lumber  but  also  to  steadily  develop  the 
resources  of  their  territory,  to  locate  more  timber,  and  to  master  the 
intricacies  of  getting  the  best  possible  service  from  their  local  French 
railroads. 


342  THE   AMERICAN   FOREST   ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 

The  Headquarters  Staff  —  Equipping  the  Sawmills.  —  These  fourteen 
district  managers  were  directed  from  the  central  headquarters  of  the 
Forestry  Section,  which  had  a  staff,  or  departmental  organization, 
patterned  on  industrial  lines.  One  Heutenant-colonel  with  the  regi- 
mental adjutant  had  charge  of  military  administration  and  personnel, 
with  their  innumerable  records.  A  second  group  of  officers,  headed  by  one 
of  the  most  experienced  lumbermen  from  the  Northwest,  handled  the 
supply  and  upkeep  of  technical  equipment  —  sawmills,  logging  tools, 
horses,  motor  trucks,  steel  and  rolling  stock  for  logging  railroads,  etc. 
This  department  supervised  the  going  logging  and  manufacturing 
operations  and  directed  the  installation  of  sawmills  and  railroads  at  new 
locations.  In  less  than  15  months  it  equipped  and  put  through  ninety- 
five  sawmill  installations,  many  of  which  required  logging  railroads  as 
well  as  sidings  to  connect  with  existing  French  lines. 

Strategy  in  Military  Lumbering.  —  High  strategy  was  called  for  in  the 
location  of  the  forestry  operations.  It  was  not  only  necessary  to  scout 
for  suitable  timber  and  mill  sets  over  practically  all  France;  we  had  to 
keep  posted,  literally,  from  one  day  to  the  next,  on  the  kind  of  products 
needed  by  the  Army  and  at  what  points  in  its  vast  field  of  operations. 
Changes  in  the  materials  which  were  needed  most  critically  and  in  the 
points  whose  requirements  were  most  urgent  were  innumerable  and 
necessitated  not  only  an  incessant  revision  of  cutting  and  shipping  orders 
but  also  frequent  modifications  of  the  plans  for  locating  operations. 

Sales  and  Traffic  Department.  —  A  third  department  at  the  headquart- 
ers of  the  Forestry  Section,  under  another  seasoned  lumberman,  had 
charge  of  the  products  manufactured  and  their  shipment.  In  its  hands 
rested  the  important  duty  of  receiving  and  correlating  requisitions  for  tim- 
ber from  every  branch  of  the  Army,  and  of  determining,  under  general 
instructions  from  the  Chief  Engineer  or  the  General  Staff,  the  order  in 
which  they  should  be  suppHed.  This  was  a  task  of  no  small  difficulty  and 
responsibility  during  the  summer  of  1918  when  orders  were  flying  in  for 
three  times  what  the  Forestry  Section  was  able  to  produce.  This  de- 
partment also  worked  over  and  standardized  the  specifications  for  the 
innumerable  forms  of  timber  demanded  and  fitted  them  to  what  our  mills 
and  loggers  could  cut  from  French  timber  under  pressure  for  the  utmost 
speed  in  production.  It  issued  the  cutting  and  shipping  orders  to  the 
district  commanders  and  put  all  its  energy  and  resourcefulness  into  pro- 
viding cars  or  boats  and  getting  the  shipments  through  in  time. 

Let  it  be  said  in  passing,  that  transportation  was  the  neck  — a  very 
small  neck  — of  the  bottle.  Lack  of  transport  equipment  was  by  all  odds 
the  greatest  difficulty  which  the  entire  Services  of  Supply  had  to  over- 
come. Every  conceivable  scheme  was  employed  to  keep  lumber  and 
railroad  ties  moving  steadily  to  the  front  and  other  points  of  use,  including 


SAWMILLS  AND   LOGGING  EQUIPMENT  343 

fleets  of  motor  trucks,  barges,  and  shuttle  trains  of  American  cars  on  fixed 
runs  whenever  they  could  be  obtained.  By  indefatigable  efforts  and  the 
use  of  many  expedients,  the  Department  of  Product  and  Shipment  kept 
the  movement  of  lumber  on  current  orders  within  86  per  cent  of  pro- 
duction and  the  shipment  of  railroad  ties  within  72  per  cent  of  the  cut. 
One  officer  who  handled  deliveries  from  a  group  of  mills  in  the  Landes 
moved  about  100,000,000  feet  of  lumber  over  a  single  railroad  system  in  a 
year's  time,  a  record  which  would  rank  high  in  American  lumber  traffic 
during  normal  times. 

The  Timberland  Department.  —  A  fourth  staff  department  at  forestry 
headquarters  was  responsible  for  obtaining  the  standing  timber  for 
exploitation.  It  organized  and  conducted  a  reconnaissance  to  locate 
suitable  forests  in  practically  all  parts  of  France,  including  the  Pyrenees 
and  the  southern  Alps;  passed  upon  all  proposed  acquisitions;  put  desir- 
able purchases  or  condemnations  through  the  estabfished  French  agen- 
cies; and  threshed  out  the  terms  as  to  price  and  cutting  requirements. 
Officers  of  this  branch  represented  the  Amxerican  Army  on  the  inter- 
allied committee  which  correlated  and  controlled  all  purchases  of  forests 
for  military  requirements  in  the  French  Zone  of  the  Rear.  Through 
other  officers  it  also  had  access  to  the  French  Army  organization  which 
controlled  the  disposal  of  forests  in  the  Zone  of  the  Advance.  Between 
September  1,  1917,  and  the  signing  of  the  armistice  this  department 
acquired  some  630,000,000  feet  of  saw,  pole,  and  tie  timber  and  700,000 
cords  of  fuel  wood.  Half  as  much  more  had  been  located  and  cruised 
and  was  in  process  of  acquisition. 

SAWMILLS  AND  LOGGING  EQUIPMENT 
Early  Makeshifts.  —  At  the  outset  the  forest  engineers  were  sadly 
handicapped  by  the  delay  in  the  arrival  of  their  sawmills  and  logging 
equipment.  Many  were  the  expedients  resorted  to  to  make  good  this 
deficiency.  The  first  piles  cut  in  the  Landes  were  hauled  to  the  railroad 
by  man  power,  on  the  running  gear  of  army  escort  wagons.  At  another 
camp  ties  were  hewn  with  the  most  heterogeneous  collection  of  axes 
ever  assembled  and  logged  out  by  mule  teams  outfitted  with  bridles  of 
sacking  —  with  20-penny  spikes  for  bits  —  and  with  harness  of  rope 
and  wire.  Eight  stationary  French  mills  were  taken  over  and  operated. 
These  were  little,  under-powered  affairs  with  very  light  saws.  For  a 
carriage  there  was  usually  a  little  platform  on  miniature  wheels  on  which 
logs  were  fed  to  the  saw  with  the  bare  hands  or  by  a  hand-turned  crank. 
Bolstered  up  and  made  over  by  the  resourceful  American  mechanics, 
five  or  six  thousand  feet  a  day  was  still  all  that  most  of  these  little  plants 
could  turn  out;  and  they  were  discarded  as  rapidly  as  American  equip- 
ment arrived. 


344  THE   AMERICAN   FOREST   ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 

The  Heavy  Sawmill.  —  Three  types  of  American  sawmills  were 
employed  in  France  and  they  proved  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  varying 
size  of  her  forests  and  the  different  grades  of  timber.  The  first  was  a 
well-powered  permanent  steam  plant,  rated  to  cut  20,000  feet  of  lumber 
in  10  hours.  It  carried  a  circular  head-saw  with  a  3-saw  edger  and  two 
cut-offs.  It  required  a  substantial  installation,  with  a  dutch  oven  for 
the  best  steaming  and  cement  mounting  for  the  engine,  but  could  be 
set  up  so  as  to  begin  cutting  lumber,  under  the  pressure  of  war-time 
urgency,  in  12  or  14  days.  Its  ample  power  and  weight  and  the  sub- 
stantial character  of  its  parts  permitted  continuous  hard  driving  at  high 
speed,  the  key  to  production.  Operated  for  two  shifts  daily,  these  mills 
turned  out  from  1,000,000  to  1,200,000  board  feet  per  month.  Some  of 
them  exceeded  2,000,000  feet  in  their  best  months'  runs.  These  sawmills 
were  utihzed  for  all  of  the  larger  timber  purchases,  which  in  France 
meant  areas  of  from  10  to  30  million  feet.  They  were  also  much  more 
satisfactory  for  the  larger  and  heavier  timber.  In  fact,  for  military  re- 
quirements, in  which  dollars  and  cents  cut  no  figure,  the  "large"  mill 
was  regarded  generally  as  the  most  effective  for  compact  sets  containing 
4,000,000  feet  or  more  of  timber. 

The  Light  Sawmill.  —  The  second  type  was  a  much  more  portable  mill, 
adapted  to  the  innumerable  small  woodlots  and  chateau  forests  of  France. 
It  carried  a  30-horsepower  over-mounted  engine  and  was  rated  to  cut 
10,000  board  feet  of  lumber  in  10  hours.  It  could  be  put  up  on  tim- 
ber foundations  in  4  days.  One  of  these  mills,  in  fact,  was  moved  35 
kilometers  in  the  Landes,  was  reset,  and  began  cutting  its  first  log  47 
hours  after  sawing  the  last  log  at  the  old  site.  These  plants  manu- 
factured the  same  class  and  variety  of  products  as  the  larger  mill  but 
could  not  withstand  the  same  degree  of  driving.  Many  of  them,  how- 
ever, cut  steadily  600,000  board  feet  per  month;  and  one  of  them  made  a 
month's  record  of  a  million  feet  of  hardwood  lumber  and  ties. 

The  Flying  Sawmill.  —  The  third  plant  was  the  last  word  in  portable 
sawmills  —  a  little  bolter  rig  running  a  single  36-inch  saw  and  weighing 
but  3  tons  with  all  of  its  equipment.  It  was  rated  to  cut  5,000  board 
feet  in  10  hours  but  could  turn  out  much  more  than  that.  Its  best  work 
was  done  on  logs  16  feet  and  under  in  diameter  and  10  feet  or  less  in 
length.  It  proved  an  excellent  little  machine  for  slabbing  railroad  ties 
or  sawing  unedged  plank  such  as  were  used  extensively  in  field  fortifi- 
cations. This  diminutive  sawmill  could  be  operated  by  a  25-horse- 
power  steam  or  gas  engine  of  any  type  but  was  most  effective  in  com- 
bination with  a  10-ton  caterpillar  tractor,  both  for  operation  and  for  its 
own  transportation.  The  rig  can  be  taken  down  in  4  or  5  hours,  loaded  on 
a  couple  of  log  wagons,  moved  by  its  own  power  to  a  new  site,  and  reset 
in  a  similar  length  of  time.     The  bolter  mill  and  caterpillar  made  ideal 


THE  TRANSPORT   PROBLEM  345 

equipment  for  the  flying  squadron  of  forestry  troops  working  in  the 
combat  zone  and  for  short  sets  in  small  timber  at  any  point.  It  was 
often  combined  with  larger  plants,  for  slabbing  small  logs  into  ties,  or 
moved  into  the  woods  after  the  large  timber  had  been  logged  —  to  work 
up  small  material. 

Heavy  and  Light  Artillery  in  Timber  Warfare.  —  All  told,  the  Forestry 
Section  marshalled  a  battery  of  27  large  mills,  62  light  mills,  and  61  of 
the  little  portables.  These  different  types  of  sawmills  proved  to  be  well 
adapted  to  operating  requirements  in  the  French  forests,  with  their 
wide  variety  in  extent  and  in  the  size  and  quality  of  their  timber.  They 
also  afforded  well-balanced  equipment  for  the  numerous  and  varied 
demands  of  military  operations.  Sawmills,  like  artillery,  must  be  adapted 
to  work  at  different  ranges  from  the  trenches.  The  heavy,  or  com- 
paratively permanent,  mills  were  well  fitted  for  long-time  operations  near 
permanent  depots  and  base  ports  where  continuous  hard  driving  to 
produce  the  maximum  quantity  of  lumber  was  of  the  first  importance. 
The  other  types  proved  well  adapted  to  the  more  temporary  operations 
in  which  mobility  and  speed  in  setting  up  were  the  principal  factors. 
With  this  complement  of  sawmills  the  Forestry  Section  kept  from  80 
to  90  milling  operations  going  continuously,  several  of  which  emplayed 
two  or  more  machines.  A  30  per  cent  excess  of  sawmills  is  none  too 
great  for  keeping  an  army  supplied  with  timber  under  the  strenuous 
conditions  which  existed  in  France.  New  mills  were  being  installed 
constantly  up  to  the  day  of  the  armistice  and  it  was  essential  that  this 
be  done  without  stopping  production  at  the  established  plants. 

The  Transport  Problem,  —  First  and  last,  the  toughest  problem  in 
practical  lumbering  which  the  forest  engineers  had  to  overcome  was  the 
transportation  of  logs  from  woods  to  sawmill  and  of  pihng,  poles,  etc., 
from  woods  to  railroad  shipping  point.  Its  difficulty  was  increased  by 
the  many  different  kinds  of  ground  and  topography  which  were  en- 
countered. In  southern  France  it  was  a  succession  of  flat  sand  plains, 
with  occasional  stretches  of  sand  so  loose  as  to  make  wheel  traction 
very  difficult.  In  the  hardwood  forests  on  the  plains  and  hills  of  central 
and  eastern  France,  the  great  obstacle  was  bottomless  clay  mud  which, 
in  its  frequent  state  of  saturation  from  weeks  of  continuous  rain,  defied 
almost  any  kind  of  traction  put  upon  it. 

In  the  fir  forests  of  eastern  France  the  logging  conditions  were  more 
hke  those  of  the  Adirondacks  or  the  White  Mountains.  There  was 
much  good  logging  ground,  some  steep  grades,  bad  patches  of  rock  and 
moss,  and  occasional  "sled  snows"  in  wintertime.  To  find  the  right 
equipment  for  each  job  was  not  easy.  The  rough  and  ready  mechanical 
skill  of  the  American  lumberjack  was  never  displayed  to  better  advantage. 
Spool  skidders  and  4  and  8  wheel  log  wagons  were  the  mainstays,  the 


346  THE   AMERICAN  FOREST   ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 

former  for  short-distance  skidding,  up  to  300  yards;  the  latter  for  hauls, 
up  to  6  or  8  miles.  Big  wheels  were  used  successfully  on  several  jobs 
for  skidding  distances  intermecUate  between  those  adapted  to  the  spool 
skidders  and  hauls  requiring  a  log  wagon.  They  were  employed  in 
moving  out  piUng  at  a  number  of  operations.  Drays,  or  "go-devils," 
were  constructed  for  short-distance  work  in  mud  or  snow  or  on  rough 
ground  at  many  operations;  and  in  several  instances  the  old-fashioned 
bob-sled  —  for  long  hauls  on  snow  roads  —  came  into  its  own. 

Value  of  French  Highways.  —  Much  of  the  log  transportation  was 
facilitated  greatly  by  the  splendid  system  of  French  forest  roads  and  sur- 
faced highways.  The  maintenance  of  this  wonderful  network  of  rural 
communication  all  over  France  is  a  phase  not  only  of  preparedness  for 
war  but  of  national  efficiency  at  all  times  which  the  United  States  would 
do  well  to  emulate.  Logs  could  often  be  handled  by  motor  truck  to  a 
central  mill  site  from  several  small  forests  within  a  radius  of  10  or  12 
miles.  Enormous  quantities  of  poles,  piles,  hewn  ties,  lumber,  and  fuel 
wood  were  moved  to  rail  by  the  same  means.  Much  normal  railway 
traffic  was,  under  the  exigencies  of  the  general  transport  situation, 
handled  by  fleets  of  motor  trucks  and  trailers. 

Motor  Trucks  and  Caterpillars.  —  With  the  motor  trucks  and  iron- 
tired  tractors,  which  were  used  both  in  the  woods  and  on  hard  roads,  it 
was  found  necessary  to  have  two  types  of  trailers,  each  of  about  5-ton 
capacity.  The  first  was  a  high-speed  trailer,  with  rubber  tires  and  roller 
bearings,  adapted  to  fast  work  on  good  roads.  The  second  was  a  slow- 
speed  trailer,  with  high  wheels  and  6-inch  iron  tires.  This  machine  was 
designed  for  work  in  the  woods  primarily,  although  it  was  often  ad- 
vantageous to  send  a  string  of  trailers  from  the  landings  through  to  the 
mill  or  railroad,  without  rehandhng  their  loads  but  perhaps  changing  the 
type  of  power  when  hard  roads  were  reached.  One  of  the  most  chfficult 
transportation  jobs  required  in  France  was  the  moving  of  90  and  100  foot 
piling  out  of  the  Vosges  Mountains.  This  was  done  with  gas  tractors 
and  iron-tired  trailers,  the  latter  fitted  with  special  built-up  bunks  for 
the  purpose. 

Caterpillar  tractors  did  wonderful  work  in  hauhng  trailers  or  log 
wagons  over  ground  which  was  impassable  to  horses  and  to  any  other 
type  of  motor  equipment.  These  powerful  machines  with  8-wheeled  log 
wagons  were  the  last  resort  in  keeping  logs  moving  through  sodden  clay 
mud  when  everything  else  had  failed. 

Logging  Railways.  — -  The  forestry  operations  in  France  had  to  resort  to 
logging  railroads  or  horse  trams  in  many  cases  because  of  lack  of  horses, 
the  lack  of  suitable  motor  traction,  cUfficulties  arising  from  mud,  swamps, 
or  loose  sand,  and  in  several  cases  because  of  the  large  quantities  of 
timber  to  be  moved  over  distances  of  2  to  6  miles.     In  many  operations, 


THE   SPECIAL   FUEL  SUPPLY  SERVICE  347 

in  fact,  the  logging  railroad  demonstrated  its  superiority,  where  topog- 
raphy was  favorable,  even  for  sets  as  small  as  6,000,000  feet.  A  difficult 
area  in  the  Vosges  Mountains  was  logged  by  means  of  a  4,000-foot  meter 
gauge  incHne,  with  an  average  grade  of  35  per  cent,  down  which  carloads 
of  logs  were  lowered  by  donkey  engine  and  cable. 

The  light  railway  sectional  track,  of  various  gauges  2  feet  and  under, 
used  by  the  Army  at  the  front,  was  employed  in  many  forestry  operations. 
It  rendered  good  service  in  handhng  Hght  products,  like  poles  and  fuel 
wood,  and  was  used  successfully  at  several  operations  for  transporting 
logs.  It  was  often  preferable  for  small  jobs  because  laying  and  removal 
were  so  fast.  For  extended  operations,  however,  the  forestry  officers 
found  that  3-foot  gauge  track  laid  with  25  or  40  pound  steel  saved  time 
and  cost  in  the  long  run.  When  our  real  3-foot  gauge  rolling  stock 
arrived  and  steel  rails  were  available  in  sufficient  quantities  the  difficulties 
of  the  forestry  operations  were  materially  reduced. 


THE  PRODUCTION  OF  FUEL  WOOD 

An  Enormous  Problem  in  Itself.  —  Supplying  the  American  Army  with 
fuel  wood  was  a  special  problem  in  itself,  whose  proportions  increased 
from  month  to  month  practically  in  a  fixed  ratio  to  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  American  soldiers  in  France.  Considerable  supplies  of  fuel 
wood  were  obtained  from  French  stocks.  Cutting  the  added  amounts 
needed  was  not  a  serious  matter  during  the  first  winter  of  American 
operations,  but  became  an  enormous  task  during  the  fall  and  winter  of 
1918-19.  The  monthly  production  necessary  to  keep  the  Army  warm 
and  fed  reached  the  figure  of  287,000  cubic  meters  in  December,  1918. 

Fuel  Wood  Cut  by  the  Forest  Engineers.  —  The  forest  engineers  them- 
selves cut  large  quantities  of  fuel  as  a  by-product  in  all  their  operations. 
It  was  obtained  not  only  from  mill  slabs  and  edgings  and  from  treetops, 
but  also  from  the  dense  stands  of  sprouts  which  covered  the  ground  in 
most  of  the  hardwood  forests  which  were  operated  and  which  had  to  be 
swamped  out  in  logging  the  large  timber.  By  April  1,  1919,  the  Forestry 
Section  produced  1,195,000  cubic  meters  of  fuel  wood.  Owing  to  the 
shortage  of  transport,  however,  but  50  per  cent  of  this  amount  could  be 
moved  to  the  points  where  it  was  needed.  The  supplemental  production 
of  fuel  wood  was  essential  and  it  had  to  be  localized,  particularly  in  the 
Advance  Section,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  larger  bodies  of  troops. 

The  Special  Fuel  Supply  Service.  —  During  the  first  winter  this  was 
done  under  the  direction  of  the  Quartermaster  Corps  by  employing 
civilian  labor,  by  details  from  combat  organizations,  and  by  the  assign- 
ment of  a  few  companies  of  infantry  to  this  particular  duty.  The  use  of 
C0Pab9,t  troops  for  this  work  proved  unsatisfactory  and  led  invariably 


348  THE  AMERICAN   FOREST  ENGINEERS  IN   FRANCE 

to  large  damage  claims  for  injuries  to  the  carefully  regulated  French 
forests.  The  enormous  demands  in  prospect  during  the  summer  of  1918 
made  it  necessary,  in  any  event,  to  organize  a  special  fuel  wood  service 
on  a  much  larger  scale.  The  Quartermaster  Corps  thereupon  assigned 
10,600  of  its  service  troops  to  this  duty  in  the  Advance  Section.  This 
project  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
Forestry  Section  with  a  supply  officer  from  the  Q.  M.  C.  Thirty-three 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  were  furnished  by  the  Forestry 
Section  to  locate  and  acquire  the  timber  needed  and  supervise  its  cutting. 
The  Quartermaster  troops  included  fifteen  pack  trains,  two  wagon  trains, 
and  a  motor  truck  company. 

This  hastily  assembled  organization  conducted  thirty-eight  fuel  wood 
camps,  all  told,  in  the  hardwood  coppice  forests  of  northeastern  France. 
Its  operations  were  distributed  through  practically  all  of  the  divisional 
training  areas  in  the  Advance  Section  and  six  companies  were  employed 
during  September  and  October,  1918,  to  supply  the  troops  constituting 
the  First  Army.  It  was  a  task  of  no  small  difficulty  to  organize  and 
equip  this  enormous  force  of  woodcutters.  As  usual,  the  question  of 
transport  was  the  kernel  of  the  problem.  Every  sort  of  available  equip- 
ment which  could  move  fuel  wood  was  utilized  —  tractors,  motor  trucks, 
40  and  60  centimeter  sectional  track,  lumber  wagons,  escort  wagons, 
two-wheeled  French  carts,  and  sleds.  Chutes  made  of  corrugated  iron 
were  employed  at  several  operations ;  and  a  deal  of  fuel  wood  was  dragged 
or  carried  out  to  hard  roads  by  sheer  man  power.  Forty-centimeter  sec- 
tional track  with  light  cars,  moved  by  mule  or  man  power,  proved  to 
be  very  serviceable  equipment.  The  fuel  wood  camps  were  placed,  as 
far  as  possible,  right  in  the  troop  areas,  and  much  of  the  wood,  once 
placed  on  hard  roads,  was  distributed  by  the  transport  equipment  of  the 
division  which  used  the  fuel. 

In  spite  of  the  difficulties  encountered,  the  special  fuel  supply  unit 
was  thoroughly  successful  and  tided  the  Army  over  the  shortage  of 
fuel  wood  which  would  otherwise  have  been  acute  during  the  cold  months 
of  1918-19.  A  total  of  930,000  cubic  meters  was  cut,  giving  the  Army 
a  comfortable  surplus  over  its  requirements  and  indeed  permitting  the 
turning  over  of  considerable  quantities  of  fuel  to  the  French  when  the 
Advance  Section  was  evacuated. 

WHAT  THE  FOREST  ENGINEERS  ACCOMPLISHED 
The  Beginning  and  the  End.  —  The  first  log  was  sawed  by  American 
forestry  troops  at  a  little  French  mill  in  the  Jura  Mountains  on  Novem- 
ber 26,  1917.  Three  days  later  the  first  American  sawmill  in  France 
began  operating  in  a  forest  of  Scotch  pine  on  the  Loire  River.  Prior 
to  these  dates   another  camp  of  forestry  troops  in  the  southwestern 


WINNING  THE   WAR   WITH  LUMBER  349 

pineries  had  begun  cutting  50-foot  piles  which  were  urgently  needed  for 
the  American  docks  at  Bordeaux.  Less  than  one  year  later,  when  the 
armistice  was  signed  with  Germany,  the  forestry  troops  were  operating 
eighty-one  American  sawmills  and  cutting  2,000,000  board  feet  of  lum- 
ber, ties,  piles,  and  poles  every  working  day,  aside  from  vast  quantities 
of  fuelwood.  Within  this  year's  time  over  90  per  cent  of  the  personnel 
of  the  Forestry  Section  had  landed  in  France,  taken  their  stations,  put 
up  their  sawmills,  constructed  their  railroad  connections,  and  cut  300,- 
000,000  board  feet  of  lumber  and  railroad  ties,  38,000  piles,  and  2,878.000 
poles  and  entanglement  stakes.  The  cut  of  fuel  wood  during  the  same 
period  was  some  317,000  cords. 

The  Spirit  of  the  Forestry  Troops.  —  A  deal  of  labor,  of  Yankee 
ingenuity,  and  of  determination  to  back  up  the  fighting  troops  of  the 
American  force  with  the  timber  which  they  needed  were  required  in 
producing  these  results.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  describe  the  pressure 
upon  all  of  us  during  the  summer  and  fall  of  1918  when  every  lumber- 
jack in  the  regiment  felt  the  tenseness  of  the  final  grapple  and  put 
everything  he  had  into  it.  I  will  never  forget  the  big  mill  at  Eclaron 
as  I  saw  it  one  October  night  — ■  sparks  streaming  from  its  stacks,  its 
two  carriages  flashing  back  and  forth,  loads  of  oak  logs  creaking  up  to 
the  mill  deck,  cars  being  shunted  about,  ties  loaded  into  them  hot  from 
the  saws,  and  the  sober,  earnest  faces  of  the  men  as  they  worked  under 
the  electric  hghts.  They  were  shipping  5,000  ties  daily  to  the  Argonne 
offensive.  That  scene  was  typical  of  the  eighty  or  more  forestry  opera- 
tions in  France  during  the  great  drive. 

Winning  the  War  with  Lumber.  —  The  daily  and  monthly  mill  cuts 
afford  an  excellent  index  of  the  spirit  which  the  lumberjack  engineers 
put  into  their  work.  Rated  capacities  quickly  disappeared  in  the  saw- 
dust. The  27th  Company,  at  Mouthe,  holds  the  record  for  the  largest 
day's  cut  at  any  forestry  operation.  This  company  produced  177,486 
board  feet  of  fir  lumber  and  timbers  on  a  "20,000"  mill  in  23  hours  and 
25  minutes.  The  37th  Company,  formerly  Company  F  of  the  Tenth 
Engineers,  made  the  largest  20-hour  cut,  163,376  feet,  with  the  same 
type  of  mill  and  product.  The  camp  of  the  26th  Company,  at  la  Cluse, 
carried  off  the  pennant  for  a  20-hour  run  with  a  ''10,000"  mill,  knock- 
ing out  78,881  feet  of  fir  lumber  and  timbers.  Three  other  companies, 
operating  in  softwood  timber,  made  daily  records  with  10,000-foot  mills 
of  from  63,000  to  68,650  feet.  Several  of  the  10,000-foot  mills  made 
daily  records,  in  two  shifts,  of  from  40,000  to  55,539  feet  of  hardwood 
lumber,  ties,  and  timbers. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  achievements  was  that  of  the  19th  Com- 
pany in  the  7th  Battalion,  which  in  10^  hours  cut  64,000  board  feet  of 
oak  ties  with  a  bolter  mill  rated  to  produce  5,000  feet  per  shift. 


350 


THE   AMERICAN   FOREST  ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 


In  the  face  of  the  enormous  quantities  of  timber  required  to  carry  for- 
ward the  work  of  the  American  Army  in  ahnost  all  of  its  branches, 
every  possible  effort  was  made  to  speed  up  production  at  the  forestry 
operations.  Practically  all  of  the  sawmills  were  operated  day  and 
night,  some  of  them  on  three  8-hour  shifts.  More  than  double  the 
rated  capacity  of  the  plants  was  obtained  currently  at  many  of  the 
forestry  operations  —  by  continuous  hard  driving.  The  following 
figures,  covering  7  months  in  1918,  illustrate  the  rate  at  which  mill 
capacity  was  increased  during  the  critical  period  of  the  war  and  also  the 
actual  output  of  sawed  products  as  compared  with  the  rated  capacity 
of  the  plants. 


Month 
(1918) 


Number  of  mills 


Average  rated 

capacity  per 

10  liours, 

M  ft.  b.m. 


Average 
cut  per  day, 
M  ft.  b.m. 


March .  .  .  . 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August  — 
September 


25.5 
303 
402 

542 
757 
797 
850 


302 

560 

665 

835 

1,215 

1,550 

1,700 


The  last  column  contains  the  actual  daily  output,  including  time 
lost  from  breakdowns,  shifts  in  location,  and  delays  incident  to  the 
operating  of  new  mills. 

The  principal  thing  which  made  such  a  showing  possible  was  the 
experience  and  skill  of  the  men  comprising  the  forestry  companies  and 
the  esprit  de  corps  which  actuated  their  work.  These  qualities  in  its 
personnel  were  by  far  the  greatest  asset  of  the  Forestry  Section.  The 
actual  accomplishment  of  the  Forest  Engineers  as  a  distinctive  unit  in 
the  American  Army  was  summed  up  in  these  words  from  their  command- 
ing officer,  shortly  after  the  armistice  was  signed: 

"Recent  reports  from  the  various  depots  and  construction  projects 
of  the  American  E.  F.  show  that  the  Army  was  at  the  time  of  conclud- 
ing the  armistice  well  supplied  with  lumber.  When  ties  were  called  for 
in  large  quantities  to  support  the  advances  of  our  troops  at  St.  Mihiel 
and  in  the  Argonne  they  were  ready.  At  practically  every  dock  project 
dehveries  of  piling  and  lumber  were  well  ahead  of  the  construction.  In 
other  words,  the  Forestry  troops  have  made  good  on  the  work  for  which 
they  were  brought  to  France.  Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  in 
obtaining  equipment  and  transportation,  notwithstanding  the  enormous 
increase  in  the  size  of  the  American  E.  F.,  and  the  work  which  it  under- 
took over  the  original  estimates,  the  Army  has  been  given  the  lumber 


COOPERATION  WITH  FOREST  AGENCIES  351 

which  it  needed,  and  the  suspension  of  hostihties  finds  us  with  a  sub- 
stantial surplus  which  will  be  used  for  the  restoration  of  France." 

COOPERATION  WITH  THE  FOREST  AGENCIES  OF  FRANCE 

French  Organization  of  Timber  Supplies  for  the  War.  —  When  the 
advance  guard  of  Forest  Engineers  reached  Paris  in  1917,  they  found 
the  French  Government  and  Army  highly  organized  for  the  procurement 
of  timber  for  military  requirements.  Each  of  the  French  Army  groups 
carried  a  Forestry  Service  on  its  staff,  with  an  elaborate  organization 
extending  throughout  its  entire  section  of  the  Army  Zone.  This  service 
requisitioned  existing  stocks  of  lumber  or  wood,  bought  or  requisitioned 
forests,  ran  sawmills  with  German  prisoners  or  French  engineer  troops, 
and  operated  its  own  transport  system  for  distributing  forest  products 
to  all  units  in  the  Army  group.  This  was  a  purely  military  organization 
which  exercised  practically  absolute  control  over  all  forests  and  forest- 
grown  materials  in  the  territory  designated  as  the  Army  Zone. 

A  distinct  organization  functioned  in  the  Zone  of  the  Rear,  under 
the  Minister  of  Munitions.  It  centered  in  the  Inspector  General  of 
Timber  who  directed  the  activities  of  some  twenty  "timber  centers" 
embracing  all  parts  of  France  outside  of  the  Army  Zone.  Each  timber 
center  consisted  of  a  group  of  French  engineer  or  forest  officers  who 
purchased  or  requisitioned  forests,  operated  sawmills  with  prisoners  of 
war  or  military  labor,  and  largely  controlled  the  disposal  of  timber 
products  cut  by  private  agencies.  They  were  authorized  by  a  war-time 
decree  to  requisition  75  per  cent  of  the  output  of  any  sawmill  at  a  scale 
of  prices  fixed  by  the  Inspector  General  and  also  made  contracts  for 
railroad  ties,  piling,  barracks,  and  other  special  products  needed  by  the 
armies.  This  was  a  civiHan  organization,  although  made  up  largely  of 
militarized  personnel,  responsible  to  the  French  Cabinet  and  obtaining 
and  distributing  its  timber  in  accordance  with  the  programs  formulated 
by  the  Minister  of  War  and  Minister  of  Munitions. 

The  Service  of  Waters  and  Forests  under  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture maintained  its  customary  organization  and  functions  during 
the  war,  although  with  ranks  sadly  depleted  by  the  call  to  arms.  It 
administered  all  of  the  State  forests  and  the  great  bulk  of  the  communal 
forests  and  forests  owned  by  public  institutions.  Its  guards  and  rangers 
were  to  be  found  in  practically  every  forested  canton  of  France;  and  its 
inspectors  and  conservators  represented  an  exceptionally  intelligent  and 
expert  corps  of  foresters  who  rendered  assistance  of  the  utmost  value 
to  the  allied  armies  in  locating  suitable  supphes  of  wood.  They  deter- 
mined the  maximum  quantities  of  timber  that  could  be  cut  from  State 
and  communal  forests  without  doing  serious  violence  to  their  plans  of 


352  THE  AMERICAN   FOREST   ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 

management  and  placed  most  of  these  cuttings  at  the  disposal  of  the 
war-time  supply  services  as  preferre-d  purchasers. 

Early  Negotiations  with  the  French  Government.  —  Rather  extended 
negotiations  were  necessary  before  the  work  of  supplying  the  American 
Army  with  timber  was  adjusted  effectively  to  these  existing  forestry 
organizations  in  France.  Not  alone  were  the  means  of  obtaining  forests 
for  American  operations  involved;  other  questions,  such  as  the  advance 
of  lumber  and  railroad  ties  from  French  stocks  for  the  most  immediate 
and  urgent  needs  of  our  Army,  the  control  of  American  wood  purchases 
by  the  French  Government,  and  the  loan  of  American  troops  and  equip- 
ment to  the  Inspector  General  of  Timber,  had  to  be  settled.  A  satis- 
factory adjustment  of  these  matters  was  reached  in  the  latter  part  of 
August,  1917,  and  reasonably  effective  cooperation  with  the  various 
French  agencies  then  developed. 

The  Interallied  Timber  Committee.  —  A  committee  which  had 
existed  previously  for  correlating  the  forest  purchases  of  the  French  and 
British  supply  services  was  expanded  into  the  Interalhed  Committee  on 
War  Timber,  with  French,  British,  Canachan,  Belgian,  and  American 
representatives.  This  committee  functioned  under  the  French  In- 
spector General  of  Timber  and  served  as  a  clearing  house  for  the  con- 
sideration of  all  requests  from  the  various  armies  for  the  purchase  of 
forests  in  the  Zone  of  the  Rear  and  for  adjusting  conflicting  demands. 
The  purchase  of  any  forest  for  a  particular  army  had  to  be  passed  upon 
by  this  committee  before  action  was  taken  through  the  competent  French 
agencies. 

Once  the  purchase  of  a  particular  tract  of  timber  was  approved  by 
the  committee  and  sanctioned  by  the  Inspector  General,  a  direct  cession 
was  obtained  from  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  in  the  case  of  State 
or  communal  holdings,  the  cession  specifying  the  quantity,  price,  and 
cutting  requirements.  If  the  tract  was  privately  owned  a  commission 
of  French  forest  experts  undertook  the  estimate  and  appraisal  of  the 
stumpage  and  the  negotiations  for  its  purchase.  If  a  friendly  purchase 
could  not  be  effected  a  request  for  the  requisition  of  the  property  was 
made  to  a  still  different  war-time  organization,  called  the  Standing 
Committee  on  War  Timber.  This  board  was  composed  of  the  Inspector 
General,  representatives  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  members  of 
Parliament,  and  prominent  French  lumber  manufacturers.  It  had  been 
created  in  the  course  of  the  war  as  a  means  of  developing  and  controlling 
the  general  policy  of  the  French  Government  for  meeting  military 
demands  for  forest  products,  and  was  the  final  court  on  the  condemna- 
tion of  private  forests. 

Forest  Acquisitions  in  the  War  Zone.  —  At  the  same  time  that  officers 
of  the  Forestry  Section  took  their  places  in  this  somewhat  comphcated 


CUTTING  REQUIREMENTS  353 

administrative  machinery  for  the  purchase  of  forests  in  the  Zone  of  the 
Rear,  other  American  officers  were  stationed  at  the  headquarters  of  our 
Army  at  Chaumont  and  established  direct  connections  with  the  French 
Army  organizations  which  controlled  timber  supplies  in  the  War  Zone. 
Their  procedure  for  acquiring  forests,  based  upon  martial  law,  was 
much  more  direct  and  expeditious. 

Scouting  France  for  Timber.  —  Thereafter  the  acquisition  of  forests  for 
operation  by  our  troops,  which  began  to  arrive  in  October,  1917,  moved 
forward  rapidly.  The  advance  guard  of  foresters  and  lumbermen  who 
preceded  the  troops  were  employed  largely  on  reconnaissance  to  locate 
suitable  operating  units.  As  each  battalion  of  forest  engineers  arrived, 
one  or  more  of  its  officers  took  up  the  same  work  in  their  immediate 
operating  region.  Reports  on  desirable  areas  came  in  thick  and  fast 
and  their  acquisition  was  pushed  through  the  various  stages  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  Notwithstanding  many  delays  and  difficulties  and  the 
inability  to  carry  through  requisitions  of  private  forests  in  some  in- 
stances, the  Forestry  Section  was  able  to  locate  all  of  its  incoming  troops 
at  operating  points  without  loss  of  time  and  to  keep  them  continuously 
supplied  with  timber. 

Cutting  Requirements  Imposed  by  the  French.  —  The  French  agencies 
retained  control  of  the  technical  requirements  to  be  observed  in  all 
forestry  operations  and  frequently  inspected  the  American  cuttings. 
The  methods  of  cutting  State  and  communal  forests  were  drafted  by 
the  conservator  of  the  district  and  fixed  in  the  terms  of  cession.  Officers 
of  the  Forest  Service  inspected  these  operations  very  closely.  Cutting 
regulations  applicable  to  private  forests  were  usually  outlined  in  the 
report  of  the  expert  commission  in  connection  with  the  appraisal  of  the 
timber.  These  were  later  embodied  and  sometimes  changed  in  the 
formal  contracts  made  with  the  owners  of  the  forests  by  the  local  timber 
centers.  Such  contracts  were  almost  uniformly  delayed  until  long 
after  cutting  had  begun;  but  a  liaison  officer,  representing  the  Inspector 
General  in  each  region,  directed  the  methods  to  be  followed  in  cutting 
private  forests  and  settled  complaints  from  owners.  In  the  Army  Zone 
these  duties  were  discharged  by  an  engineer  officer  representing  the 
Timber  Supply  Service  of  the  Army  staff. 

The  requirements  of  French  forestry  were  rather  strictly  enforced 
in  operations  on  State  or  communal  holdings.  In  a  few  instances  even, 
large,  full-crowned  fir  or  spruce  trees  had  to  be  limbed  before  felling  in 
order  to  reduce  the  injury  to  young  growth  when  they  were  brought  to 
the  ground.  In  a  few  cases  the  terms  of  cession  required  cutting  out 
patches  of  briars  to  facilitate  the  regeneration  of  the  forest  or  pulhng 
up  the  stumps  of  species  like  beech,  which  the  French  foresters  wished 
to  get  rid  of  for  silvicultural  reasons.     The  piUng  of  slash  was  required 


354  THE  AMERICAN   FOREST  ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 

in"^the  pine  and  fir  forests  of  central  and  eastern  France,  but  not  as  a 
rule  in  the  hardwood  forests  where  the  close  utilization  of  fuel  wood  left 
practically  nothing  but  small  twigs.  In  cutting  hardwood  coppice 
special  precautions  had  to  be  taken  to  leave  smooth,  rounded  stumps 
which  would  shed  water  and  prevent  decay  injurious  to  the  new  crop 
of  sprouts. 

Restrictions  upon  the  Amount  of  Timber  Cut.  —  The  most  serious 
restriction  from  the  standpoint  of  effective  logging  was  the  limitation 
on  the  quantity  of  timber  which  could  be  removed  from  many  forests. 
In  the  southern  pineries,  following  the  forestry  system  of  the  region, 
the  timber  was  cut  clean  and  the  requirements  imposed  were  compara- 
tively simple.  In  the  hardwood  forests  and  the  softwood  forests  of 
the  eastern  mountains  only  trees  selected  and  marked  by  the  French 
foresters  could  be  cut.  These  usually  comprised  from  15  to  40  per 
cent  of  the  actual  volume  of  merchantable  timber.  In  the  State  and 
communal  forests  of  the  Vosges  and  Jura,  containing  many  fine  areas 
of  fir  and  spruce  timber,  cutting  was  restricted  to  a  limited  number  of 
"coupes"  which  were  ready  for  felling  under  the  exact  methods  of 
management  applied  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service.  Blocks  of 
mature  timber  would  be  withheld,  for  example,  because  the  regeneration 
of  young  trees  was  not  sufficiently  advanced. 

As  the  result  of  constant  pressure  by  the  American  representatives 
in  the  interally  organization,  the  markings  in  these  forests  were  often 
extended  to  include  from  five  to  ten  "annual  possibilities,"  that  is,  from 
five  to  ten  times  the  quantity  permitted  to  be  cut  in  one  year  under  the 
plan  prescribed  for  the  management  of  the  forest  in  question.  All  the 
timber  marked,  however,  was  restricted  to  trees  which  could  be  removed 
properly  from  the  stand Jjoint  of  maturity  and  the  generation  of  the 
next  crop.  As  a  matter  of  fact  French  forestry  practice  is  so  conserva- 
tive that  many  of  these  forests  carried  an  excessive  amount  of  old  timber, 
and  cuttings  of  this  character  and  extent  were  not  injurious  from  a 
purely  technical  standpoint.  The  most  extreme  illustration  of  the 
strict  application  of  French  forestry  requirements  occurred  in  a  few 
large,  rich  forests  where  the  cutting  of  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  mer- 
chantable timber  was  allowed,  this  being  restricted  mainly  to  windfalls 
or  thinnings. 

The  usual  forestry  rules  were  departed  from  in  the  case  of  many 
private  forests  which  had  been  requisitioned  or  whose  owners  were 
favorable  to  a  heavier  cut  than  would  ordinarily  be  permitted.  On  a 
few  large  hardwood  areas  such  special  concessions  allowed  the  removal 
of  as  much  as  80  per  cent  of  the  merchantable  material. 

Meeting  French  Foresters  on  Their  Own  Ground.  —  The  officers  who 
represented  the  American  Army  in  the  negotiations  with  the  French 


FRENCH  VIEW  OF  AMERICAN   OPERATIONS  355 

foresters  were  quick  to  appreciate  how  little  their  conceptions  of  sound 
forestry  practice  had  yielded  to  the  urgent  demands  of  the  war.  We 
could  but  respect  this  vigorous  assertion  of  the  national  instinct  for  forest 
conservation  in  the  face  of  a  world-wide  emergency,  although  at  times  it 
appeared  to  be  carried  farther  than  a  vigorous  and  effective  prosecution 
of  the  war  should  permit.  The  American  officers  endeavored  consist- 
ently to  meet  the  French  foresters  on  their  own  ground,  and  to  under- 
stand and  work  in  harmony  with  their  technical  requirements.  This 
was  indeed  the  attitude  of  the  operation  commanders  and  of  the  rank 
and  file  of  the  forestry  troops  to  a  remarkable  degree,  considering  how 
foreign  the  French  forestry  viewpoint  was  to  their  past  experience  and 
habits  of  thought  as  lumbermen.  The  French  foresters  thus  acquired 
a  large  measure  of  confidence  in  the  American  engineers  at  work  in  their 
woods,  a  fact  which  proved  to  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  Forestry  Section 
in  the  long  run. 

The  French  View  of  American  Operations.  —  As  a  matter  of  fact  the 
French  made  practically  no  serious  criticisms  of  the  American  cuttings 
as  far  as  compliance  with  forestry  requirements  was  concerned.  The 
common  sense  and  practical  understanding  of  the  situation  on  the  part 
of  the  average  French  forester  made  many  requirements  less  burden- 
some in  practice  than  they  threatened  to  be  in  the  formal  contract. 
The  criticism  of  the  French  was  cUrected  chiefly  against  the  American 
methods  of  utilizing  timber,  particularly  the  7  and  9  gauge  circular 
saws  with  which  our  mills  were  equipped.  Accustomed  for  centuries 
to  the  closest  possible  utilization  of  valuable  timber,  with  human  labor 
and  rate  of  production  wholly  secondary  considerations,  and  to  the  use 
of  narrow  bandsaws  of  a  thinness  approached  only  in  light  work  in 
planing-mills  or  wood-working  factories  in  the  United  States,  the  wide 
kerf  eaten  out  of  the  logs  by  the  heavy  American  circular  saws  was 
anathema  to  the  thrifty  French.  Nor  were  they  convinced  by  the 
American  argument  that  heavy  equipment  was  necessary  to  stand  up 
under  the  continuous  hard  driving  required  to  get  the  maximum  pro- 
duction from  our  mills  and  that  the  war  would  be  won  by  volume  of 
output  rather  than  a  minimum  of  waste. 

A  related  question  was  that  of  the  class  of  products  cut  from  large, 
high-grade  timber.  The  State  foresters  could  not  forget  how  they  had 
sought  from  time  immemorial  to  make  the  public  forests  of  France  supply 
the  clear,  high-grade  timbers,  in  large  sizes,  needed  by  her  industries. 
When  an  American  captain  under  the  pressure  of  ''rush"  orders  cut 
such  logs  into  ties  or  scantling,  as  occasionally  happened,  the  incident 
was  apt  to  become  a  subject  for  grave  discussion  by  the  Inspector  General 
at  his  monthly  meeting  with  all  the  Allied  forestry  chiefs.  The  upkeep 
of  their  wonderful  system  of  forest  roads  and  surfaced  highways  was 


356  THE  AMERICAN   FOREST  ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 

another  thing  which  the  French  forester  kept  close  at  heart  and  which 
the  impatient  American  was  apt  to  put  aside.  Thoroughgoing  repairs 
on  all  of  the  roads  used  in  our  operations,  however,  were  made  by  the 
forest  engineers  before  they  left  France. 

French  Difficulties  in  Supplying  American  Requirements.  —  In 
judging  the  effectiveness  of  the  cooperation  of  the  French  with  the 
American  Forestry  Section,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  war  brought 
many  difficulties  and  problems  to  the  forest  agencies  of  the  country, 
and  that  these  were  vastly  increased  by  the  presence  of  the  American 
Army.  Not  only  did  France  have  to  supply  her  own  vast  military  re- 
quirements from  her  limited  forest  resources  as  well  as  the  bulk  of  the 
lumber  needed  by  the  British,  Belgian,  and  American  forces;  she  had 
also  to  meet  the  urgent  needs  of  her  civilian  population  and  she  had  to 
foresee  and  provide  for  the  restoration  of  the  sixth  of  her  territory  which 
the  Germans  occupied.  Moreover,  the  French  are  an  exceedingly 
democratic  and  individualistic  nation.  Forest  conservation  and  the 
sacredness  of  property  rights  are  two  of  their  most  cherished  and  deeply 
rooted  characteristics.  The  war  administration  had  to  hold  the  political 
support  of  these  people  during  four  and  a  half  years  of  stress  and  sacrifice. 
Any  source  of  dissatisfaction  or  unrest  strengthened  the  "defaitists," 
who  sought  an  early  peace  at  any  terms. 

Discontent  over  the  inroads  upon  French  forests  was  already  rife 
during  the  winter  of  1917.  During  1918  it  assumed  the  proportions  of 
an  organized  movement.  It  became  the  subject  of  interpellations  on 
the  floor  of  Parliament.  The  opposition  of  the  turpentine  workers  in 
the  Landes  against  what  was  regarded  as  a  depletion  of  the  forests  upon 
which  their  livelihood  depended  necessitated  a  change  in  the  spring  of 
1918  in  the  methods  of  purchasing  timber  in  that  region.  Thereafter 
all  forest  acquisitions  in  southwestern  France  had  to  be  passed  upon 
and  approved  by  a  local  commission  on  which  the  "resiniers"  were 
represented.  During  the  summer  of  1918,  when  the  Germans  were  at 
the  very  gates  of  Paris,  the  whole  system  of  acquiring  forests  for  military 
requirements  in  the  Zone  of  the  Rear  had  to  be  reorganized,  with  new 
officials  representing  the  "opposition"  in  Parliament  in  positions  of 
control. 

Effectiveness  of  French  Cooperation.  —  In  consideration  of  these 
difficulties  with  which  the  French  Government  was  confronted,  its 
cooperation  in  supplying  the  American  Army  with  timber  must,  in  all 
fairness,  be  regarded  not  only  as  a  vital  factor  in  the  success  of  our 
military  operations  but  also  as  effective  as  the  circumstances  permitted. 
It  was  inevitable  that  the  French  should  view  the  cutting  of  their  forests 
for  war  purposes  differently  from  the  Americans;  and  that  their  inborn 
attitude  toward  forests  and  their  training  in  forest  conservation  should 


FOREST  TROOPS  LOANED  357 

find  expression  in  a  degree  of  caution  and  control  which  the  impatient 
Yankee  could  not  understand.  The  whole  French  attitude  toward  the 
war  was  different  from  our  own.  Wars  come  and  pass,  in  every  genera- 
tion, but  forests  remain  as  a  vital  element  in  national  economy. 

Notwithstanding  procedure  that  was  often  cumbersome  and  delays 
that  were  often  vexatious,  notwithstanding  restrictions  that  at  times 
seemed  petty  and  unnecessary,  the  American  Army,  first  and  last,  was 
amply  supplied  with  timber  from  the  French  forests.  At  no  time  were 
the  operations  of  the  forest  engineers  seriously  handicapped  either  by 
lack  of  timber  or  by  the  requirements  which  governed  its  removal.  The 
slowness  and  conservatism  of  the  French  administrative  machinery  was 
offset  largely  by  the  extraordinary  ability  and  personal  force  of  in- 
dividual French  forest  officers.  It  is  to  these  men  who  quickly  grasped 
the  requirements  of  the  American  Army  and  the  American  manner  of 
doing  things  and  who  found  a  way  through  nearly  every  difficulty  that 
the  success  in  obtaining  the  standing  timber  needed  for  our  operations 
in  France  was  largely  due. 

FOREST  TROOPS  LOANED  TO  FRENCH  AND  BRITISH  ARMIES 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  American  Government  after  entering  the 
war  was  to  promise  a  regiment  of  lumbermen  to  the  British  Army. 
Shortly  after  another  regiment  was  assured  tentatively  to  the  French 
Army,  a  promise  later  confirmed  and  enlarged  by  the  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  Expeditionary  Force.  The  enormous  increase  in  the  size 
of  the  American  forces  in  France  subsequently  determined  upon,  with 
their  corresponding  demands  for  timber,  made  it  impossible  to  fulfill 
these  agreements  until  after  a  fair  start  had  been  made  toward  supplying 
our  own  troops  with  the  material  essential  to  their  initial  operations  in 
France. 

In  February,  1918,  however,  it  was  possible  to  assign  a  battalion  of 
forest  troops  to  each  of  the  French  and  British  forces.  The  battalion 
loaned  to  the  French  arrived  and  was  established  at  operations  selected 
by  the  Inspector  General  of  the  French  Timber  Service  in  March,  1918. 
It  functioned  as  an  American  unit  in  all  respects  except  that  its  forests 
were  provided  by  the  French  Government  and  its  products  were  furnished 
directly  to  the  French  Army.  This  battalion  operated  for  French  re- 
quirements until  February  1,  1919,  cutting  over  13,000,000  feet  of 
sawed  material,  125,000  pieces  of  round  products,  and  46,000  cubic 
meters  of  fuel  wood.  Its  work  elicited  the  warmest  praise  from  the 
French  Government. 

The  battalion  assigned  to  the  British  Army  was  torpedoed  on  the 
transport  Tuscania  and  was  unable  to   begin  lumber  manufacture  in 


358  THE  AMERICAN  FOREST  ENGINEERS   IN   FRANCE 

France  until  May,  1918.  It  worked  for  the  British  forces  until  October 
of  the  same  year,  cutting  over  14,000,000  board  feet  of  lumber  and 
railroad  ties  and  beating  all  of  the  Canadian  and  English  units  under 
the  British  Director  of  Forestry  in  its  record  of  production.  With  these 
operations  under  its  direction,  the  Forestry  Section  of  the  American 
Army  assumed  a  truly  allied  character  and  was  able  to  render  valuable 
assistance  to  our  comrades  in  arms  on  the  far-flung  battle  line. 

WHAT  THE  AMERICAN  WOODSMEN  LEARNED  IN  FRANCE 

The  American  woodsmen  in  the  forest  regiments  have  learned  much 
from  their  experience  in  French  forests.  The  change  from  new  world 
to  old  world  methods  of  cutting  and  from  new  to  old  world  viewpoints 
toward  the  forest  was  very  sharp.  The  average  lumberjack  arriving  in 
France  was  scornful  of  the  restrictions  imposed  by  the  French  foresters 
—  of  the  smooth  hardwood  stumps  which  he  was  required  to  cut,  of  the 
limited  felling  which  he  was  permitted  to  do  in  many  fine  stands  of  timber, 
of  the  sawing  of  big  trees  level  with  the  ground,  and  of  the  watchfulness 
to  prevent  injury  to  seedlings  and  saplings.  But  as  the  months  in  the 
French  forests  passed  by  most  of  the  American  soldiers  appreciated  the 
fundamental  common  sense  behind  these  forestry  rules.  Particularly  as 
they  came  to  know  the  French  country  people  and  to  appreciate  the 
scarcity  of  wood  on  their  farms  and  in  their  fireplaces,  they  began  to 
understand  the  whole  thing  as  a  natural  outgrowth  of  French  economic 
life,  on  a  par  with  their  intensive  agriculture.  They  sensed  forestry  as 
simply  another  expression  of  French  thrift,  of  the  national  genius  for 
making  the  most  out  of  their  limited  resources. 

The  average  American  lumberjack  left  France  with  a  far  different 
attitude  toward  her  forestry  practice  than  he  had  upon  arrival.  How 
lasting  the  effects  of  this  first-hand  experience  in  old  world  methods  will 
be  is  problematical.  But  certainly  many  of  these  thousands  of  woods- 
men have  brought  back  to  our  own  forests  a  totally  new  conception  of 
their  economic  value  and  of  practical  means  for  conserving  it. 

THE  WAR  A  VINDICATION  OF  FRENCH  FORESTRY 

Let  it  be  emphasized  in  closing  that  probably  never  in  the  history  of 
the  world  has  the  forest  policy  of  a  nation  been  so  clearly  vindicated  as 
was  that  of  France  by  the  war  of  1914.  Wood  was  one  of  the  most  vital 
military  necessities,  and  the  allied  armies  drew  the  great  bulk  of  their 
supplies  from  the  forests  of  France.  More  than  that,  her  forests  had  a 
strategic  value  for  defense  of  the  highest  importance.  For  the  forest 
barriers  in  northern  France  and  for  the  abundant  supplies  of  timber 
available  to  the  battle  lines,  the  allied  world  must  thank  the  patience 


WAR  A  VINDICATION   OF  FRENCH  FORESTRY  359 

and  foresight  with  which  the  French  nation  has  built  up  its  forest  re- 
sources. France  could  have  kept  on  supplying  the  vast  armies  on  her 
soil  for  one  or  two  years  more,  if  need  be,  without  cutting  seriously  into 
her  forest  capital.  Without  these  ample  reservoirs  of  timber,  the  trans- 
port difficulties  being  what  they  were,  the  handicap  which  the  allied 
armies  would  have  suffered  would  have  been  almost  insurmountable. 
Apart  from  its  value  to  her  peace-time  life  and  industries,  the  forest 
policy  of  France  has  been  vindicated  as  a  capital  element  of  national 
strength  in  the  greatest  crisis  of  her  history. 


APPENDIXES 

(A)  The  Forest  and  Springs  (p.  361). 

(B)  The  Forest,  From  a  Physical,  P^conomic,  and  Social  Viewpoint  (p.  381). 

(C)  Silvics  of  Important  Forest  Species.  Lists  of  Trees,  Shrubs,  and  Plants  Used 
in  Reforestation  in  the  Mountains  (p.  387). 

(D)  Statistics  on  Public  and  Private  Forests  over  Five  Thousand  Acres  in  Area 
(p.  409) 

(E)  Typical  Reforestation  Areas  in  the  Mountains  (p.  422). 

(F)  Specifications  for  Tapping  Maritime  Pine  and  for  Fixing  Shifting  Sand  Dunes 
(p.  429). 

(G)  State  and  Communal  Timber  Sale  Regulations  (p.  438). 

(H)  French  Forest  Literature  (in  Library,  Nancy  Forest  School)  published  1870- 
1912,  classified  as  follows:  (a)  Forestry  Proper,  etc.,  (b)  Forest  Law,  (c)  Forest  Educa- 
tion, (d)  Engineering  (Reboisement),  (e)  Forest  Administration,  (/)  Miscellaneous,  (g) 
Botanical  and  Silvical  (p.  448). 

(I)  German  Comment  on  French  Forestry  with  a  Comparison  with  German  Meth- 
ods, by  Dr.  Martin,  of  Tharandt  (p.  469). 

(J)     The  Forests  of  Alsace-Lorraine  (p.  495). 

(K)  Original  Working  Plan  Data  (p.  500).  (1)  State  Forest  of  Grande-Cote  (Jura) 
(p.  500);  (2)  State  Forest  of  Ban  d'fitival  (Vosges)  (p.  508);  (3)  Communal  Forest 
of  Mont  Gloire  (Savoie)  (p.  511);  (4)  Communal  Forest  of  Lardies  (Basses-Pyrenees) 
(p.  512);  (5)  State  Forest  of  La  .Joux  (Jura)  (p.  512);  (6)  Communal  Forest  of  Fillinges 
(Haute-Savoie)  (p.  515);  (7)  Communal  Forest  of  Burdignin  (Haute-Savoie)  (p.  516); 
(8)  State  Forest  of  Parc-et-St.  Quentin  (Oise)  (p.  517);  (9)  Communal  Forest  of  Thiez 
(Haute-Savoie)  (p.  517). 

(L)    Model  Insurance  Calculations  of  Damage  by  Fire  (p.  534). 


360 


APPENDIX  A 

THE  FOREST  AND  SPRINGS 

(By  PIuffel) 

Springs  and  Their  Origin.  —  Before  approaching  the  difficult  and  controversial 
question  of  the  influence  of  forests  on  the  maintenance  of  springs/  it  is  necessary  to 
define  exactly  what  is  meant  by  a  "spring,"  and  what  is  the  origin  of  springs. 

"  A  spring,"  says  Littre  "  is  the  water  which  issues  from  the  ground  at  the  origin  of  a 
stream." 

Nowada\'s  everyone  admits  that  springs  are  fed  by  the  percolation  of  water  into 
the  earth  derived  from  the  atmosphere.  It  has  been  calculated  =  that  the  total  flow 
of  water  into  the  ocean  of  the  principal  rivers  of  the  globe  represents  only  about  three- 
sevenths  of  the  water  which  fafls  into  their  basins,  derived  from  atmospheric  sources. 
There  is  therefore  sufficient  rainwater  alone  to  feed  the  water  courses,  without  its 
being  necessary  to  seek  for  other  sources  of  supply,  as  Descartes  has  done. 

Percolation,  or  infiltration,  is  the  slow  penetration  through  fissures  and  through 
interstices  in  the  soU,  of  water  derived  from  rain,  from  the  melting  of  snows,  from  the 
condensation  of  atmospheric  vapors  on  the  surface  of  vegetation,  and  on  the  super- 
ficial parts  of  the  soil. 

These  waters,  after  penetrating  into  the  soil,  accumulate  in  certain  parts  and  form 
what  is  called  subterranean  sheets  of  water. 

In  fact  the  deeper  the  water  penetrates  the  less  subject  does  it  become  to  evaporation, 
and  finally  it  reaches  a  point  where  it  has  passed  beyond  the  region  of  drainage,  and 
that  tapped  by  the  roots  of  plants.  It  is  thus,  generally  speaking,  that  subterranean 
sheets  of  water  are  formed  below  this  region,  which,  at  any  point  where  there  is  a  de- 
pression in  the  soil  at  their  level,  come  out  as  springs.^ 

The  level  of  the  subterranean  sheet  of  water  in  permeable  soils  is  more  or  less  deep, 
according  to  whether  there  have  been  recent  rainfalls  or  not  and  whether  these  have 
been  abundant  or  scanty.  Evaporation  prevents  it  from  establishing  itself  habitually 
at  the  surface  of  the  soil;  the  effect  of  drainage,  and  the  suction'of  plant  roots  will  equally 
prevent  the  entire  saturation  of  a  more  or  less  substantial  stratum  of  soil,  or  one  more 
or  less  deeply  situated,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  flora.  Thus  it  will  be  found  that 
under  a  forest,  the  stratum  of  soil  dried  by  roots  is  appreciably  deeper  than  that  below 
a  piece  of  ground  under  cultivation. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  level  of  "phreatic"  ^  waters  will  be  all  the  lower:  if 
the  soil  is  more  permeable;  if  the  rains  have  been  less  abundant  or  less  recent;  if  evapora- 
tion has  been  greater;  if  the  stratum  drained  by  the  roots  of  plants  is  deeper. 

1  Translated  (literally)  from  ficonomie  Forestiere,  G.  Huffel,  Vol.  I,  pp.  83-124, 
Chapter  III,  "The  Forest  and  Springs." 

^Elisee  Reclus,  "La  Terre." 

'See  the  "Traite  de  Geologic"  of  M.  de  Lapparent,  4th  edition  1900,  Vol.  I,  p.  195 
and  following  pages. 

■*  Daubrce  ("Les  Eaux  Souterraines."  Vol.  I,  p.  19)  has  introduced  this  term  to 
designate  the  sheet  of  subterranean  water  the  nearest  to  the  surface,  because  this  is 
the  one  which  feeds  the  wells. 

361 


362  APPENDIX 

In  order  to  understand  precisely  the  nature  of  springs,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
three  different  types:  those  in  permeable  soils,  which  are  called  "thalwegs";  those  in 
stratified  soils;  and  those  in  soils  where  fissures  abound. 

Let  us  take  the  case  of  a  surface  composed  of  permeable  ground  which  is  perfectly 
horizontal;  under  this  the  water  which  filters  through  wiU  form  a  sheet  of  which  the 
surface  will  be  level,  and  will  approach  more  nearly  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  according 
to  whether  the  precipitations  have  been  more  abundant  or  more  recent. 

This  point  established,  then  if  the  plain  happens  to  be  approached  by  a  valley  the 
latter  will  produce  upon  it  an  effect  of  drainage  so  that  its  level  will  become  lower  the 
nearer  it  approaches  the  valley.  If,  at  the  base  of  this  valley  there  is  a  stream  of  water 
running,  this  stream  will  be  fed  by  the  sheet;  thus  it  is  that  in  all  valleys  composed  of 
permeable  soils,  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  river  bed,  similar  sheets  of  water  are  to  be 
found,  and  these  will  feed  it,  and  do  not  always  originate  from  the  infiltration  of  its 
waters,  as  has  been  said.^ 

If  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  uneven  the  subterranean  sheet  will  have  an  undulated 
surface,  reproducing  in  an  attenuated  form  the  unevenness  of  the  ground.  One  sees 
that  in  such  soil  the  depth  of  wells  will  attain  its  maximum  in  the  ridges,  its  minimum 
in  the  thalwegs. 

It  is  this  fact  that  has  been  perfectly  verified  in  the  sands  of  the  Sahara,  for  instance, 
and  in  the  plains  of  permeable  soil  in  the  basin  of  the  Seine. 

So  long  as  the  depressions  in  the  soil  do  not  reach  as  far  down  as  the  sheet  of  water 
formed  by  infiltrations  the  latter  has  no  possible  outlet.  But  as  soon  as  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  bottom  of  a  "thabveg"  it  overflows  in  springs  of  a  kind  which  are 
only  found  in  "thalwegs."  These  springs,  which  are  called  "sommes"  in  Champagne, 
are  rarely  perennial;  they  go  up  and  down  the  valleys  to  the  length  of  many  kilometers 
according  to  the  oscillations  of  the  subterranean  sheet  of  water.  In  Picardy,  a  province 
of  notably  permeable  soil,  the  springs  formerly  came  to  light  at  a  very  considerable 
distance  up  the  river  from  their  present  point  of  emergence,  a  circumstance  which  is 
generally  attributed  to  the  influence  of  deforestation.^ 

Let  us  now  consider  the  case  of  a  stratified  soil  formed  of  strata  of  varying  degrees  of 
permeability.  This  is  a  case  of  most  frequent  and  most  simple  occurrence.  After 
having  passed  through  the  permeable  soil  the  water  will  be  arrested  by  strata  that  are 
impermeable,  or  are  so  in  a  lesser  degree ;  if  the  surface  of  contact  of  the  two  soils  arrives 
at  a  point  intersected  by  a  valley  there  will  be  along  the  whole  line  of  intersection  a 
"spring  level,"  as  it  is  called.  If  the  strata  of  the  soil  are  inclined  in  a  certain  direction 
the  springs  will  be  more  numerous  on  the  slope  of  the  mountain  corresponding  to  that 
direction.  They  will  rise  at  points  where  the  line  separating  the  strata  of  the  soil 
takes  a  turn,  or  else  at  points  where  this  line  is  cut  by  a  "thalweg"  or  ravine.  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  there  may  be  several  spring  levels  along  the  slopes  of  the  same  hill; 
it  is  only  necessary  for  this  that  the  strata  become  less  and  less  permeable.  Faults, 
or  a  thousand  other  geological  accidents,  can  alter  the  regular  course  of  springs. 

Nothing  is  more  variable  than  the  hydrological  course  of  formations  which  owe  their 
permeability  entirely  to  fissures.^  It  generally  happens  that  limestone  and  sandstone 
formations  which  are  most  cracked  at  the  surface,  are  quite  compact  at  their  bases. 
Water  cannot  form  continuous  sheets  in  these;  it  concentrates  therefore  in  pockets 
and  fissures;  the  overflow  no  longer  takes  place  in  regular  lines,  as  in  other  soils,  but  at 
veritable  points  of  selection.  Springs  have  often  a  very  considerable  underground 
course;  they  flow  from  the  waters  which  have  filtered  through  from  vast  plateaiis;  they 

^  The  usual  direction  in  the  movement  of  subterranean  waters  towards  a  river  can 
be  reversed,' when  the  latter  is  in  flood.  Daubree  has  shown  this  very  clearly  in  the 
case  of  the  subterranean  sheet  of  water  extending  along  the  course  of  the  Rhine  in 
Alsace.  ^  De  I^apparent.  '  De  Lapparent,  op.  cit.,  p.  199. 


THE  FOREST  AND   SPRINGS  363 

are  generally  fed  by  a  series  of  intercommunicating  reservoirs.  Sonaetimes  also  they 
have  a  considerable  and  remarkably  regular  flow.  This  type  of  spring  is  very  common 
in  the  Jura;  the  springs  of  Cuisance,  Luzon,  and  a  great  number  of  others  furnish  good 
examples.     The  famous  fountain  of  Vaucluse  belongs  to  the  same  type. 

Space  will  not  permit  us  to  concern  ourselves  here  with  this  last  category  of  springs, 
which  do  not,  properly  speaking,  come  under  the  definition  given  above,  because  they 
are  only  waste  weirs  of  a  lake  or  a  series  of  subterranean  lakes. 

Special  Remarks  on  the  Action  of  Forests  on  Springs.  —  Do  forests  favor  the 
feeding  of  springs?  Formerly  there  was  no  doubt  on  this  subject.  Our  fathers  always 
considered  forests  and  springs  as  co-partners  and  Buff  on  wrote, »  "The  more  a  country 
is  cleared  the  poorer  it  becomes  in  water."  The  Forest  Code  of  1827  only  sanctions 
the  general  belief  of  the  period  when  it  authorizes  the  forest  officials  to  oppose  the 
clearing  of  forests  with  a  view  to  protecting  the  existence  of  the  springs.'  One  must 
allow  that  such  an  ancient,  prevalent,  and  persistent  belief  constitutes  a  strong  pre- 
sumption in  favor  of  the  utilitarian  purpose  of  a  forest;  common  opinion  can  only  be 
the  result  of  proved  facts. 

It  is  only  recently  that  doubts  have  been  expressed  on  this  point.  Cases  have  been 
quoted  where  reafforestation  has  reduced  the  output  of  the  springs.  On  the  other 
hand,  marshy  grounds  have  been  known  to  lose  their  superficial  water  in  consequence  of 
reafforestation,  and  it  was  concluded  from  this  fact  that  the  forest  acted  as  a  kind  of 
pump  to  inhale  in  bulk,  by  means  of  its  roots,  the  free  water  of  the  soil  and  retm-n  it 
to  the  air  by  means  of  the  evaporation  of  its  leaves.  It  might,  however,  be  objected 
to  in  this  last  case  that  it  is  equally  admissible  that  forests  have  caused  superficial 
stagnant  water  to  disappear  by  favoring  their  infiltration. 

It  is  an  extremely  difficult  and  delicate  matter  to  ascertain  by  direct  observation  the 
influence  of  the  afforestation  or  deforestation  of  a  soil  on  the  output  of  a  spring.  It 
is  in  fact  only  by  chance  in  many  cases  that  we  are  able  to  recognize  exactly  the  place 
whence  the  waters  filter  which  we  find  oozing  forth  at  a  given  point;  the  natural 
reservoirs  may  be  very  far  removed  "  from  the  place  where  they  appear  above  ground 
and  be  separated  from  them  by  valleys,  heights,  etc.  The  exact  defining  of  the  feed- 
ing basin  of  a  spring  is  sometimes  a  very  complicated  problem,  enough  to  embarrass 
the  most  experienced  of  geological  specialists.  The  direction  of  the  springs,  too,  is 
often  altered  by  works  such  as  the  cuttings  made  for  roads  or  railways,  for  galleries  in 
mines,  etc.,  undertaken  very  far  away  from  the  place  where  these  waters  become  visible. 
Certain  springs  are  so  superficial  that  shallow  ditches  or  simple  farm  drainage  can 
deflect  them.  Finally  the  actual  output  of  a  spring  depends  especially  on  the  rainfall 
of  the  current  year,  a  factor  which  is  always  in  the  preponderance.  A  certainty  could 
only  exist  in  the  case  where  reafforestation  or  clearings  practiced  on  a  large  scale  would 
have  affected  to  a  permanent  and  notable  degree  the  output  of  all  the  springs  of  a  given 
region.  It  has  often  been  asserted  that  this  was  the  case,  and  was  taken  to  prove  that 
the  general  level  of  the  waterflow  had  diminished  in  many  parts,  in  proportion  to  the 
degree  of  clearing  practiced  locally;  Ijut  it  is  well  to  recognize  that  published  observa- 
tions are  far  from  being  entirely  reliable  or  irrefutable."     Whatever  may  be  the  diflfi- 

«Histoire  de  I'Acad^mie  Royale  de  France,"  1739,  "M^moire  sur  le  R6tablissement 
et  la  Conservation  des  Forets." 

9  Art.  220. 

1"  To  quote  only  one  instance:  The  waters  which  have  filtered  through  into  the  green 
sand  of  the  basin  of  the  Meuse  are  found  again  at  Paris  at  a  depth  of  1,798  feet  (artesian 
wells  of  Crenelle),  or  at  1,903  feet  (wells  of  Passy),  and  this  may  well  appear  at  the 
surface  of  other  extremely  remote  points. 

"  We  should  be  led  away  too  far  if  we  reproduced  here  even  a  small  part  of  the  mass 
of  observations  more  or  less  precise  on  this  subject.     A  great  number  will  be  found 


364  APPENDIX 

culties  of  experimenting  and  even  of  making  direct  observations  on  the  action  of  forests 
bearing  upon  the  feeding  of  springs,  some  hght  has  necessarily  been  thrown  on  this 
question  from  several  directions. 

The  different  attempts  which  have  been  made  have  not  all  proved  equally  successful; 
too  great  a  number,  especially  those  directed  toward  measuring  directly  the  quantity  of 
water  which  passes  through  soil  covered  with  varied  vegetation,  seem  practically  of 
very  little  value.  It  does  not  concern  us  to  discuss  them  here;  we  would  only  say  that 
all  measurements  and  weighing  performed  in  a  laboratorj'  can  do  nothing  toward 
solving  the  problem. 

It  can  only  be  solved  by  practical  experiments  on  a  large  scale,  and  in  the  forests 
themselves.  To  the  "Station  des  recherches  Suisse"  must  be  given  the  honor  of  having 
inaugurated  such  an  experiment,  thanks  to  the  initiative  of  its  zealous  director,  Pro- 
fessor Bom-geois.^^ 

M.  Bourgeois  has  chosen  in  the  Emmenthal  a  fresh  green  valley  in  the  hollow  of  the 
northern  buttresses  of  the  Alps  two  httle  streams,  the  Rappengrabli  and  the  Sperbel- 
graben,!^  secondary  affluents  of  the  Emme,  whose  upper  reservoirs  could  not  be  better 
adapted  to  the  researches  he  proposed  to  undertake.  With  an  area  of  about  198  to 
247  acres  each  they  have  the  appearance  of  almost  entire  circles,  very  clearly  defined 
by  a  ridge  in  the  form  of  a  horseshoe.  The  general  aspect  of  the  thalweg  (toward  the 
southeast)  is  identical  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  altitude  (which  varies 
from  3,21.5  to  4,035  feet  in  the  case  of  the  Rappengrabli,  and  from  2,953  to  3,937  feet 
for  the  Sperbelgraben) .  The  first  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  pasture  land  and  has 
only  18  per  cent  of  forest  disposed  in  a  thin  ribbon  along  the  stream,  in  the  thalweg; 
the  second  (Sperbelgraben)  is  covered  for  91  per  cent  of  its  extent  with  a  splendid 
irregular  growth  of  fir. 

With  the  conciu"rence  of  the  Federal  hydrographical  office,  a  depositary  has  been 
installed  upon  the  two  little  streams,  at  the  point  where  they  issue  from  the  almost 
enclosed  basins  which  constitute  their  upper  valleys,  permitting  their  outflow  to  be 
measured  with  the  utmost  exactness.     On  the  other  hand  rain  gauges  have  been  placed 

reported  among  the  periodicals  on  forestry,  especially  in  the  "Revue  des  Eaux  et 
Forets"  (see  particularly  the  volumes  for  the  years  1866,  1867,  1868).  A  Swiss  en- 
gineer, R.  Lauterburg,  quoted  by  M.  Weber  in  the  "Encyclopedic  Forestiere  de  Lorcy," 
asserts  that  the  destruction  of  forests  carried  out  in  the  canton  of  Tessin,  principally 
during  the  first  half  of  the  1 9th  century,  must  have  reduced  by  a  quarter  the  minimum 
outflow  of  the  Adige  at  the  period  of  low  water.  A  similar  phenomenon  has  been 
reported  of  the  Po.  Observations  undertaken  with  the  greatest  care  in  Prussia  by 
M.  G.  Hagen  (quoted  by  I\L  Lehr  in  the  "Handbuch  der  Forstwissenschaft")  seem  to 
prove  conclusively  that  there  has  been  a  reduction  in  the  total  flow  of  nearly  all  the 
rivers  which  have  been  observed  (for  instance  the  Elbe,  Mosefle,  Vistula,  Pregel,  Memel) 
in  the  coarse  of  the  second  half  of  the  last  century,  but  nothing  proves  that  this  phenome- 
non is  connected  with  the  deforestation  which  was  taking  place  at  the  same  time. 
M.  Henry,  a  professor  at  the  "ficole  National  des  Eaux  et  Forets,"  has  also  collected  a 
number  of  interesting  and  well-proved  facts  in  a  communication  made  in  1901  to  the 
"Societe  des  Sciences  de  Nancy"  under  the  title  "Le  Role  des  Forets  dans  les  Circula- 
tions des  Eaux."  "Le  Journal  Suisse  d'ficonomie  Forestiere"  (1898)  reports  some 
observations  of  M.  de  Rothenbach  which  prove,  in  a  manner  which  appears  to  be  con- 
clusive, the  influence  of  forests  on  the  abundance  of  water  in  the  springs  which  supply 
the  city  of  Berne,  etc. 

12  The  premature  death  of  M.  Bourgeois  on  the  8th  September,  1901,  has  removed 
one  from  whom  the  science  of  forestry  had  much  to  hope.  He  was  under  46 
years  of  age.  His  work  in  the  Emmenthal  is  being  carried  on  by  his  worthy  suc- 
cessor, Professor  Egler;  up  till  the  present  (July,  1903)  no  result  of  it  has  been 
published. 

"  See  Sheet  No.  197  of  the  map  of  the  "fitat-Major  Suisse  "  at  1/25,000.  The  experi- 
ments took  place  about  21.1  miles  east  (airline)  of  Berne  in  the  canton  of  the  same  name, 
47°1'  north  latitude  and  5°32  (about)  east  longitude  (of  Paris). 


THE   FOREST  AND  SPRINGS  365 

at  various  altitudes,  indicating  in  an  exact  manner  the  quantity  of  rain  which  falls 
into  the  two  basins." 

The  observations  are  made  daily,  and  were  begun  in  1900. 

There  wiU,  in  the  future,  perhaps  be  occasion  to  simplify  the  depositary  employed  for 
the  gauging  of  the  outflow  by  substituting,  for  example,  self -registering  apparatuses  for 
the  intermittent  measurements  now  being  effected.  ^^ 

It  is  also  doubtful  whether  these  two  little  streams  exactly  give  off  (in  the  visible 
part  of  their  course)  all  the  water  which  filters  into  their  basins.  It  is  probable  that 
it  is  so;  but  no  one  can  positively  assert  that  there  does  not  exist  some  fissure  of  the 
subsoil  where  masses  of  water  accumulate,  by  means  of  which  they  are  lost,  and  escape 
observation.  The  installation  of  rain-gauges  in  a  wooded  region  would  also  be  very 
difficult  if  one  wished  to  collect  all  the  water  drawn  from  the  atmosphere  by  condensa- 
tion on  the  branches,  water  of  which  only  a  part  reaches  the  soil  by  rolling  down  the 
trunks,  etc.  This  does  not  prevent  the  experiences  gained  in  the  Emmenthal  from 
constituting  an  essay  of  ih^  greatest  interest,  in  view  of  the  solution  of  a  question  as 
controverted  as  it  is  important.  The  installation  of  these  instruments  will  be  epoch 
making  in  the  science  of  forestry,  and  one  cannot  but  be  grateful  to  Professor  Bourgeois 
for  taking  the  initiative  in  an  experiment  which  we  hope  will  not  remain  isolated.  It 
is  with  impatient  curiosity  that  we  await  the  result  of  the  measurement  in  the  two  little 
basins  of  the  Bernese  Emmenthal. 

In  view  of  the  difficulty  which  the  direct  study  of  the  influence  of  forests  on  the  feed- 
ing of  springs  presents,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  simplify  the  question  by  examining 
how  the  presence  of  woodlands  modifies  the  cUfferent  factors  uponjwhich  the  abundance 
of  springs  depends. 

This  abundance  is  evidently  the  result  (Ij  of  the  quantity  of  water  which  comes  from 
the  soil;  (2)  of  the  proportion  of  this  water  which,  having  filtered  through  the  ground, 
has  reached  the  subterranean  sheet,  of  which  the  springs  are  apparently  the  overflow. 
Our  study  therefore  divides  itself  naturally  into  two  parts.  The  first  concerns  that 
which  is  known  of  the  influence  of  forests  on  the  quantity  of  water  which  reaches  the 
soil.  The  second  is  devoted  to  the  influence  of  forests  on  the  proportion  of  that  water 
which  filters  through  to  the  subterranean  sheet.  These  two  elements  of  the  question 
will  form  the  subject  of  the  following  paragraphs. 

Influence  of  Forests  on  the  Quality  of  Atmospheric  Water  which  Reaches  the  Soil.  — 
Water  which  reaches  the  ground  is  derived  from  three  principal  sources: 

1.  From  rains,  snows,  hail,  etc.,  which,  forming  on  the  upper  strata  of  the  atmos- 
phere, are  precipitated  on  the  ground. 

2.  From  the  condensation  of  vapor  upon  the  surface  of  vegetation,  when  this  is 
colder  than  the  air  itself;  water  thus  condensed  reaches  the  ground  in  a  solid  or  in  a 
liquid  condition,  in  the  latter  case  either  in  falling  through  the  air  or  in  roUing  down 
stalks. 

"The  gauging  apparatuses  were  installed  under  the  direction  of  "M.  rmgenievu"  en 
chief  de  Morlot,"  according  to  the  plans  of  "M.  Tingenieur  Epper,"  employed  in  the 
Federal  service.  When  the  outflow  is  weak  it  is  directly  measured  by  diverting  the 
waters  into  a  gauged  basin  and  noting  the  mass  of  water  coUected  in  a  given  time; 
when  the  water  is  plentiful  it  is  made  to  run  through  one  or  two  or  three  channels, 
terminating  in  orifices  with  rectangular  sections  where  the  outflow  is  calculated  accord- 
ing to  the  formula  indicated  by  the  French  engineer,  M.  Bazin  ("Annales  des  Fonts  et 
Chaussees,  Vol.  XVI,  18S8,  and  XIX,  1890),  by  estimating  the  bulk  of  the  sheet  of 
water  passing  on  to  the  waste  weir. 

1^  Since  our  first  visit  to  the  Emmenthal  in  1900  the  wish  expressed  above  has  been 
gratified.  In  April,  1903,  self -registering  apparatuses  have  been  installed  on  the  two 
streams;  at  the  same  time  the  apparatuses  for  gauging  the  snow  and  rainfall  in  their 
basins  have  been  improved. 


366  APPENDIX 

3.  From  condensation  taking  place  on  the  superficial  parts  of  the  soil  itself,  upon 
its  covering  of  dead  leaves,  where  the  ground  is  wooded. 

We  will  begin  bj^  discussing  this  last  source  of  the  feeding  of  the  soil  by  water,  not 
because  it  is  without  importance,  but  because  its  relative  importance  has  not  yet  been 
discovered.  ^^ 

In  the  previous  chapter  it  has  been  shown  in  detail,  that  the  presence  of  forests 
increases  the  rainfall  in  a  very  marked  degree. 

This  result  has  been  incontestably  obtained,  at  least  in  the  case  (.unique  it  is  true)  " 
noted  at  the  Research.  Station  of  Nancy.  During  33  consecutive  years,  without  any 
divergences,  it  has  been  proved  by  observation  that,  while  in  the  center  of  the  forest  of 
Haye  (17,297  acres  of  beech,  hornbeam,  and  oak)  there  is  a  rainfall  of  33.4  inches  an- 
nually in  the  open,  on  a  piece  of  groimd  cleared  for  about  5  acres,  while  on  the  other 
hand  only  31.4  inches  fall  on  the  borders  of  the  forest,  and  25.6  on  a  similar  piece  of 
ground  some  distance  off;  and  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  this  difference  in  the  rainfall 
occurs  in  the  same  ratio,  each  year  at  every  season,  whatever  may  be  the  direction  of 
the  winds,  and  is  only  shghtly  altered  without  being  reversed  by  the  total  amount  of 
rainfall  during  the  year. 

The  measurements  of  M.  Fautrat,  also  given  above;  those  of  M.  de  Pons  in  the  forest 
of  Trongais  (Allier)  although  less  rehable  because  they  extend  over  a  smaller  period  of 
years;  as  well  as  many  others  carried  out  in  Germany,  Austria,  and  Russia,  in  Anglo- 
India,  etc.,  lead  one  to  beheve  that  this  phenomenon  is  common  to  all  countries. 

If  the  summits  of  wooded  masses  are  more  bedewed  than  the  neighboring  fields, 
does  the  same  hold  good  for  the  soil  in  a  forest? 

Here,  incontrovertible  observations  are  much  more  rare. 

It  is  not  enough  in  fact,  to  place  a  rain  gauge  under  the  trees  in  order  to  arrive  at 
even  an  approximate  idea  of  the  quantity  of  water  which  reaches  the  soil  of  the  forest. 
As  Mathieu  already  observed  30  years  ago,  the  quantity  of  water  collected  will  vary 
in  a  singular  degree,  according  as  one  puts  the  rain  gauge  near  the  trunk  sheltered  under 
the  network  of  big  branches,  or  under  a  gap  in  the  leafage  of  the  summits,  or  under  the 
center  of  a  branch,  or  at  the  extremity  of  this  same  branch  which  will  drain  into  it 
like  a  gutter,  in  emptying  into  it  all  the  water  or  all  the  snow  fallen  on  its  surface,  and 
upon  that  of  the  upper  branches.  M.  Boppe  ^^  has  shown  that  rain  gauges  placed  under 
the  same  tree,  at  very  short  distances  from  one  another  collect  quantities  of  water 
varying  to  an  unbelievable  degree. 

Finally  a  procedure  such  as  this  does  not  take  into  account  the  quantity  of  water 
which  reaches  the  soil  by  running  down  stalks,  and  whose  proportion  may  be  15  to  20 
per  cent,  perhaps  even  more  of  the  annual  rainfall,  even  if  this  water  is  derived  from 
rain,  or  is  directly  drawn  from  the  atmosphere  by  means  of  condensation  on  leaves  or 
on  stalks. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  no  mention  wiU  be  made  here  of  the  results  obtained  in 
France  or  abroad  by  means  of  ordinary  rain-gauges  placed  under  trees.     The  only 

i^Giseler,  quoted  by  M.  Ney  ("Der  Wald  und  die  Quellbildung,"  Metz,  1901)',  has 
proved  by  experiment  that  in  a  tube  of  gla.ss  maintained  at  0°  c,  and  placed  in  a  room 
where  the  temperatm-e  remained  uniformly  equal  to  —  4,  5  c.  a  quantity  of  water  was 
condensed  in  one  year  equal  to  a  i-ainfall  of  13.8  inches.  It  is  superfluous  to  remark 
that  this  ex-periment  as  well  as  many  others  effected  in  laboratories  in  the  cause  of 
agronomy  have  no  real  value.  Things  happen  entirely  differently  in  nature,  than  in 
the  conditions  rendered  obligatory  for  the  purposes  of  experiment. 

"  Since  January  1,  1903,  new  experiments  have  been  undertaken  upon  our  initiative 
at  different  points  of  the  French  Vosges,  with  a  view  to  verifying  the  generaUty  of  the 
facts  observed  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nancy. 

1* "  Regenmessungen  unter  Baumkronen,"  11th  number  of  the  "  Mitteilungen 
aus  dem  forstlichen  Versuchewesen  Oesterreichs,"  Vienna,  1896. 


THE  FOREST  AND   SPRINGS 


367 


really  reliable  data  are  those  obtained  by  means  of  the  simple  and  reliable  depositary 
invented  by  Mathieu  in  1867,  which  has  been  retained  at  the  Research  Station  of  Nancy, 
during  32  years  of  observations.  Here  is  the  description  of  it,  taken  from  the  inventor 
himself: !»' 

"La  Station  des  Cinq-Tranchees,  situated  about  5  miles  to  the  west  of  the  town  of 
Nancy,  at  a  height  of  1,247  feet,  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  large  wooded  plateau, 
'La  Haye,'  which  the  limestone  strata  form  of  the  lower  oolith.  Two  rain-gauges  are 
placed  there;  one  in  the  middle  of  the  wood,  under  a  polewood  of  beeches  and  horn- 
beams, moderately  compact,  of  about  40  years  of  age  in  1866.  The  other,  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  preceding,  is  in  the  middle  of  an  open  space  of  about  5  acres,  adjoining 
the  '  Maison  Forestiere  des  Cinq-Tranchees.' 

"The  quantity  of  rain  water  which  a  gauge  receives,  when  placed  in  a  forest,  varies 
with  the  position  of  the  instrument  in  dense  foliage  or  in  openings.  The  forest  rain- 
gauge  is  especially  constructed  to  avoid  this  source  of  possible  mismeasurement;  it  is 
provided  with  a  receptacle  of  large  dimensions,  of  which  the  circular  surface  is  exactly 
equal  to  the  projection  of  the  top  of  one  of  the  poles  of  the  clump.^"  The  stem  of  one 
of  these  passes  through  the  center,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  kind  of  collar;  thanks  to  this 
arrangement,  the  water  which  runs  down  the  trunk  can  be  collected,  be  it  the  result  of 
prolonged  rainfall,  or  of  a  dense  mist,  or  the  effect  of  a  thaw  in  producing  the  melting 
of  snow,  or  of  hoar  frost  on  the  branches." 

These  observations  began  in  1867  and  were  continued  until  1898  when  an  accident 
happening  to  one  of  the  instruments  prevented  them  from  being  carried  on  longer. 
They  embrace,  however,  a  period  of  32  years. 

The  following  table  gives  a  resume  of  the  results  obtained:  ^^ 

SUMMARY  OF  MONTHLY  AVERAGES  OF  RAINFALL  OUTSIDE  AND 
INSIDE  THE  FOREST 


Montha 

Average  rainfall  in  inches  outside 
the  forest 

Average  rainfall  in  inches  inside 

the  forest 

Per  cent  of 
rainfall 
actually 
received 

1867-77 

1878-88 

1889-98 

1867-98 

1867-77 

1878-88 

1889-98 

1867-98 

soil 

May-October*. . . 
November-April 

16.7 
14.9 

20.2 
15.2 

19.2 
13.8 

18.7 
14.6 

14.8 
14.0 

17.8 
14.9 

17.2 
13.5 

16.6 
14  2 

96.9 

Totals  for  year- 

31.6 

35.4 

33,0 

33.3 

28.8 

32.7 

30.7 

30.8 

92.4 

*  The  figures  for  the  individual  months  have  been  omitted  and  the  data  rearranged. 


A  comparison  of  the  foregoing  figures  will  show  us  that,  for  a  certain  number  of 
months,  especially  in  winter,  the  rain-gauge  placed  imder  cover  collects  the  greatest 

19  "Meteorologie  Comparee  Agricole  et  Forestidre;  rapport  a  M.  le  sous-secretaire 
d'fitat,  etc.,"  of  2.5  February,  1878,  p.  4.  In  this  report,  pubhshed  by  the  "Imprimeri, 
National,"  Mathieu  gives  an  account  of  the  results  of  the  first  eleven  years  of  observa- 
tions. 

2"  This  pole  was  a  young  hornbeam  of  about  41  years  of  age  at  the  beginning  of  the 
experiments,  of  a  regular  shape  and  with  well  crested  top. 

21  This  table  is  borrowed  from  the  work  by  M.  de  Bouville  already  quoted:  "Observa- 
tions de  meteorologie  .  .  .  de  la  Station  de  Recherches  de  f  ficole  National  des 
Eaux  et  For^ts,"  Paris,  1901. 


368 


APPENDIX 


quantity  of  water.  A  similar  fact  had  already  been  observed  in  1878  and  1890  in  the 
reports  published  by  Mathieu  and  M.  Bartet  ^  on  the  results  obtained  in  those  years  by 
the  "Station  de  recherches"  of  Nancy. 

This  is  the  more  instructive,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  winter  rains  which  are  the  most 
important  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  feeding  of  springs. 

The  fact  is  very  natm-ally  explained  by  the  condensation  of  aqueous  vapor  on  the 
considerable  surface  presented  by  the  crests  of  forest  trees.^^ 

At  all  s<;asons  of  the  year  and  all  hours  of  the  day  the  trees  are,  in  fact,  colder  than 
the  surrounding  atmosphere.  Nevertheless  the  difference  is  greater  in  summer  than 
in  winter,  and  during  the  day  rather  than  at  night.  It  is  also  greater  at  the  base  of  the 
trunk  than  among  the  branches. 

Here  are  some  figures  on  the  subject.  The  Swiss  observations  give  results  recorded 
on  an  average  of  12  years;  those  in  Bavaria  were  xmdertaken  during  two  years  only: 

DIFFERENCES  (IN  CENTIGRADE  DEGREES)  BETWEEN  THE  TEM- 
PERATURE OF  THE  TREES  *  AND  SURROUNDING  AIR 


Larch  (near  Interlaken) 

Spruce  (near  Berne) 

Beech  (near  Porrentruy) 

Miscellaneous  species  (Bavaria) 


Spring 

Summer 

Autumn 

2.1 

3.3 

1.0 

3.4 

4.1 

2.2 

1.5 

3.2 

1.5 

1.3 

1.7 

0.7 

0.8 

1.2 

0.4 

0.4 
0.9 
0.3 
1.3 
1.4 


*  In  the  Swiss  experiments  the  temperature  of  the  tree  was  taken  at  breast-height, 
while  in  Bavaria  it  was  in  the  branches  of  the  crown. 

These  reports  suffice  to  give  us  the  key  to  the  important  phenomenon  noted  above. 
Trees  with  considerably  spreading  crowns  form  very  excellent  condensers  of  vapor 
from  atmospheric  water  which  they  conduct  to  the  soil  in  a  hquid  condition;  this  process 
is  naturally  more  marked  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  winter,  periods  when  the  atmos- 
phere of  our  latitudes,  especially  in  forests,  is  very  near  the  point  of  saturation.  I'he 
slightest  lowering  of  the  temperature  is  then  sufficient  to  produce  condensation. 

In  conclusion,  the  results  obtained  by  the  observations  conducted  at  Cinq-Tranchees 
can  be  summed  up  in  the  following  manner:  Of  a  hundred  miUimeters  (3.94  inches)  of 
atmospheric  water,  the  instrument  placed  under  shelter  of  the  crest  of  a  young  horn- 
beam only  received  in  an  average  year  92  m.m.  4  (3.64  inches);  therefore  7  m.m.  6 
(0.299  inch)  were  retained  by  the  crown  a  balance  produced  by  the  amount  of  condensa- 
tion from  branches  and  the  top  of  the  trunk. 

22  "  Meteorologie  Comparee,  Agricole  et  Forestiere.  .  .  .  Observations  faites  a 
la  Station  de  Recherches  de  I'Ecole  National  Forestiere,"  published  by  M.  E.  Bartet, 
Paris,  1890  ("  Bulletin  du  Ministere  de  I'Agriculture"). 

23  It  happens  sometimes  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  is  supplied  to  the 
forest  soil  in  a  verv  short  period  of  time.  This  occurred  in  .January,  1882.  The  east 
wind  accompanied'by  fog  had  deposited  such  a  quantity  of  hoar  frost  on  the  trees  that 
a  great  number  of  branches  were  broken  by  the  weight  of  it.  This  first  took  the  form  of 
icicles  ten  centimeters  in  length.  A  twig  covered  with  them,  cut  off  with  great  care, 
weighed  550  grams;  relieved  of  its  burden,  it  only  weighed  70  grams  ("Bulletin  de  la 
Commission  Meteorologique  de  Meurthe-et-Moselle").  This  frost  in  melting  on  January 
17  was  equal  to  a  rainfall  of  7.  m.m.  4  according  to  the  ram-gauge  under  the  trees  at 
Cinq-Tranchees.  In  Januarv,  1879,  a  branch  of  birch  from  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau, 
weighed  by  M.  Croizette-Desnoyers,  covered  with  a  thick  crust  of  rime,  turned  the 
scales  at  700  grams.  Weighed  again  after  the  frost  had  melted,  the  result  given  was 
only  50  grams. 


THE  FOREST  AND  SPRINGS  369 

The  action  of  the  forest  besides  differs  appreciably  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

In  winter  the  trees  are  denuded,  although  at  that  period  they  are  more  than  ever 
favorable  to  the  condensation  of  atmospheric  vapors.  Also  once  in  every  three  times 
almost  the  gauge  under  the  trees  is  the  fullest,  and  this  one  contains  on  an  average 
96.9  per  cent  of  the  water  fallen  during  the  months  from  November  to  April  —  almost  all 
of  it. 

The  condensation  by  the  tree  crests  suffices  therefore  to  compensate  almost  entirely 
for  the  loss  due  to  the  adherence  of  a  part  of  the  water  fallen  upon  the  trees. 

During  the  summer,  on  the  contrary,  the  branches  covered  with  foliage  intercept  the 
rain  more  efficaciously.  If  one  compares  the  maximum  rainfall  occurring  in  the  months 
from  May  to  October  on  the  open  ground,  and  under  the  trees,  respectively,  one  finds 
that  they  are  equal  to  the  numbers  100  and  88.8. 

If  the  proportions  in  which  the  forest  soil  is  watered  vary  according  to  the  season, 
they  ought  therefore  to  be  somewhat  different  according  to  the  age  and  density  of  the 
plantations.  In  fact,  calculating  by  averages  of  three  successive  periods  approximately 
equal,  and  no  longer  by  the  total  period  during  which  observations  have  been  made,  it 
has  been  ascertained  that  under  the  trees  in  summer  89.1  per  cent,  88  per  cent,  and 
89.4  per  cent  of  the  quantity  of  water  precipitated  by  atmospheric  water  have  been 
collected.  The  portion  retained  by  the  crowns  of  trees  increases  from  1867  to  1888  at 
the  same  time  as  does  that  under  cover,  owing  to  the  growth  of  the  tree  under  observa- 
tion from  40  to  62  years  old.  It  then  diminishes  as  a  result  of  the  gradual  lightening  of 
the  foliage  coinciding  with  the  decline  of  the  vegetation,  which  shows  itself  in  the 
hornbeam  sprouts  in  the  forest  of  Haye  about  every  60  to  70  years  under  ordinary 
conditions. 

Let  us  quote  a  few  figures  taken  from  abroad  relative  to  the  proportion  of  rain  inter- 
cepted by  the  tree  tops. 

The  absolute  quantity  of  water  that  adheres  to  the  trees  and  returns  to  the  atmosphere 
by  evaporation  is  regular  for  the  same  tree,  whatever  may  be  the  duration  of  the  rain- 
fall, but  evaporation  is  sufficient  to  absorb  the  rainfall  entirely,  especially  in  summer,  if 
the  rain  is  of  short  duration,  while  it  will  only  absorb  a  steadily  decreasing  quantity  in 
proportion  to  the  increase  in  the  duration  of  the  rainfall. 

The  loss  of  water  owing  to  shelter  is  therefore  very  variable  according  to  the  local 
distribution  of  rains. 

The  same  applies  to  different  species  of  trees.  By  placing  a  great  number  of  rain 
gauges  under  the  crown  of  the  same  tree  at  varying  distances  from  the  trunk,  M.  Boppe 
has  tried  to  obtain  an  average  of  the  quantity  of  water  which  passes  directly  through 
the  tree  tops.  He  has  then  measured  separately  the  water  running  down  the  trunks. 
Combining  these  results  with  those  obtained  by  himself,  M.  Ney  ^^  has  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  the  loss  due  to  adherence  to  the  crowns  is:  15  per  cent  of  the  annual  rain- 
fall for  the  beech  tree;  20  per  cent  for  Scotch  pine;  33  per  cent  for  spruce. 

If  one  considers  the  water  rainfall  separately,  the  only  important  one  for  the  feeding 
of  springs,  one  ascertains  according  to  the  same  author: 

That  the  crowns  of  beech  trees  retain  7  per  cent,  those  of  pines  15  per  cent,  and 
those  of  lower  spruce  pines  20  per  cent.  This  last  figure  should  be  still  in  relation  to  the 
surplus  of  rain  acquired  by  the  presence  of  forests,  according  to  French  experiments. 

The  figures  given  by  M.  Ney  do  not  take  into  account  the  water  supplied  by  the  tree 
crowns  through  the  process  of  condensation,  and  moreover  are  only  based  on  a  small 
numlier  of  measurements. 

It  remains  now  to  draw  conclusions  from  all  the  preceding  data,  relative  to  the  feeding 
of  springs.25     The  question  to  be  resolved  is  as  follows:  Is  the  ground  under  cover  of 

24  Op.  cit.,  p.  10.  25  Dq  Bouville,  op.  cit. 


370 


APPENDIX 


the  forest  better  watered  than  cultivated  ground?  To  understand  the  matter  rightly 
it  is  sufficient  to  compare  the  records  of  the  rain  gauges  installed  under  the  trees  at 
Cinq-Tranchees  with  those  of  the  instrument  established  at  Amance-la-Bouzule. 

The  following  table  has  that  object  in  view  by  giving  the  records  for  the  whole  period 
during  which  they  were  kept,  and  also  separately  for  summer  and  winter  and  the  entire 
year. 

A  comparison  between  the  quantity  of  rain  water  which  reaches  the  ground  in  an 
open  agricultural  region  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  that  which  reaches  the  ground 
in  a  forest  under  shelter  of  the  trees.     (Summary  only  is  given  for  the  years  1867-1898.) 


May-October 

November-April 

Entire  year 

Forested 

Open 

Forested 

Open 

Forested 

Open 

Yearly      averages      in 
inches  of  rainfall*.  .  . . 

16.6 

14.3 

14.2 

11.2 

30.8 

25.5 

*  The  forest  measurements  were  at  Les  Cinq-Tranchees  and  those  on  agricultural 
land  at  Amance-la-Bouzule. 

An  examination  of  the  figures  demonstrates  that  the  ground  of  the  forest  of  Haye,  at 
the  center,  and  under  cover  of  its  trees,  is  always  better  watered  than  the  neighboring 
plains.  The  difference  is  particularly  marked  in  winter;  it  diminishes  in  summer  by 
reason  of  the  foliage.  In  an  average  year  only  82  per  cent  was  collected  at  Amance-la- 
Bouzule  of  the  quantity  of  rain  water  collected  under  the  trees  at  Cinq-Tranchees,  the 
proportion  being  86.4  per  cent  for  the  months  from  May  to  October,  and  78.7  per  cent 
only  for  those  from  September  to  April. 

The  conclusions  drawn  from  the  French  reports,  however,  call  for  a  few  remarks. 

The  forest  rain-gauge  indicates  the  loss  resulting  to  the  soil,  from  the  adherence  of  a 
part  of  the  atmospheric  waters  to  the  foliage;  all  that  it  receives  arrives  at  the  soil  intact. 
It  is  not  the  same  with  the  rain  gauge  installed  on  a  cultivated  field.  The  surface  of 
this  field  is  covered  with  a  thick  carpet  of  grasses  or  vegetables  which  retain  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  fallen  rain  water,  and  allow  it  to  evaporate  in  the  air  exactly  as  do  the 
leaves  of  trees. ^^ 

On  the  other  hand  the  water  condensed  by  contact  with  the  carpet  of  vegetation  has 
not  been  measured  either;  it  is  true  it  must  be  a  very  small  quantity  comparatively, 
because  the  carpet  of  vegetation  often  fails  in  cultivated  fields  during  autumn  and 
winter.  One  may  infer  that  this  quantity  of  water  is  comparable  (somewhat  less  as  far 
as  one  can  judge)  to  that  which  is  condensed  by  contact  with  dead  leaves  on  the  forest 
soil. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  these  remarks  will  further  strengthen  the  conclusions  favor- 
able to  the  forest,  will  become,  in  fact,  valuable  a  fortiori.  I'aking  into  consideration  the 
actual  knowledge  to  hand,  it  must  be  admitted  the  ground  covered  by  forests  in  leaf 
receives  more  water  from  the  atmosphere  than  ground  under  cultivation;  the  difference 
can  be  considerable  and  reach  to  20  to  25  per  cent  of  the  rainfall  in  winter,  a  season  which 
alone  supplies  infiltrated  waters. 

It  would  appear  that  the  same  holds  good  in  the  case  of  pine  forests,  especially  in 

26  It  has  been  calculated  (M.  Ney,  "der  Wald  imd  die  Quellen,"  Tubingen,  1894,  p.  30) 
that  the  crop  of  a  field  of  wheat  would  have  a  growing  surface  of  32,370  square  yards  to 
the  acre,  that  of  an  uncultivated  field  would  have  22,006  square  yards,  that  of  a  field  ot 
clover  27,190,  of  a  field  of  potatoes  24,876.  The  surface  of  a  well  developed  forest  ot 
beech  trees  of  average  age  would  be  39,707  square  yards. 


THE   FOREST  AND  SPRINGS  371 

winter.  The  fact  may  be  accepted  as  almost  certain  in  the  case  of  Scotch  pine  and  larch, 
and  it  is  probable  even  of  the  spruce,  the  tree  of  our  coimtry  whose  foliage  is  the  thickest. 
Influence  of  Forests  on  the  Infiltration  of  Water.  —  In  the  preceding  paragraph 
the  influence  of  conditions  on  the  quantity  of  water  which  reaches  the  soil  has  been 
shown.  It  remains  for  us  now  to  examine  how  forests  modify  the  conditions  of  the 
feeding  of  springs,  in  working  on  the  deep  infiltration  of  the  water  as  far  as  the  sub- 
terranean sheet,  of  which  springs  constitute  the  overflow. 

Of  the  water  reaching  the  ground,  one  part  runs  along  the  surface  and  arrives  directly 
at  the  water  courses  in  the  form  of  streams.  Those  waters  which  run  along  the  sur- 
face without  penetrating  into  the  soil  are  called  "wild  waters"  — and  "coeflScient  in 
surface  flow,"  is  the  term  (le  nombre)  which  expresses  their  relative  importance. 

A  second  part  returns  directly  to  the  atmosphere,  in  a  gaseous  condition,  as  a  result 
of  the  phenomenon  of  physical  evaporation. 

A  third  part,  after  having  penetrated  the  superficial  strata  of  the  soil,  is  extracted 
from  it  by  suction  of  roots  which  carry  it  into  the  body  of  the  plants.  This  water  is 
partiaUy  utilized  in  forming  vegetable  tissues,  but  the  greater  part  returns  to  the  atmos- 
phere in  gaseous  form  by  the  stomata  of  leaves,  after  having  brought  into  the  latter 
the  mineral  elements  necessary  to  the  growth  of  the  plant.  This  important  phenomenon 
is  called  physiological  evaporation;  it  carries  away  from  the  soil  considerable  quantities 
of  water  which  have  already  penetrated  to  greater  or  lesser  depths  according  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  vegetation.  One  understands  in  fact  that  the  zone  thus  drained 
is  quite  near  to  the  surface  in  the  case  of  grass  or  cereals  with  superficial  roots,  while 
it  can  be  fairly  deep  in  the  case  of  forests  whose  roots  penetrate  very  far  down  in 
permeable  soils. 

Lastly,  a  fourth  part  having  penetrated,  thanks  to  the  permeabihty  of  the  soil, 
manages  to  pass  through  the  entire  depth  of  the  region  where  roots  can  inhale,  or  from 
which,  by  means  of  capillary  action,  it  can  raise  itself  into  the  region  where  the  roots 
are  active.  It  penetrates  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  soU  until,  encountering  the  obstacle 
of  an  impermeable  stratum,  it  accumulates  and  founds  a  subterranean  sheet  of  free 
water.  It  is  this  sheet  which  dispenses  itself  outwards  when  the  conditions  stated 
in  Paragraph  I  of  this  chapter  have  been  fulfUled.  If  the  lie  of  the  ground  is  such 
that  the  water  cannot  reach  the  open  air,  the  subterranean  sheet  is  then  exploited 
by  means  of  wells,  and  it  has  been  proposed  ^^  to  call  the  sheet  nearest  to  the  surface  a 
"phreatic  sheet,"  because  it  is  this  one  that  feeds  the  wells,  their  depth  being  naturally 
limited  to  the  level  of  the  upper  part  of  the  highest  subterranean  sheet,  and  not  gener- 
ally getting  beyond  it  even  when  this  level  sinks. 

Before  proceeding  further,  it  is  necessary  to  establish  an  essential  distinction  between 
springs  in  mountainous  regions  and  those  in  a  country  of  plains. 

In  the  mountains  the  surface  flow  plays  such  an  important  part  in  the  question  we 
are  about  to  consider  that  we  need  only  concern  ourselves  with  this  phenomenon,  after 
setting  aside  those  of  evaporation  and  permeabihty.  The  influence  of  the  loss  due 
to  superficial  running  waters  ("wild  waters")  surpasses  all  others.  This  special  and 
most  simple  case  is  the  only  one  upon  wliich  one  can  formulate  absolutely  certain  con- 
clusions. It  is,  moreover,  much  the  most  important;  springs  are  infinitely  more  numer- 
ous, abundant,  and  useful  in  the  mountains  than  in  the  plains.  Springs  in  the  plains 
are  either  fed  by  waters  which  have  filtered  down  from  the  mountains  or  else  they  have 
virtually  no  influence  on  the  regular  course  of  waters  on  account  of  their  feeble  outflow. 
The  rainfall  in  low  regions  is,  in  fact,  too  feeble,  after  the  levy  made  on  it  by  agricultural 
vegetation  generally  speaking,  to  allow  remaining  a  sufficient  proportion  to  feed  the 
springs.     Often  indeed  the  soil  of  the  plains  bears  crops, ^  which,  in  order  to  develop, 

"  Daubree  "Les  Eaux  Souterraines,"  Vol.  I,  p.  19  (Paris,  Dunod,  pub.,  1887). 


372  APPENDIX 

absorb  more  water  than  the  local  fall  produces,  the  balance  being  provided  by  natural 
or  artificial  irrigation  by  means  of  the  surplus  of  higher  regions. 

In  the  plains,  on  the  contrary,  surface  flow  does  not  exist,  and  the  feeding  of  the 
subterranean  sheet  depends  upon  the  permeability  of  the  soil  and  upon  evaporation. 

The  Influence  of  Forests  on  the  Infiltration  of  Water  in  Mountains.  —  The  pro- 
portion of  the  surface  flow  increases  according  to  the  declivity,  and  according  to 
the  greater  or  less  rapidity  with  which  rain  falls  or  snow  melts  on  the  slopes.  It  can 
become  very  great.  M.  Imbeaux,^*  in  a  study  on  the  coiu-se  of  the  Danube,  has  dis- 
covered "during  the  three  exceptional  floods  of  Oct.  27,  1882;  Oct.,  1886,  and  Nov., 
1886,  that  the  proportion  of  surface  flow  at  Mirabeau  was  from  0.33  to  0.39  and  0.42, 
that  is  to  say,  more  than  a  third  of  the  rainfall;  it  fell  to  0.27  during  lesser  floods,  and 
even  to  0.23  and  0.18  for  average  and  small  floods,  thus  demonstrating  that  the  law 
of  its  decrease  is  parallel  with  that  of  the  intensity  of  the  rainfall."  Of  the  Danube  at 
Vienna  the  Central  Hydrographic  Office  of  Vienna  has  discovered,  in  applying  the 
same  method,  42.1  per  cent  for  the  period  from  July  28  to  Aug.  14,  1897.-^ 

Other  authors  (Demontzey  and  M.  Ney)  have  proved  that  the  proportion  of  surface 
flow  can  reach  40  to  50  per  cent  of  the  rainfall  on  wooded  slopes.  Demontzey  even 
quotes  a  case  where  it  has  reached  three-quarters  of  the  water  brought  by  a  storm  of 
rain  into  the  bed  of  a  torrent,  extending  over  more  than  1,977  acres. 

The  action  of  forests  on  the  reduction  of  ' '  wild  waters  "  is  so  well  known,  so  univer- 
sally recognized,  that  to  insist  upon  it  has  become  commonplace.  We  will  only  recall 
that  it  results  principally  from:  (a)  the  fact  that,  thanks  to  the  obstacle  caused  by 
mountain  tops,  water  reaches  the  soil  with  hardly  any  celerity;  (6)  that  the  rainfall, 
other  things  being  equal,  is  more  frequent  and  less  violent  in  forests,  and  above  all  the 
melting  of  snows  is  much  less  rapid,  as  this  process  often  lasts  a  fortnight  or  even  a 
month  longer  in  the  forest  than  in  open  ground;  (c)  that  the  obstacle  offered  to  the  com-se 
of  the  water  by  stalks  and  the  roots  of  trees,  and  lastly  the  absorption  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  water  by  mosses  or  dead  leaves  covering  the  soil.  It  has  been  calculated 
that  such  coverings  of  dead  leaves  or  moss  retain  by  their  hygroscopicity  a  rainfall  of 
2.91  inches  of  depth  falling  in  one  day  before  allowing  anything  to  run  off  by  surface 
flow.30 

Even  when  the  covering  is  saturated,  it  only  allows  the  water  to  escape  drop  by 
drop,  so  that  the  soil  is  able  to  imbibe  the  whole  of  it,  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  sub- 
terranean sheet.  One  may  say  that  the  process  of  surface  flow  is  almost  entirely 
suppressed  on  wooded  slopes  in  good  conditions  where  the  covering  of  the  soil  is  left 
alone. 

We  could  not  better  sum  up  the  subject  of  the  action  of  forests  on  the  feeding  of 
springs  in  mountainous  districts  than  by  quoting  so  great  an  authority  as  Professor 
Henry:"  "Wooded  mountains  attract  rain;  it  is  there  that  precipitations  from  the 
atmosphere  attain  their  maximum;  it  is  there  that  great  reservoirs  of  water  are  found; 

28  Essai-Programme  d'Hydrologie,  by  Dr.  Imbeaux,  ingenieur  des  Ponts  et  Chaus- 
sees.  Pubhshed  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Gewasserkunde,  1898  and  1899.  (Quotation 
borrowed  from  M.  Henry.) 

29  Die  Hochwasser  —  Katastrophe  des  Jahres,  1897,  in  Oesterreich.  .  .  .  Beit- 
rage  zur  Hydrographie  Oesterreichs.  Published  by  the  K.  K.  Hydrographischer 
Central  Bureau  of  Vienna,  II  bulletin,  1898. 

aoEbermayer  ("Die  gesammte  Lehre  der  Walstreu,"  Berlin,  1876,  pp.  177  to  181) 
shows  that  moss  can  retain  in  suspension  2.8  times  its  weight  in  water.  The  sphagnums 
and  species  of  hypnums  such  as  N.  loreum  can  absorb  up  to  4.5  kilograms  of  water  by 
the  square  meter  of  ground  where  it  grows.  Dead  beech  leaves  retain  about  2.3  times 
that  of  pine  or  spruce,  1.2  times  their  weight  in  water.  See  also  M.  Ney's  work,  "Der 
Wald  und  die  Quellen,"  p.  70  (Tubingen,  1894). 

"Communication  made  to  the  "Congres  International  de  Sylviculture  a  Paris  en 
1900,"  p.  327  of  the  " Compte-rendu  Official." 


THE   FOREST  AND   SPRINGS  373 

it  is  there  that  nearly  all  springs  are  concentrated.  Forests  existing  on  mountains, 
notably  on  those  whose  aspect  is  perpendicular  to  those  of  moist  winds,  cause  the  pre- 
cipitation of  the  greatest  quantity  of  aqueous  vapor  which  they  contain.  It  is  enough 
to  cast  a  glance  at  a  hydrographic  map  to  be  convinced  of  this  fact.  Bare,  denuded 
mountains  have  only  a  very  feeble  action  in  this  respect;  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Adriatic  as  well  as  on  a  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  are  renowned  for  their  dry- 
ness, show  this  in  a  very  striking  manner.  Deprived  of  forests,  these  mountains  lack 
the  means  of  cooUng  the  air  and  drawing  to  themselves  in  consequence  the  vaporous 
precipitations  it  contains.  The  denuded  soil,  which  the  sun  penetrates  with  intense 
heat  on  those  parts  exposed  to  the  west  and  the  southwest,  does  not  certainly  possess 
this  property." 

"A  second  distinction  consists  in  the  enormous  diminution  in  the  proportion  of 
surface  flow  on  wooded  mountains,  compared  with  the  same  slopes  when  they  are 
denuded.  .  .  .  The  water,  instead  of  precipitating  itself  into  the  thalweg  and  caus- 
ing thereby  sudden  and  dangerous  inundations,  penetrates  slowly  through  the  covering 
and  into  the  soil  which  it  soaks  to  a  great  depth.  Therefore  it  is  unquestionable,  and 
we  believe  an  uncontested  fact,  that  mountain  forests  are  favorable  generally  to  the 
production  of  springs." 

There  is  a  stronger  reason  still  for  this  being  the  case  when  mountain  forests  grow 
in  a  hot  climate  where  physical  evaporation  is  considerable. 

The  Influence  of  Forests  on  the  Infiltration  of  Waters  in  the  Plains.  —  The 
influence  of  the  surface  flow  is  complete  in  the  case  of  forests  in  the  plains.  There 
the  feeding  of  the  subterranean  sheet  will  depend  only  on  physiological  evaporation 
and  on  the  permeability  of  the  soU.  Let  us  first  examine  the  action  of  forests  on  this 
permeability  of  the  soU. 

Forest  soil  in  good  condition  is  natiu-ally  light.  The  roots  of  trees  penetrate  deeply 
into  it,  sometimes  to  a  depth  of  10  and  13  feet  and  more;  in  swelling  out  they  produce 
the  effect  of  wedges  which  divide  the  soil  mechanically.  When  the  trees  have  been 
felled  the  roots  decompose  and  their  place  is  taken  by  a  network  of  channels  filled  with 
hygroscopic  matter,  which  directly  conducts  the  water  to  considerable  depth.  Along 
the  roots  of  trees  under  foot,  especially  near  the  stem  between  the  soil  and  the  bark, 
there  exist  empty  spaces  which  are  caused  by  the  swaying  of  the  tree  when  shaken  by 
the  wind;  rain  water,  which  has  run  along  the  stem,  arrives  directly,  one  might  say 
instantaneously,  by  means  of  these  at  the  soil.  Lastly,  forest  vegetation  is  favorable 
to  the  division  of  the  soil  through  the  action  of  earthworms. 

In  winter,  the  temperature  of  the  forest  soU  is  appreciably  higher  than  that  of  the 
open  ground.  It  often  results  from  this  that  during  the  cold  season  the  rainfaU  or 
melting  snow  acts  upon  a  frozen  surface,  which  has  become  impenetrable  at  the  surface,  in 
such  a  manner  that  all  the  water  disappears  in  surface  flow.  In  the  forest,  the  soil  which 
is  less  cold  need  not  necessarily  be  frozen,  and  can  therefore  absorb  the  fallen  water. 

According  to  all  the  evidence  coUected,  physical  evaporation  of  the  water  of  the  soil 
is  less  under  trees  than  on  an  agricultural  soil.  The  forest  covers  the  ground  with  a 
double  protective  screen;  first  the  covering  of  dead  leaves,  an  eminently  hygroscopic 
substance,  and  in  consequence  always  cool,  which,  superimposed  immediately  on  the 
ground,  opposes  evaporation  with  great  energy.  Higher  up,  the  crown,  often  very  dense, 
offers  its  maximum  density  in  summer,  at  a  period  when  evaporation  is  greatest.  The 
temperature  of  the  air  is  also  lower  under  the  trees  than  outside,  especially  in  summer. 
This  forms  a  powerful  impediment  to  evaporation.  The  lowest  temperature  of  the 
forest  soil  in  summer  acts  again  in  the  same  way. 

Fmally,  evaporation  is  much  favored  in  a  flat  country  by  the  wind,  which  is  con- 
tinually renewing  the  strata  of  the  air,  saturated  by  direct  contact  with  the  soil. 


374  APPENDIX 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  measure  the  comparative  importance  of  evaporation 
beneath  the  trees  and  outside  of  them  by  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  hquid  lost  from 
receptacles  full  of  water  placed  under  cover  and  in  the  open  fields.  Under  these  condi- 
tions two  to  five  times,  in  certain  cases  eight  times,  but  on  an  average  three  times, 
more  water  is  evaporated  in  the  open  country  than  under  the  trees.  But  these  experi- 
ments are  of  little  value  even  when  the  receptacles  of  water  are  replaced  by  impene- 
trable chests  full  of  earth;  the  conditions  under  which  the  experiments  are  made  being 
too  far  removed  from  natural  conditions.^^ 

It  remains  for  us  now  to  compare  the  forest  with  land  under  cultivation  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  quantity  of  water  drawn  off  from  the  soil  by  the  vegetation. 

To  tell  the  truth,  we  are  absolutely  ignorant  of  the  quantity  of  water  necessary  to 
the  production  of  agricultural  or  forest  crops.  One  observer,  Wollny,^^  undertook  in 
1879  and  1880  direct  measurements  of  the  quantities  of  water  consumed  by  various 
plants  (barley,  oats,  red  clover,  grass,  rye,  etc.)  which  he  had  sown  in  especially  pre- 
pared boxes  without  drainage.  At  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  he  had  ascertained 
the  quantity  of  water  contained  in  the  soil  of  the  boxes;  by  adding  to  this  the  same 
quantity  of  water  as  would  be  furnished  under  natural  conditions  lasting  over  a  similar 
period  of  time,  either  by  rain  or  by  dew,  and  by  removing  from  the  bottom  of  the  boxes 
all  that  filtered  through  the  earth,  and  which  he  carefully  collected,  the  amount  of 
water  consumed  was  obtained.  In  reality  the  quantities  measured  are  superior  to 
this  consumption  for  they  include,  in  addition,  that  which  has  been  lost  by  evaporation 
from  the  soil,  or  by  evaporation  of  the  water  remaining  adherent  to  leaves  and  stalks. 
The  experiments  of  WoUny  were  extended  over  105  to  155  days  of  the  season  of  growth. 

The  consumption  of  water  was  on  an  average  38  million  pounds  to  the  acre,  the  maxi- 
mum figure  being  furnished  by  the  clover  which  reached  47  milhon.  These  figures 
represent  an  average  consumption  per  acre  per  day  during  the  growing  season  of  about 
18  to  19  cubic  yards. 

In  1870  and  1871  an  older  writer,  Risler,^*  discovered  that  the  average  daily  con- 
sumption per  acre  during  the  season  of  growth  was  27  cubic  yards  for  Luzern  and 
fields  generally,  23  for  oats,  12  for  rye,  etc.,  and  on  an  average  17  for  cultivated  vege- 
tables, while  it  would  only  be  4.2  cubic  yards  for  the  fir  tree  and  3.1[for  the  oak.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  we  have  no  means  of  judging  of  the  value  of  these  figures, 
as  we  do  not  know  how  they  were  obtained. 

M.  Ney,  by  combining  the  figures  of  Wollny  and  of  Risler,  calculates  ^^  that  field 
vegetables  in  general  consume  2,093  cubic  yards  of  water  per  acre  during  the  growing 
season. 

An  Austrian  experimenter,  V.  Hohnel,  has  directly  measured  the  quantity  of  aqueous 
vapor  emitted  by  the  leaves  of  different  trees  from  June  1  to  October  1.  During  that 
period  he  found  that  the  leaves  of  the  several  species  emitted  the  following  percentages 
of  their  own  weight  in  aqueous  vapor:  Birch,  68  per  cent;  ash,  57;  hornbeam,  56;  beech, 
47;  oak,  28;  spruce  pine,  6;  Scotch  pine,  6;  fir  tree,  3. 

With  these  data  for  basis,  M.  Ney  ^^  calculates  that  the  consumption  of  water  per 

32  For  the  French  experiments  see  M.  de  Bouville,  op.  cit.,  pp.  25  et  seq.  For  those 
carried  out  in  Switzerland  consult  the  "  Mitteilungen  "  of  the  Research  Station  of  Ziirich. 
For  the  German  observations  see  the  official  accounts  pubhshed  by  M.  Muttrich  on  the 
work  of  the  Research  Stations;  a  resume  of  the  results  is  to  be  found  reproduced  by 
M.  Weber  in  the  " Encyclopedie  Forestiere  de  Lorey." 

35  "Forschungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Agricultur  —  Physik,  Vol.  XII,  p.  27. 

3*  The  experiments  of  Risler  are  only  known  by  the  quotations  made  by  Wollny  in 
the  work  mentioned  previously,  and  we  are  ignorant  of  the  methods  pursued  by  this 
experimenter. 

35  "Der  Wald  und  die  Quellen,"  p.  74. 

36  Op.  cit.,  p.  75. 


THE   FOREST   AND   SPRINGS  375 

acre  during  the  season  of  growth  would  be  24,112,000  pounds  for  beech  (5.6  yards 
per  diem);  18,568,000  pounds  for  spruce  pine  (47  yards  per  diem);  6,424,000  pounds 
for  Scotch  pine  (1.6  yards  per  diem). 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  these  quantities  do  not  include  the  water  incorporated  in 
the  tissues  of  the  trees  for  the  purposes  of  their  growth,  but  only  that  emitted  by  evapora- 
tion from  leaves. ^^ 

Other  figures  have  been  pubhshed  by  Th.  Hartig,  V.  Hohnel  and  WoUny ;  they  differ 
sometimes  so  much  from  those  quoted  above  that  one  is  necessarily  very  sceptical  as  to 
the  value  of  the  results  obtained.  As  M.  Henry  remarks  very  justly: »«  "If  it  is  easy 
to  determine,  by  means  of  weighing,  the  evaporation  on  a  saphng  in  a  pot,  or  of  a  square 
of  young  forest  trees,  of  grass  or  corn;  if  one  can  calculate,  strictly  speaking,  according 
to  those  results,  without  fear  of  too  great  discrepancies  the  evaporation  on  an  acre 
covered  with  grass,  with  corn,  or  young  forest  trees  of  equal  height,'^  it  is  far  too  rash 
to  apply  the  results  obtained  by  experiments  on  an  isolated  sapling  grown  in  a 
pot  to  a  forest  comprising  many  tangled  and  superimposed  stages  of  growth,  whose 
leaves  giving  more  or  less  shade  are  doing  their  work  with  different  degrees  of 
intensity." 

In  the  present  condition  of  science  it  is  not  therefore  possible  to  determine  by  con- 
trast in  a  sufficiently  precise  manner  the  difference  between  the  volume  of  water  under 
the  trees  and  in  the  open  which  goes  to  feed  the  subterranean  sheets. 

In  view  of  the  great  interest  this  question  presents,  and  of  the  diversity  of  opinions 
on  the  subject,  the  greatest  efforts  have  been  made  in  an  indirect  manner  to  arrive  at  a 
clear  idea  of  the  action  of  clumps  of  trees  on  the  feeding  of  the  subterranean  .sheet. 

A  primary  series  of  researches  has  been  undertaken  with  a  view  to  determine  com- 
paratively the  quantity  of  water  which  filters  through  a  stratum  of  earth  enclosed  in 
a  box  without  drainage,  its  surface  being  covered  with  different  kinds  of  plants. 

It  has  proved  that  the  bare  earth  allows  more  water  to  pass  than  that  which  is 
covered  with  vegetation,  dead  leaves,  moss,  etc.  This  is  almost  the  only  definite  result 
obtained,  and  even  this  is  controvertible.  We  do  not  lay  much  stress  on  these  experi- 
ments which,  it  would  seem,  can  give  us  no  definite  information  as  to  what  occurs  under 
natural  conditions. ■*° 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  measure  directly  the  quantity  of  water  contained  in  the 
soil  under  the  trees  and  in  the  open  at  different  depths. 

Experiments  undertaken  in  Germany  '^^  and  in  Russia  have  brought  to  light  the 
following  facts  which  appear  to  be  properly  established: 

The  humidity  of  forest  soil  is  very  great  at  the  surface,  but  diminishes  rapidly  to  a 
depth  varying  in  degree  which  does  not  go  beyond  31.5  inches  under  plantations  of 
spruce  pine,  according  to  Ebermayer,  and  which  reaches  a  depth  of  10  or  13  feet, 
according  to  Russian  experiments.  Below  this  level  the  amount  of  water  keeps  on 
increasing  with  the  depth.     There  exists  in  the  ground,  therefore,  a  dry  zone  more  or 

^^  The  quantity  of  water  remaining  annually  in  the  tissues  of  trees  may  be  estimated 
at  2,640  pounds  per  acre. 

^^  "Annales  de  la  Science  Agronomique,"  2nd  Series,  4th  year,  1898,  pp.  20  et  seq. 

^^  It  is  doubtful  if  even  this  is  admissible. 

*°  For  the  measurements  made  in  Switzerland  see  Bulletin  IV  of  the  "  Mitteilungen  " 
of  the  Research  Station  of  Zurich;  for  the  Bavarian  works,  see  the  various  publications 
of  M.  Ebermayer,  etc. 

"  "Einfluss  des  Waldes,"  etc.,  an  article  by  M.  Ebermayer  which  appeared  in  the 
January  1888  number  of  the  "Allgemeine  Forst  und  Jagd  Zeitung."  A  good  trans- 
lation has  been  pubhshed  by  M.  Reuss  in  the  first  volume  of  the  "Annales  de  la  Science 
Agronomique,"  1889.  A  complete  resume  of  all  the  works  published  up  till  then  is 
inserted  in  the  account  of  the  "Congres  International  de  Sylviculture  a  Paris  en  1900," 
pp.  328  et  seq.  (Communication  byiM.  Henry  to  this  Congress). 


376  APPENDIX 

less  thick  and  more  or  less  deep,  lying  between  the  humid  region  of  the  surface  and 
the  humid  region  below. 

One  sees  there,  in  a  very  clear  fashion,  the  influence  of  the  absorption  of  water  by 
roots  of  plants  in  the  region  where  they  are  active,  or  in  that  immediately  below  where 
the  water  can  raise  itself  by  capillary  action  after  drying  up  the  superior  stratum. ■'^ 
This  is  a  general  fact  for  all  ground  covered  with  living  plants;  they  present  a  dry 
stratum  more  or  less  removed  from  the  surface,  according  to  the  depth  of  the  root 
system  of  vegetation  above.  This  depth  being  greater  in  the  case  of  forest  vegetation 
than  in  others,  it  is  clearly  to  be  seen  that  at  a  similar  level,  within  certain  limits,  the 
soil  of  the  forest  will  be  poorer  in  water  than  an  agricultural  soil.^^  It  has  been  con- 
cluded from  this  that  the  forest  absorbed  more  water  by  its  vegetation  than  other 
species  of  culture,  and  thus  was  harmful  to  the  feeding  of  phreatic  sheets  of  water. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  no  evident  and  necessary  connection  between  the 
humidity  of  the  soil  in  its  superficial  parts  and  the  alimentation  of  the  subterranean 
sheet.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  latter  depends  not  so  much  on  the  degree  of 
dampness  of  the  soil  as  upon  its  permeability.  A  stratum  of  coarse  sand  will  allow 
rain  water  to  filter  through  rapidly,  while  a  fine  clay  will  keep  it  stagnant  at  the  sur- 
face and  give  it  over  to  evaporation.  And,  nevertheless,  the  sand  will  be  dry,  while 
the  clay  will  always  contain  a  quantity  of  hygroscopic  water. 

An  extremely  interesting  fact,  which  will  perhaps  throw  some  light  on  the  relation 
of  the  wooded  condition  of  the  surface  with  the  feeding  of  phreatic  waters,  has  been 
quite  recently  brought  forward.  We  think  we  ought  to  dwell  on  this  with  some  detail, 
borrowing  what  follows  from  the  last  publications  of  our  learned  colleague,  M.  Henry.''* 

The  Imperial  Free  Economic  Society  of  St.  Petersburg  undertook  a  series  of  re- 
searches into  subterranean  hydrology  in  the  forests  of  the  steppes  of  Russia,  the  director- 
ship of  which  was  confided  to  M.  Ototzky,  curator  of  the  Mineralogical  Museum  at 
St.  Petersburg. 

From  borings  effected  in  the  forest  of  Chipoff  (province  of  Voronez)  and  in  the  Black 

^  The  depth  of  the  system  of  our  large  tree  species  is  much  greater  than  has  been 
generally  supposed.  The  tempest  of  February  1,  1902,  having  torn  up  by  their  roots 
a  multitude  of  fir  trees  of  all  ages  in  the  Vosges,  we  took  advantage  of  this  opportunity 
to  ascertain  the  depth  to  which  the  roots,  thus  rendered  visible,  had  penetrated  the 
Vosges  sandstone  formation.  It  varied  from  5  to  11.5  feet.  If  one  takes  into  account 
that  the  extremities  of  the  roots  were  still  remaining  in  the  soil,  one  can  realize  that 
these  trees  were  deriving  nourishment  from  a  stratum  which  must  extend  to  a  depth  of 
13  and  perhaps  of  16  feet. 

*^  These  researches  of  a  very  delicate  nature  only  meet  with  reliable  results  when 
they  are  conducted  simultaneously  for  a  very  long  period  of  time  under  the  trees  and 
in  the  open.  If  one  observes  the  soil  after  heavy  rain  one  sees  it  saturated  at  the  surface 
to  a  greater  or  lesser  depth.  The  rain  having  ceased,  the  free  surface  water  sinks 
down  gradually  into  the  soil  under  the  action  of  its  weight,  saturating  always  a  deeper 
and  deeper  zone,  above  which  the  ground  has  become  dry,  until  it  comes  in  contact 
with  the  phreatic  sheet  of  water  of  which  it  raises  the  level.  It  is  conceivable  that 
very  varying  amounts  of  water  in  the  soil,  at  one  particular  season  and  depth,  have  to 
be  accounted  for,  according  to  the  proximity  and  abundance  of  the  latest  rainfall, 
that  is  to  say,  according  to  fortuitous  circumstances  which,  up  till  now,  observers 
do  not  seem  to  have  taken  into  account. 

**  M.  E.  Henry,  professor  of  the  "Ecole  Nationale  des  Eaux  et  Forets,"  was  the  first 
to  draw  attention  to  the  Russian  borings,  the  results  of  which,  up  till  then,  had  been 
unnoticed  both  in  France  and  Germany.  He  gave  an  account  of  these  in  a  series  of 
articles,  one  after  the  other,  from  1897  and  February,  1898  (Annales  de  la  Science 
Agronomique),  until  1903.  In  his  article  of  1903  M.  Henry  narrates  for  the  first  time 
the  complete  result  of  his  own  researches  undertaken  in  the  forest  of  Moudon.  The 
few  pages  which  M.  Ebermayer  devotes  to  the  subject  in  his  publication  dated  1900 
(Einfluss  der  Walder  auf  das  Gumdwasser)  only  reproduce,  almost  word  for  word, 
M.  Henry's  report  of  1898. 


THE  FOREST  AND   SPRINGS  377 

Forest  (province  of  Cherson),  M.  Ototzky  was  led,  since  1897,  to  formulate  this  theory, 
that,  all  physico-geographical  conditions  being  equal,  the  level  of  phreatic  waters  in  the 
forests  of  the  region  of  the  steppes  is  lower  than  in  neighboring  open  spaces.  In  support 
of  these  unexpected  conclusions  M.  Ototzky  published  the  results  of  a  series  of  sound- 
ings, of  which  some  it  is  true  are  open  to  objection  as  proof  positive  of  his  theories.*^ 

In  1897  M.  Ototzky  was  directed  by  the  Imperial  Society  to  undertake  some  new 
researches,  but  this  time  in  the  Province  of  St.  Petersburg  at  60°  north  latitude  in  a 
region  whose  rainfall  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  steppes,  where  he  had  worked  in 
1895  (23.6  inches  annual  rainfall  instead  of  11.8). 

He  proved  again  that,  under  the  forests  where  observations  were  made,  the  phreatic 
sheet  is  depressed  compared  with  what  it  is  n  neighboring  cultivated  regions.  The 
difference  of  levels  is  rather  slight,  and  varied  from  19.7  to  44.5  inches. 

On  July  1,  1899,  M.  Henry,  professor  at  the  "Ecole  Nationale  des  Eaux  et  Forets," 
at  his  own  request,  was  authorized  to  undertake  at  the  expense  of  the  "Administration 
des  Eaux  et  Forets"  some  soundings,  with  a  view  to  verifying  and  completing  the  data 
furnished  by  the  Russian  experimenter. 

The  forest  of  Moudon  near  Luneville  (Meurthe-et- Moselle)  was  chosen  for  these  re- 
searches. It  forms  a  large  mass  of  woodland  about  4,942  acres  in  extent  (the  altitude 
varies  from  807  to  873  feet).  The  soil  is  composed  of  strata  of  sand,  gravel,  and  flint, 
originating  from  the  ancient  alluvial  beds  of  the  Meurthe  and  the  Vezouse,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  which  rivers  the  forest  is  situated.  The  water-bearing  strata  are  met  at  a 
slight  depth,  their  upper  level  being  given  at  depth  of  about  6.5  to  16.4  feet.  A  little 
lower,  about  23  feet  or  more,  one  finds  an  impermeable  clay  against  which  the  infiltra- 
tions are  arrested.  These  different  strata,  and  especially  the  last  named,  appear  to  be 
horizontal. 

The  rainfall  in  the  forest  was  28  inches  in  1900  and  35  in  1901.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  9°  4  C.  (49°  F.)  with  an  average  of  +  1°  43  C.  (345  F.)  in  winter  and  17° 
70  C.  (64°  F.)  in  summer. 

The  forest  is  composed  of  oak,  beech,  and  hornbeam;  it  has  been  planted  with  storied 
coppice  in  a  rotation  of  35  years  in  the  greater  part  of  its  extent.  Some  small  parts  are 
to  be  found  covered  with  Scotch  pine,  the  result  of  the  replanting  of  ancient  gaps  in 
the  forest. 

In  the  spring  of  1900  ten  holes  of  2  inches  in  diameter  were  drilled  by  the  aid  of  the 
Belgian  geological  borer,  and  these  holes  were  lined  with  zinc  tubes  which  had  been 
pierced  with  small  apertures  and  furnished  at  their  lower  end  with  a  similarly  perforated 
cone.  Thus  the  earth  was  prevented  from  falling  in  and  filling  up  the  bottom  of  the  well. 
The  numerous  small  apertures  in  the  metal  allowed  the  water  easily  to  find  its  own  level. 

Five  holes  were  bored  in  bare  ground  in  parcels  of  ground  which  had  been  cleared  for 
the  use  of  the  forest  guardians,  in  the  nursery  gardens,  and  in  the  communal  pasturage,  but 
always  on  the  borders  of  the  forest,  the  farthest  removed  being  about  a  hundred  meters. 
Five  others,  destined  to  be  compared  with  the  preceding  five,  were  made  under  the  neigh- 
boring woodlands,  as  nearly  approaching  the  same  conditions  as  it  was  possible  to  give. 

J  ^^i.d^^.t^y  jt  ^^  ^ell  to  operate  only  in  ground  which  lies  horizontally  at  the  surface, 
and  which  is  of  a  homogeneous  character  to  a  great  depth,  so  as  to  avoid  the  influence 
of  an  uneven  surface,  and  that  of  the  undulations  of  the  upper  levels  of  deep  impermealjle 
strata  whose  projection  may  be  very  different  from  that  of  the  surface.  In  stratified 
ground,  with  strata  alternately  more  or  less  permeable,  the  course  of  the  subterranean 
waters  depends  solely  on  the  way  these  strata  run,  and  can  give  us  no  notion  of  the 
influence  of  the  superficial  vegetation.  Unfortunately  the  ground  in  which  M.  Ototzky 
first  undertook  his  experiments  appears  to  have  been  far  from  homogeneous,  since  he 
found  there  in  less  than  16  feet  of  depth,  three  diff'erent  well-defined  spring  levels. 
Moreover  the  projection  of  the  soil  seems  to  have  been  taken  very  little  into  account, 
notably  m  No.  3  boring  in  the  forest  of  Chipofif. 


378  APPENDIX 

There  were,  therefore,  five  pairs  of  borings. 

Observations  were  made  once  a  month  from  May  4,  1900,  to  August  24,  1902. 

The  levehng  was  done  by  the  pupils  of  the  "Ecole  Forestiere"  in  May,  1900,  and  May, 
1901,  in  taking  for  the  initial  point  the  altitude  of  the  Station  of  MarainvUliers  which  is 
about  790.1  feet. 

One  will  find  in  the  following  table  (page  379)  all  the  measurements  taken  at  Moudon; 
none  have  been  omitted  (abridged  in  translation). 

We  have  been  obliged,  however,  to  omit  the  report  of  one  of  the  five  pairs,  of  which 
one  bore  was  made  in  the  fields  of  the  farm  of  St.  George  and  the  other  in  the  neighbor- 
ing coppice  (third  cutting  in  the  third  series  of  coppices)  because  the  bore  made  in  the 
field  was  destroyed  by  the  plow  in  March,  1901. 

The  figures  of  the  table  (page  379)  give  the  immediate  results  of  the  measurements 
effected,  without  taking  into  account  the  difference  in  the  altitude  of  the  orifices  of 
the  borings. 

If  all  the  measurements  are  reduced  to  the  same  horizontal  level,  one  finds  that 
the  level  of  the  water  under  the  forest  at  all  seasons  is  lower  than  that  under  bare  ground: 
By  11.8  inches  for  the  first  couple,  7.9  for  the  second  couple,  16.5  for  the  third  couple, 
12.2  for  the  fourth  couple. 

It  is  certain  that  the  difference  of  level  is  more  accentuated  than  these  figures  would 
indicate,  since  one  knows  that  in  permeable  soils  the  phreatic  sheet  follows  the  varia- 
tions of  the  outline  relief  of  the  stratum,  although  with  far  less  pronoimced  undulations. 

But  let  us  accept  the  preceding  figures  as  unquestionable  minima  whose  average  is 
11.8  inches. 

^^'e  can  affirm  that,  according  to  the  measurements  effected  each  month  from  May  4, 
1900,  to  August  24,  1902,  in  eight  borings  made  at  random,  sometimes  under  the  wood- 
lands, sometimes  under  the  bare  ground  near  the  forest  of  Moudon  (Meurthe-et-Moselle) 
the  level  of  subterranean  waters  at  all  seasons  is  at  least  11.8  inches  deeper  under  the 
woods  than  it  is  outside. 

The  experiments  of  M.  Henry,  carried  out  regularly  for  a  period  of  28  months  have 
further  brought  to  light  the  following  facts,  which  are  absolutely  new. 

The  oscillations  in  the  level  of  phreatic  waters  is  less  under  the  woods  than  in  the 
open.  The  infiltration,  too,  is  slower  in  the  forest.  The  maxima  and  minima  occur 
about  a  month  later  than  those  observed  outside  of  the  woods. 

One  sees  here  that  the  forest  plays  the  same  role  of  regulator  and  stabiHzer  which  one 
recognizes  it  to  do  with  regard  to  the  temperature. 

Some  experiments  made  quite  recently  by  M.  Ototzky,  an  account  of  which  has  been 
pubhshed  in  Russian  in  the  fourth  number  of  1902  of  the  Magazine  "La  Pedologie," 
and  of  which  a  French  translation  by  M.  A.  de  Lebedef,  attache  of  the  "Ministere  de 
LTnterieur  "  at  St.  Petersburg,  is  in  the  press  has  still  further  confirmed  these  facts. 

M.  Ototzky's  experiments  were  made  at  the  "Ecole  forestiere"  of  Staraia  Rossa 
(province  of  Novgorod)  at  58°  N.  latitude,  near  to  the  Lake  of  Ihnen.  "  One  is  obliged 
to  conclude,"  says  M.  Ototzky  at  the  end  of  his  article,  "that  the  level  of  subterranean 
water  is  lower  in  the  forest  than  in  the  stratum  exploited,  in  summer  as  well  as  in  winter, 
and  also  that  the  oscillations  are  less  .^^ 

To  sum  up,  we  seem  to  have  gained  the  information  that  in  the  forests  of 
the  plains  in  temperate  or  cold   climates,*^  whose  soil  is   formed  of  homogeneous 

^^  Quotation  borrowed  from  M.  Henry  (Revue  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  1903,  p.  197). 

*''  In  the  tropical  region  of  the  globe  where  the  heat  is  torrid,  it  is  physical  evaporation 
from  the  soil  which  plays  the  preponderating  part,  while  physiological  evaporation  does 
not  increase  with  the  temperature.  It  may  be,  therefore,  that  in  this  case  the  level  of 
the  subterranean  waters  is  even  higher  in  the  forest.  M.  Ribbentrop  has  vouched  for 
this  fact  near  Madras  (Revue  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  1901). 


THE  FOREST  AND   SPRINGS 


379 


DEPTH  OF  THE  SUBSOIL  WATER  (IN  FEET)  IN  THE  FOUR  COUPLES  OP 
BORINGS  IN  THE  STATE  FOREST  OF  MOUDON.* 


Bare 
ground 

Old 
coppice 

Bare 
nursery 

site 

Old 
coppice 

Bare 
ground 

Old 
coppice 

Bare 
pasture 

Scotch 
pine 

Altitude  of  station,  in  feet 

Average  depth  of  water  level, 
in  feet 

Average  depth  of  water  level 
corrected  for  altitude,  in 
feet 

799.77 
8.50 

11.12 

802.42 
12.11 

12.11 

+  .99 

3.44 

802.26 
13.32 

14.73 

5.68 

803.8 
15.39 

15.39 
+  .66 

3.84 

845.37 
9.25 

13.19 

849.31 
14.57 

14.57 
+  1.38 

6.56 

811.87 
7.09 

7.09 

10.73 

807.08 
3.31 

8.10 
+  1.01 

5.12 

Maximum      monthly     varia- 

4.43 

*  Totals  and  averages  only  are  given  in  translation,  condensed  and  rearranged  from 
results  of  field  work  extending  over  28  months,  May  4,  1900,  to  August  24,  1902.  See 
page  22  for  a  confirmation  of  these  conclusions. 

strata  lying  horizontally  and  in  which  in   consequence   the    subterranean  sheet    is 
motionless : 

(1)  The  level  of  phreatic  waters  is  lower  under  the  forest  at  all  seasons,  than  outside 
of  it. 

(2)  The  depression  appears  greater  in  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  less,  than  where  it 
rains  a  great  deal. 

(3)  The  oscillations  in  the  level  are  considerably  reduced  and  lessened  by  the  presence 
of  the  forest. 

Returning  now  to  our  subject,  can  we  conclude  from  the  foregoing  that  forests  are 
injurious  to  the  feeding  of  the  subterranean  sheet  of  water  on  level  ground  in  temperate 
climates? 

This  certainly  seems  probable.  The  intensity  of  physiological  evaporation  may  be 
the  explanation  of  this  curious  lowering  of  the  subterranean  sheet  under  the  woods. 
This  will  be  the  lower,  that  is  to  say,  the  less  thick  (admitting  that  the  impermeable 
stratum  by  which  the  infiltrated  waters  are  arrested,  is  horizontal),  because  the  forest 
abstracts  more  water  from  infiltration  in  its  growth  than  does  the  neighboring 
ground. 

Nevertheless,  there  is  one  thing  which  may  cause  us  to  doubt  the  truth  of  these  con- 
clusions. A  careful  examination  of  Table  6  shows  us  that  the  depression  of  the  sheet 
beneath  the  forest  is  more  marked  during  the  season  of  repose  in  vegetation  than  during 
the  summer.  This  fact  is  verified  in  the  case  of  all  the  couples  of  borings,  and  for  the 
whole  length  of  time  during  which  observations  were  made.  One  might  conclude  from 
this  that  it  is  not  the  vegetation  of  the  trees  that  causes  the  lowering  of  level. 

Are  we  here  perhaps  in  the  presence  of  a  fresh  consequence  of  this  fact  that,  under 
the  forest,  the  region  drained  of  water  by  roots,  the  dry  zone  in  fact  reaches  to  a  lower 
level  than  under  cultivated  ground? 

However  this  may  be,  if  the  fact  of  the  lowering  of  the  level  of  subterranean  waters 
under  the  woods  appears  certain,  its  interpretation  is  less  so,  and  we  are  left  in  doubt 
as  to  the  definite  influence,  all  things  taken  into  consideration  of  the  woods  upon  the 
feeding  of  springs  in  level  ground. 

This  first  study  was  in  the  press  when  we  received  notice  (March,  1904)  of  the  official 


380  APPENDIX 

account  of  the  fourth  congress  of  the  International  Association  of  the  "Stations  de 
Recherches  Forestieres,"  which  assembled  in  Austria  in  September,  1903.^* 

At  this  congress,  M.  Hartmann,  an  engineer  of  the  Bavarian  State,  gave  an  account 
of  the  results  of  researches  undertaken  in  collaboration  with  the  Forest  Service  by  the 
Royal  Hydrotechnical  Service  with  a  view  to  the  comparative  study  of  the  oscillations 
of  the  level  of  the  subterranean  water  in  wooded  ground  or  in  the  open. 

Observations  were  taken  at  two  points.  The  first,  Mindelheim,  at  a  height  of  2,014 
feet,  is  situated  on  almost  perfectly  horizontal  ground  at  the  surface  (inclination  six  per 
thousand)  composed  of  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Mindel,  a  direct  tributary  of  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube. 

The  forest  is  situated  in  a  small  piece  of  isolated  ground  composed  of  about  988  acres 
in  the  midst  of  landed  estates,  and  is  composed  of  oak,  Scotch,  and  spruce  pines,  of  about 
9  years  of  age.     The  other  station,  Wendelstein,  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  Niirnberg. 

M.  Hartmann  thinks  it  can  be  concluded  from  his  statements  «  that  the  forest  exerts 
no  influence  on  the  level  of  the  subterranean  sheet.  The  latter  is  generally  not  stagnant 
(as  has  been  known  for  a  long  time)  but  takes  a  more  or  less  rapid  course  according  to 
the  inclination  of  the  surface  of  the  subsoil,  the  thickness  of  the  subterranean  sheet  in 
motion,  and  the  degree  of  permeability  of  the  soil  in  which  it  moves.  The  considerable 
differences  in  the  level  of  subterranean  waters  observed  in  Bavaria  at  points  contiguous 
to  a  horizontal  and  homogeneous  soil  at  the  surface,  can  only  be  explained  by  the  varia- 
tion in  the  projection  of  the  subsoil  stratum,  and  by  the  very  variable  depth  and  celerity 
of  the  subterranean  sheet. 

At  Mindelheim,  in  fact,  the  subterranean  sheet  is  nearer  the  surface  under  the  woods 
than  in  the  open.  M.  Hartmann  thinks  that  the  forest  counts  for  nothing,  and  that  the 
reverse  might  just  as  equally  hold  good. 

Conclusions.  —  In  the  course  of  this  long  study  on  the  influence  of  forests  on  the 
feeding  of  springs,  we  have  particularly  insisted  on  certain  points  which,  recently 
brought  to  light,  have  hitherto  only  been  dealt  with  in  original  memoranda,  and  are 
therefore  inaccessible  to  the  greater  number  of  readers. 

This  chapter,  now  that  its  end  has  been  reached,  leads  to  one  conclusion. 

(1)  We  have  seen  that  the  forest  has  the  effect  of  increasing  the  abundance  and  the 
frequency  of  atmospheric  precipitations. 

This  action  of  the  forest,  proved  by  many  experiments  in  France  and  abroad  during 
30  years,  must  be  regarded  as  a  well  established  fact,  although  certain  authors,  without 
absolutely  denying  it,  have  declared  it  negligible,  or  else  of  so  slight  a  nature  as  not  to 
be  ascertained  by  ordinary  rain  gauges,  since  these  instruments  are  lacking  in  absolute 
accuracy. 

The  increase  of  water  which  the  forest  obtains,  amounts  to  23  per  cent  in  an  average 
of  33  years  of  observations  taken  at  the  "Station  de  Recherches"  of  Nancy.  It  seems 
however  to  increase  with  the  altitude  of  the  place  where  the  forests  are  situated. 

(2)  The  forest  retains  a  part  of  the  fallen  water  by  its  adherence  to  the  crowns  and 
branches  and  this  returns  to  the  atmosphere  by  direct  evaporation.  On  the  other  hand 
these  same  crowns  and  branches  are  always  colder,  and  often  to  a  very  considerable 

^^  Vierte  Versammlung  des  internationalen  Verbandes  forsthcher  Versuchsanstaten, 
1903.     Mariabrun,  1904  (published  by  the  "Station  de  recherches  autrichienne"). 

« It  seems  to  us  that  the  conclusions  of  the  Bavarian  engineer  are  somewhat  lacking 
in  precision,  at  least  in  the  text  we  have  before  our  eyes.  One  might  conclude,  it  would 
seem,  especially  from  the  accounts  given  by  himself,  that  the  two  points  chosen  for  the 
experiments  were  not  at  all  suital)le  for  the  purpose,  the  subterranean  sheet  being  far 
from  immovable,  and  the  subsoil  not  horizontal.  In  any  case,  we  find  nothing  here  of  a 
nature  to  invalidate  the  very  clear  and  well  balanced  results  of  the  measurements  taken 
at  Moudon,  as  given  us  by  M.  Henry, 


PHYSICAL,   ECONOMIC,   AND   SOCIAL  381 

degree  colder,  than  the  surrounding  air,  and  sometimes  are  the  means  of  condensing 
enormous  quantities  of  aqueous  vapor,  which  they  introduce  to  the  soil  in  a  liquid 
state.  Moreover,  it  is  not  uncommon,  especially  in  winter  time,  to  see  the  soil  which  is 
immediately  shaded  by  a  tree,  receive  more  water  than  a  neighboring  point  in  the  forest 
where  there  is  a  gap  in  the  shade.  For  the  rest  it  would  seem  that  the  loss  of  water  aris- 
ing from  its  retention  by  the  crowns  is  inferior  to  the  increase  of  water  obtained  by  the 
presence  of  the  forest  itself.  This  fact  has  assuredly  been  established  in  the  case  of  the 
broadleaved  plantations  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nancy;  it  would  seem  also  certain  in 
the  case  of  the  plantations  of  Scotch  pines  and  larches,  and  it  is  probable  even  for  those 
of  spruce  pine.  One  can  therefore  affirm  that,  in  spite  of  the  screen  afforded  by  the 
treetops,  generally  speaking,  the  forest  soil  receives  more  water  than  does  the  neigh- 
boring soil  under  cultivation. 

(3)  The  forest  causes  an  enormous  diminution  in  physical  evaporation,  and  prevents 
surface  flow  almost  entirely.  Moreover  in  numerous  cases  where  one  of  these  phe- 
nomena —  and  a  fortiori  when  both  simultaneously  —  play  a  preponderating  part,  as 
often  happens  in  hot  countries  and  on  sloping  ground,  it  is  unreservedly  admitted  that 
the  forest  is  favorable  to  the  feeding  of  the  subterranean  sheet,  and  in  consequence  to 
that  of  springs. 

(4)  So  far  as  our  researches  have  actually  progressed,  we  cannot  be  sure  that  the  forest 
is  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  the  feeding  of  subterranean  waters  in  level  ground  or 
in  cold  or  temperate  climates. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  we  are  ignorant  as  to  whether  its  vegetation  does  not  abstract  more 
water  from  the  soil  than  do  agricidtural  vegetables,  as  the  lowering  in  the  level  of  the 
phreatic  waters  observed  under  the  woodlands  would  seem  to  indicate.  It  may  be  that 
such  an  increase  in  the  communication  is  compensated  by  the  increase  in  the  watering 
of  the  soil,  and  the  reduction  in  physical  evaporation  when  these  two  last  factors  are 
unimportant  (as  for  example  at  low  altitudes  and  in  cold  climates).  For  the  rest,  the 
facts  noted  are  contradictory;  cases  of  springs  are  quoted  which  have  dried  up  in  conse- 
quence of  clearings  as,  on  the  other  hand,  superficial  dryings  up  of  the  soil  have  been 
observed,  where  replanting  has  taken  place.  Doubt  is  therefore  forced  upon  us  in  this 
special  case;  the  action  of  the  forest  on  the  feeding  of  the  springs  remains  uncertain,  and 
it  is  probably  variable  according  to  circumstances  which,  as  yet,  remain  unelucidated. 

(5)  Nevertheless  it  must  be  observed  that  springs  are  only  numerous  and  important 
in  mountain  regions,  and  there  certainly  the  forests  are  favorable  to  them. 

In  the  plains  the  springs  are  infrequent,  and  have  a  feeble  output.  We  are  therefore 
justified  in  repeating,  as  our  fathers  declared,  that  the  forest  is  the  mother  of  the  rivers; 
the  labors  of  modern  science  have  served  only  to  establish  the  parentage,  universally 
and  at  all  times  recognized,  which  connects  the  spring  with  the  tree  which  shades  it. 


APPENDIX  B 
THE  FOREST,  FROM  A  PHYSICAL,  ECONOMIC,  AND  SOCIAL  VIEWPOINT  i 

(By  Jacquot) 

To-day  there  is  strong  sentiment  in  favor  of  forests.  Newspapers  defend,  Congress 
discusses  and  prepares  laws  for  them,  associations  organize  for  the  protection  of  existing 

1  La  Foret,  A.  Jacquot,  pp.  287-305.  Digest  and  part  translation  made  with  a  view  to 
preservmg  Jacquot's  picturesque  language.  According  to  scientific  research  Jacquot 
exaggerates,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  he  is  presenting  the  subject  of  forest 
mfluences  from  a  popular  viewpoint. 


382  APPENDIX 

stands  as  well  as  for  the  forestation  of  uncultivated  lands.  The  Touring  Club  of  France 
should  be  cited  as  a  special  example.  Numerous  governments  are  instituting  Arbor 
Days.  In  solemnly  planting  trees  with  their  own  hands,  the  kings  of  Spain,  Italy  and 
England,  and  high  government  officials  in  the  United  States  are  merely  imitating  an 
example  given  by  our  societies  or  by  the  ancestral  custom,  observed  in  certain  com- 
munes of  Alsace,  of  planting  at  least  one  tree  at  the  birth  of  each  child.  There  also, 
newly  married  couples  plant  two  fir  trees  on  the  day  of  their  marriage.  .  .  .  The 
tree  which  grows  in  humanity  which  is  increasing.  The  instinctive  cultivation  and 
religious  admiration  of  primitive  peoples  for  the  trees  is  based  on  science  and  reason. 

Physical  Role  of  Forests.  —  Humidity.  —  Forests  increase  the  degree  of  himiidity 
in  the  air.  Not  only  are  the  arid  zones  sheltered  by  forests  .  .  .  but  furthermore, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  presence  of  a  vegetative  mantle  on  the  mountains  is  of 
importance  in  the  yield  of  crops  and  favors  hfe  and  populations.  Here  the  forestation, 
true  talisman  of  life,  becomes  a  work  of  safety,  and  a  question  to  be  or  not  to  be.  All 
floods  have  their  rise  on  the  bare  ground  created  by  the  destructive  felling  of  timber 
which  protects  it.  In  these  regions  the  forest  disappears  even  though  it  is  indispensable 
to  agricultural  crops,  the  foundation  of  human  life.  It  is  on  account  of  aridity  alone, 
and  not  for  any  other  reason,  that  there  have  been  terrible  famines  in  Russia,  in  India, 
and  in  China.  Deforestation  dries  up  a  country.  Without  water  there  can  be  no  life, 
without  humidity  the  ground  will  become  as  dead  as  the  moon,  and  forests  are  necessary 
in  order  to  have  water.  Since  their  deforestation  .  .  .  Columbia,  the  Islands  of 
Maurice,  of  Reunion,  and  of  Ascension,  Sicily,  Asia  Minor  and  all  other  denuded  regions 
have  experienced  terrible  droughts.  These  droughts  immediately  stopped  in  localities 
where  tree  growth  has  been  reestablished.  In  Porto  Rico  and  in  Jamaica,  the  phenome- 
non is  doubly  verified  in  recent  times.  The  rains  disappear  with  the  trees  but  return 
with  them.  Above  the  forests  there  are  light  clouds,  and  after  the  shower  the  branches 
drip  onto  the  soil.  .  .  .  During  the  night  the  trees  water  the  heather  as  if  the  urns 
of  the  sky  were  thinking  of  the  earth  in  order  to  fill  up  the  divine  springs.  We  have  seen 
all  that  and  have  concluded  that  the  forest  is  the  mother  of  the  waters.  But  figures  will 
suffice  to  give  an  idea  of  the  strength  of  the  forest:  an  acre  of  high  forest  pumps  every 
day  into  the  soil  10,000  to  12,000  quarts  of  reserve  water;  its  evaporation  can  be  placed 
at  2,616  cubic  yards  per  year  representing  a  stream  20  inches  high  or  almost  three- 
fourths  the  total  rainfall  falhng  in  France.  The  quantity  of  liquid  emitted  by 
the  same  area  of  water,  mineral  substance  or  vegetable  substance  are  in  the  proportion 
of  1,  3,  and  60.     The  forest  is  certainly  a  reservoir  of  humidity.     It  is  also  a  regulator. 

While  running  water  is  often  dangerous,  its  infiltration  is  desirable  for  the  life  of 
springs.  This  infiltration  attains  its  maximum  under  forest  stands.  The  cover  of 
trees  (doubled  by  a  brush  under  story)  largely  reduces  evaporation.  Under  the  forest 
the  soil  is  better  irrigated  than  on  bare  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  snow  falls  more 
slowly,  consequently  the  absorption  of  the  forested  land  is  perfect.  The  forest  tends 
to  make  the  temperature  more  uniform  by  reducing  the  extremes  of  heat  or  cold.  It 
exercises  the  same  action  as  does  the  sea  at  the  seashore.  On  limestone  soil,  which  forms 
the  major  part  of  our  planet,  the  rmining  water  digs  out  the  soil  and  is  then  hidden  by 
these  very  fissures.  Drought  is  accentuated,  mcr easing  the  intensity  of  burning  sands, 
the  bare  steppes,  and  the  arid  deserts.  It  is  a  war  of  thirst,  which  menaces  the  twenti- 
eth century.  The  forest  alone  by  the  shelter  of  its  thick  layer  of  humus  is  capable  of 
making  a  successful  fight  against  the  bankruptcy  of  the  waters. 

Hail,  —  The  trees  diminish  the  storms,  lessening  electric  discharges  and  rendering 
less  frequent  and  less  dangerous  the  fall  of  hail,  which  in  the  deforested  regions  cuts 
and  damages  the  crops.  Numerous  examples  have  been  established.  In  eighteen 
departments,  where  the  hail  is  usually  the  most  damaging,  fourteen  are  the  least  forested 
in  France. 


PHYSICAL,   ECONOMIC,   AND   SOCIAL  383 

Frost.  —  Around  the  forest,  but  not  in  it,  one  finds  the  white  frosts  which  are  so 
common  in  dry  climates.  The  upper  story  protects  the  lower  vegetation  like  a  tender 
blanket.     It  replaces,  after  a  fashion,  artificial  shelter. 

Wind.  —  Without  the  trees  in  nimiberless  countries,  the  violence  of  the  wind  lays 
low  the  plants  or  dries  them  up.  .  .  .  The  smallest  shrub  or  the  simple  hedge  of 
cjrpress  of  the  Provence  exercises  a  beneficial  protective  cover.  In  Russia,  when  the 
June  vegetation  of  the  steppes  is  in  full  bloom,  the  squares  enclosed  with  planted  hedges 
remain  green,  and  furnish  half  again  as  much  revenue.  In  Algeria,  they  say  that  nothing 
can  resist  the  sirocco.  Nevertheless,  it  has  been  conquered  by  the  trees.  Look  at 
the  delicate  plants  in  the  experimental  gardens  at  Algiers  and  the  rich  plantations  of 
the  Mitidja.     .     .     . 

Springs,  Avalanches.  —  All  the  world  to-day  bears  witness  to  the  benefit  of  the 
vegetable  cover  for  the  maintenance  and  conservation  of  springs  (see  Appendix,  p. 
361).     This  is  also  true  of  the  value  of  forests  in  protecting  against  avalanches. 

Floods.  —  The  forest  is  the  sovereign  regulator  of  waterflow.  On  the  denuded  slope, 
the  rain  rushes  along  carrying  the  material  eroded  from  the  loose  soil.  This  mass, 
increased  by  the  mixture  of  debris,  and  with  its  increasing  speed,  commimicates  a 
tremendous  live  force  to  these  thousands  of  little  streams.  It  becomes  a  furious  tor- 
rent which  carries  off  the  slopes,  bears  rocks  along  and  even  fields  and  houses.  Gravel 
fills  the  bed  of  the  rivers  and  hinders  shipping.  It  covers  the  plain  with  blocks  of  stone 
and  sterile  sand.  What  would  happen,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  wooded  slope?  A 
large  proportion  of  the  rain  will  have  been  stopped  by  the  foliage  and  branches  to  be 
given  back  to  the  atmosphere.  The  remainder,  broken  up  by  the  foliage,  strikes  the 
soil  as  if  it  had  passed  through  a  sieve.  The  layer  of  dead  leaves  and  humus  which 
carpets  the  forest  floor  is  a  soft  sponge  with  an  extraordinary  capacity  for  absorption. 
It  absorbs  five,  six,  and  even  nine  times  its  liquid  weight  before  saturation,  when  it 
lets  the  water  seep,  drop  by  drop,  to  the  surface  and  to  the  interior  of  the  soil  to  feed 
subterranean  streams  which  result  in  springs.  The  small  surplus  water,  which  is  not 
retained,  encounters  in  its  flow  innumerable  obstacles,  trunks,  roots,  moss,  herbaceous 
flora,  dead  branches,  dead  leaves,  and  the  inextricable  lacework  of  roots.  The  flow  is 
divided  slowly  up  and  does  not  erode  the  soil.  It  arrives  at  the  foot  of  the  slope  slowly 
and  in  small  quantities.  .  .  .  Against  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  the  drying  winds 
of  the  south  the  branches  serve  as  a  screen.  In  the  spring  they  diminish  the  damaging 
effect  of  warm  rains  on  the  snow  and  prevent  too  rapid  melting.  The  regularity  of 
the  run-off  is  determined  by  the  state  and  extent  of  the  forests  which  cover  the  basin. 
Numerous  experiments  in  valleys,  some  forested  -and  others  bare,  have  proved  this. 
These  comparisons  have  given  rise  to  the  adage:  "He  who  wishes  to  master  the  waters, 
must  first  master  the  forests."  Thus  to  the  trees  crowning  the  mountains  the  soil  is 
held  in  place.  The  slopes  are  maintained  and  erosion  ceases.  Its  action  can  thus  be 
summarized : 

"The  presence  of  forest  stops  the  formation  of  torrents.  Its  development  extin- 
guishes it.  Its  destruction  delivers  the  soil  as  a  prey  to  erosion.  All  the  fundamental 
laws  recognize  the  absolute  necessity  of  reforestation.  In  the  denuded  countries,  what 
ravages!  The  torrents  attack  the  mountainsides  like  a  'pieuvre,'  eat  them  out,  dis- 
integrate and  carry  them  piecemeal  to  the  plain.  High  up  the  rock  is  bared,  lower 
down  they  cause  the  fields  to  become  barren  and  covered  with  debris.  The  roads 
are  interrupted.  The  railway  lines  cut  and  the  bridges  demolished.  One  sees  the 
opening  up  of  abysses,  the  cut  of  railroad  lines,  and  the  engulf ment  of  entire  villages. 
Each  year,  in  France,  the  floods  cause  an  average  damage  of  $.5,790,000.  With  the 
expense,  which  has  been  caused  by  such  floods  during  the  19th  century,  all  Europe  could 
have  been  reforested.     These  catastrophes  have  been  the  result  of  excessive  deforesta- 


384  APPENDIX 

tion  —  a  veritable  social  crime.  It  is  the  ruination  of  the  mountaineer.  .  .  .  More- 
over, the  man  that  deforests  assassinates  the  plain.  The  damage  is  far  reaching.  .  .  . 
The  waterfall  which  directs  our  tiirbines  and  produces  the  power  for  heat  and  light 
may  be  done  away  with  and  rendered  useless  by  deforestation.  If  you  kill  the  forest, 
you  kill  the  brook  which  is  the  friend  of  mechanics.  Thanks  to  electricity.  .  .  . 
water  has  become  (as  the  ancients  said)  the  most  precious  of  gifts.  ...  By  enor- 
mous dams,  engineers  have  hoped  to  avoid  the  terrible  results  of  deforestation.  .  .  . 
How  much  inferior  is  this  inert  masonry,  Umited  to  a  single  valley,  in  comparison  with 
the  strength  and  value  of  forests,  Uving,  supple,  growing  forever,  which  cover  the  valleys 
as  they  do  the  plain.  Free  accumulator  of  water,  ideal,  green,  cool,  which  man  removes 
and  cuts  hke  grain!  In  every  deforested  basin,  the  difference  between  the  low-water 
mark  and  the  flood  waters  is  formidable.  For  example,  in  the  Loire,  the  Cheliff,  the 
Seybouze,  the  Vidourle,  the  Verdon,  it  is  900,  1,.500,  6,600,  1,500,  and  2,000,000  times 
the  ordinary  flow.  The  flow  of  the  Ardeche  is  usually  reduced  to  6.5  cubic  yards, 
whereas  it  sometimes  amounts  to  10,500,  when  it  has  the  size  of  a  Mississippi,  or  an 
Orinoco,  or  a  Danube.  The  flood  that  comes  with  the  rapidity  of  a  galloping  horse 
and  throws  into  the  Rhone  such  a  volume  of  water  that  the  flood  level  rises  16.4  feet. 
If  there  is  no  stand  of  trees  to  stop  the  erosion  of  storm  floods,  every  deluge  ravages 
slopes  all  the  way  to  the  plain.  .  .  .  The  damage  done  by  the  Garonne  means  an 
annual  loss  of  $1,544,000.  This  same  amount  spent  only  once,  but  properly  applied, 
that  is  to  say  for  reforestation  in  the  Pyrenees,  would  permit  the  suppression  of  every 
cause  of  the  damage.  .  .  .  One  now  commences  to  reahze  that  the  forest  is  a  two- 
faced  army  to  fight  for  or  against  water.  The  same  water  which  is  not  stored  by  the 
forest  may  be  transformed  to  mechanical  energy  or  .  .  .  may  suddenly  pre- 
cipitate itself  in  a  formidable,  devastating  mass.  The  impoverishment  of  the  world, 
erosion,  the  transport  from  the  mountain  to  the  sea,  the  frightful  loss  of  water  .  .  . 
the  forest  alone  can  stop  it.  .  .  .  Deprived  of  their  cover  of  wood  or  of  grass,  the 
slopes  erode,  waste  away,  and  fall  in  ruins.  On  the  forested  slopes,  on  the  contrary, 
everything  remains.  The  roots  fix  the  humus  to  the  rocks.  Everywhere  the  forested 
mountain  changes  a  foolish  water  into  a  wise  one.  It  renders  the  typhoon  inoffensive 
by  dividing  up  its  floods  and  distributing  its  monstrous  mass  in  millions  of  drops  which 
flow  slowly  over  the  old  surface  of  the  earth.  We  must  then  recognize  that  the  water 
being  everything  and  life  being  impossible  without  it,  the  tree  which  holds  the  water 
is  everything  itself.  If  the  forest  was  held  sacred  by  religion,  it  should  be  held  still 
more  sacred  by  reason  of  its  social  necessity.  To  plant  a  tree  is  to  accomplish  a  good 
deed,  to  create  a  forest  is  to  enrich  the  country  by  a  conquest  which  does  not  cause  a 
tear  or  shed  a  drop  of  blood. 

**  Economic  Role  ^Utility  of  Wood.  —  From  the  beginning  of  the  world  wood  has 
been  a  prime  necessity.  The  prehistoric  people  lived  in  the  forest  and  on  the  forest. 
Coal,  gas,  and  electricity  have  modified  the  use  of  wood  but  without  abolishing  or 
diminishing  the  demand.  Imagine  the  enormous  volume  used  by  the  thousands  of 
trades  which  must  have  wood  products  for  the  innumerable  objects  manufactured, 
from  the  great  steamship  to  the  little  doll.  Alone,  paper  mills  could  devour  all  the 
forests  of  the  world  and  only  to  assure  the  printing  of  70,000  newspapers  of  200  volumes 
which  are  pubhshed  daily.  For  France  alone  it  represents  the  annual  production  of 
1,235,000  acres  of  high  forest.  The  coal  mines  use  each  year  24,000,000  cubic  meters 
(about  5  million  thousand  feet  board  measure)  in  their  galleries,  about  nine  and  a  half 
times  the  volume  of  the  greatest  pyramid  in  Egypt.  Finally  the  world  uses  more  wood 
than  it  produces.  The  excess  of  use  over  normal  increase  is  about  2,620,000  tons  per 
year.  The  deficit  is  momentarily  made  up  by  the  destruction  of  forests.  It  is  an 
expedient  of  which  the  fallacy  is  clear.     A  dearth  of  timber  menaces  us.     Our  country 


PHYSICAL,   ECONOMIC,   AND   SOCIAL  385 

imports  annually  from  39.5  to  42.5  million  dollars  worth.  Plant  new  stands  with  the 
utmost  ardor,  since  the  operation  is  profitable.^  The  pineries,  for  example,  yield 
5  to  10  per  cent.  There  does  not  exist  any  other  more  advantageous  investment. 
Forestation  enriches  the  planter  and  makes  our  country  stronger. 

"  Social  Role  —  Climate.  —  Following  excessive  deforestation,  the  local  climate  be- 
comes worse.  The  prosperity  of  agriculture,  the  health  of  inhabitants,  the  pubhc 
fortune  itself,  depends  upon  normal  proportion  of  forest.  This  per  cent  is  itself  an 
element  to  regulate  the  world's  circulation  of  cloud,  rain,  snow,  flood,  and  even  the 
ocean.  The  denuded  zones  in  the  mountains  must  be  restocked  in  order  to  re-establish 
order  in  nature,  without  which  all  economics  are  profoundly  upset;  it  is  partly  due 
to  the  absence  of  forests  that  one  must  attribute  the  burning  climate  of  the  interior  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia.  The  destruction  of  stands  has  produced  disastrous  climatic 
changes  in  Greece,  in  Russia,  ...  in  Asia  Minor,  and  in  certain  regions  of  India. 
All  history  agrees  on  this  point.  It  shows  clearly  the  disastrous  effects  of  great  de- 
forestation on  climate.  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  Strabon  predicted  to  their  contemporaries 
the  sterility  which  would  follow  deforestation  .  .  .  which,  in  lowering  the  humidity 
necessary  for  vegetation,  .  .  .  has  brought  on  something  more  terrible  than  any 
war,  namely,  the  decadence  of  the  most  powerful  empires,  .  .  .  those  great  coun- 
tries which  were  the  founders  of  the  human  race  —  Mesopotamia,  Turkestan,  Bactres, 
the  splendor  of  the  Greek  civilization  under  Alexander  the  Great,  Palestine,  Syria, 
deprived  of  forests  made  the  water,  the  vegetation,  and  the  inhabitants  disappear. 
Desert  and  sterile,  the  jaded  country  once  so  populous,  deforestation  has  driven  away 
life  itself.  Deforestation  has  even  permitted  the  sea  to  recover  land  once  cultivated  — 
the  Pomeranian  shore,  the  Zuyder  Zee.  At  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
Chinese  had  transformed  Tartary  into  a  desert  by  removing  the  trees  which  protected 
it.  Because  of  deforestation,  the  temperature  of  the  winter  season  is  even  lower  than 
it  was  in  Norway.  On  the  plateau  of  Iran,  the  temperature  passes  in  several  hours 
from  60°  C.  to  7°  C.  (140°  to  44.6°  F.).  The  air  is  so  dry  that  nothing  can  withstand 
it.  We  must  go  back  to  the  old  tradition  and  reaUze  that  it  is  a  scientific  fact  that  the 
ancient  veneration  for  trees  shown  by  oiu-  fathers  is  because  the  forest  is  completely 
indispensable  to  creation. 

"  Hygiene.  —  Under  the  majority  of  cases,  hygiene  is  intimately  linked  with  forests. 
From  the  Roman  times  it  has  been  recognized  that  the  excessive  felling  of  forests  exerts 
an  unfortunate  effect  upon  the  physical  condition  of  the  country  and  compromises 
the  health  of  the  inhabitants.  Swamp  fevers  follow  deforestation  everywhere  in  the 
subtropical  zones.  On  the  other  hand,  forestation  accompanied  by  drainage  dries  up 
the  marshes  and  diminishes  sickness  in  fever  regions  such  as  the  Roman  Campagna 
certain  steppes  of  Russia,  Tuscan  Maremme,  in  the  Landes,  in  Poitou,  and  in  other 
places  less  known.  The  difference  between  sickness  and  health,  between  prosperity 
and  extreme  misery,  coincides  with  the  appearance  or  disappearance  of  the  arborescent 
mantle.  Such  are  the  contemporary  facts.  The  Belgians  celebrate  by  an  official 
fiesta  the  social  role  of  silviculture,  proclaiming  that  the  forests  exercise  the  most  healthy 
influence  on  chmate  and  public  hygiene.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  great  areas  of 
forest  to  manifest  its  curative  strength.  A  single  eucalyptus  tree  may  drain  the  excess 
water  from  one-quarter  of  an  acre.  In  Algeria,  a  hedge  several  yards  in  length  .  .  . 
may  guarantee  aU  the  occupants  of  a  house  against  swamp  wet  soils  so  conducive  to 
malaria.  Thousands  of  examples  prove  it.  The  marsh  of  Bonfarick,  one  of  the  un- 
healthiest  locaHties  in  Algeria,  has  been  transformed  by  planting  into  one  of  the  health- 
iest colonies  in  France.     In  30  years  the  pineries  have  made  healthy,  fertile,  and  rich 

2  This,  of  course,  is  an  exceptional  instance  of  profitable  private  forestry.  Here  worth- 
less sand  wastes  were  made  to  yield  a  handsome  revenue  (see  p.  183). 


386  APPENDIX 

the  Sologne  which  exaggerated  deforestation  had  reduced  to  a  state  of  pestilential  fever. 
Formerly  unsalable,  the  Landes  of  Gascogne  are  now  worth  193  million  dollars  or  more. 
A  region  formerly  unhealthy  because  of  fever  has  to-day  the  name  which  is  doubly 
merited  of  Cote  d'Argent;  formerly  devastated  by  sickness,  the  population  now  lives 
in  perfect  health  in  what  is  actually  a  health  resort.  Forests  are  a  potent  obstacle  to 
the  spread  of  certain  diseases.  Not  only  is  the  air  free  from  deleterious  gas,  but  there 
is  no  dust  or  nocturnal  dampness,  but  the  acid  of  forest  soil  kills  the  germs  of  cholera, 
typhus,  the  bacilli  of  tetanus.  .  .  .  The  forestation  of  watersheds  gives  a  guarantee 
of  purity.  Often  a  sequence  of  deforestation  is  a  decrease  in  population.  It  is  some- 
thing that  has  happened  in  most  of  the  Mediterranean  islands,  as  well  as  in  the  Azores 
and  in  the  Canaries.  When  the  Venetians  ruined  the  forests  of  Dalmatia,  three-quarters 
of  the  inhabitants  were  compelled  to  leave.  In  France,  the  thirty  departments  where 
there  is  the  most  deforestation  have  a  depopulation  seven  times  as  rapid  as  the  fifty- 
seven  departments  where  the  forests  are  maintained.  Not  only  does  the  birth  rate 
diminish  and  the  mortality  increase  in  the  deforested  departments,  but  the  inhabitants 
still  emigrate.  They  go  in  search  of  a  hving.  .  .  .  Forests  precede  people,  deserts 
succeed  them.  .  .  .  Deforestation  has  transformed  Turkestan  into  a  desert,  where 
it  was  formerly  fertile.  Deforestation  has  destroyed  its  equable  climate,  its  former 
ferility,  and,  in  consequence,  its  population.  .  .  .  Since  the  planting  near  Sologne, 
the  local  population  has  increased  2,250  per  cent.  The  examples  are  too  numerous  to 
enumerate.  A  Servian  proverb  summarizes  the  problem:  'He  who  kills  a  tree  kills 
a  man.' 

' '  .Esthetic.  —  That  is,  the  material  side  of  the  forest ;  but  that  is  not  the  only 
question  to  consider.  ...  In  the  spring  the  forest  is  an  enchantment  for  the  eyes. 
One  sees  the  bare  forest  clothe  itself  from  branch  to  branch.  .  .  .  Nature  is  irre- 
sistible. Artists  feel  the  seduction  of  the  forest  and  found  colonies  in  it  as  at  Barbi- 
zon.  .  .  .  The  first  homage  of  man  was  addressed  to  the  great  forests,  eternal  and 
immovable,  which  cover  all  parts.  .  .  .  The  forests,  according  to  Chateaubriand, 
were  the  early  temples.  This  religion  was  that  of  all  the  peoples  of  antiquity:  The 
forest   is   sacred.     .     .  It  was   worshipped   by   numberless   tribes.     .     .     .     The 

disappearance  of  the  forests  on  the  plateau  of  Central  Asia  made  it  so  uninhabitable 
that  whole  tribes  and  races  who  occupied  it  were  forced  to  emigrate.  .  .  .  Manon 
had  in  his  laws  (the  most  ancient  of  the  world) :  '  Defend  the  forest  against  destruction. 
One  finds  in  any  of  the  old  religions,  the  myth  of  the  sacred  tree,  the  gods  assembled 
under  its  shade.  .  .  .  The  imagination  of  the  Greeks  and  of  the  Romans  was  peopled 
with  sylvan  deities.  .  .  .  Almost  always  the  temples  were  surrounded  by  sacred 
forests.  It  was  often  in  the  forests  that  the  gods  spoke  through  oracles.  ...  In 
Ceylon,  in  Spain  and  Persia,  and  in  Manila,  the  trees  are  still  worshipped.  Saint 
Valery,  fighting  against  paganism,  turned  his  anger  against  the  nymphs  of  the  forest 
and  the  fountains.  ...  We  know  now  that  the  disappearance  of  the  forest  de- 
stroys the  equilibrium  of  natural  forces  and  makes  for  disastrous  climatic  changes,  sub- 
stituting sterility  for  richness,  the  desert  for  abundance,  death  for  life.  As  though  crazy, 
mountaineers  often  say:  'After  us  the  deluge,'  without  realizing  that  the  forest  means 
water  and  freshness  so  necessary  for  pasturage.  .  .  .  The  existence  of  man  is 
coupled  with  the  existence  of  the  forest,  moreover  the  forest  is  the  index  of  public 
welfare  and  the  richness  of  a  people.  It  is  necessary,  then,  that  each  man  become 
a  friend  of  the  trees  and  that  our  laws  and  our  hearts  protect  this  arborescent  vegeta- 
tion without  which  our  civilization  would  perish.  Against  the  savage  violence  of  the 
torrent  or  the  deadly  menace  of  the  avalanche  we  must  oppose  the  serene  strength  of 
our  great  benefactress  —  the  forest.  Child  of  Nature  itself,  it  shields,  with  its  pro- 
tective cover,  children  of  humanity.     The  present  children  need  it  with  its  hving  force 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  387 

which  maintains  the  activity  of  the  entire  world  under  the  beneficence  and  splendor 
of  its  shade. 

"As  the  centuries  roll  by,  let  us  unite  in  reflecting  on  the  instinctive  sentiment  of  the 
ancients  for  inviolable  forests  and  the  cultivation  of  the  tree." 


APPENDIX  C 

SILVICS   OF   IMPORTANT   FOREST   SPECIES.     LISTS   OF  TREES,    SHRUBS, 
AND  PLANTS  USED  IN  REFORESTATION  IN  THE  MOUNTAINS 

FRENCH   SILVICS   OF   PEDUNCULATE  OAK 

(Quercus  pedunculatay 

Size.  —  Quercus  robur.^  Under  this  name  Hooker,  De  CandoUe,  and  other  eminent 
authorities  include  Quercus  pedunculata  (peduncled  oak)  and  Quercus  sessiliflora 
(English  oak),  the  British  representative  of  the  species. 

Pedunculate  oak  is  a  species  which  reaches  considerable  dimensions.  During  youth, 
and  up  to  40  to  50  years  of  age,  it  has  an  irregular  bole  but  later  on  the  shaft  becomes 
straight,  cylindrical,  sometimes  with  a  clear  length  of  65  feet.  This  tree  may  reach  a 
height  of  from  131  to  147  feet  and  even  190  feet  in  a  few  instances;  thanks  to  its  very 
great  longevity  it  reaches  large  diameters.  The  Montravail  oak,  near  Saintes  (Charente 
Inferieure  Department),  is  between  6.G  and  7.6  feet  in  diameter  at  breast  height;  its 
main  branches  have  a  diameter  of  3.3  feet  at  their  base;  the  total  height  is  65.6  feet,  the 
crown  width  131.7  feet,  and  it  is  estimated  to  be  some  2,000  years  old. 

Habit.  —  The  crown  of  pedunculate  oak  is  formed  of  a  few  irregularly  bent  and 
twisted  main  branches;  the  foliage  is  very  unevenly  distributed  in  tufts  with  wide  and 
numerous  openings.  .  .  .  The  fohage  is  incomplete  and  less  thick  than  that  of 
sessile  oak. 

Leaves.  —  Pedunculate  oak  leaves  (more  so  than  those  of  Quercus  sessiliflora)  dry 
up  at  the  end  of  autumn  and  drop  off  immediately,  except  those  of  coppice  shoots  and 
suckers  which  are  semi-persistent.  Of  a  light  green  color,  sometimes  reddish  or  yellow- 
ish at  the  beginning  of  summer,  the  leaf  is  moderately  shiny  or  quite  dull;  it  is  of  a 
somewhat  sea  green  (glaucous)  hue;  frequently  it  is  undulated,  more  seldom  flat.  .  .  . 
If  green  and  gathered  during  September,  it  has  an  average  weight  as  compared  to  sessile 
oak  leaves  as  34  is  to  40.  (A.  Mathieu.)  When  used  dry  as  agricultural  manure  300 
to  350  pounds  is  equal  to  100  pounds  of  straw.  Pedunculate  oak  is  .  .  .  much 
less  suitable  than  sessile  oak  for  pure  plantations,  since  it  has  a  lighter  foliage  and 
yields  less  litter.  This  is  why  coppice-under-standards  composed  of  pure  sessile  oak 
yields  a  fair  stand  while  the  same  cannot  be  said  to  be  true  of  pure  pedunculate  oak. 

This  species  seems  eminently  suitable  for  coppice-under-standards  on  clayey,  moist 
soils  and  for  high  forests  when  mixed  with  tolerant  species;  sessile  oak,  however,  should 
be  preferred  to  it  whenever     .     .     .     pure  forestation  is  attempted. 

Seed  Capacity.  —  Pedunculate  oak  bears  acorns  from  60  to  100  years  of  age,  accord- 
ing to  whether  grown  single  or  in  close  stand.  Sprouts  bear  acorns  as  early  as  20  years, 
and  even  before;  but  plentiful  seed  crops  occur  only  3  to  4  years  and  even  8  to  10  years 
according  to  whether  the  climate  is  more  or  less  favorable.  An  absolute  failure  of 
acorns,  such  as  happens  with  beech  between  crops,  is  rare;  some  few  are  always  to  be 
found  on  isolated  or  border  trees. 

1  Based  on  a  free  translation  from  French  authors. 

2  See  also  Chapter  V. 


388  APPENDIX 

Germination.  —  The  germination  of  acorns  is  quick  and  takes  place  at  a  low  tem- 
perature, from  3  to  4  degrees  C.  (37  degrees  to  39  degrees  F.)  above  zero;  they  are 
difficult  to  preserve  even  till  spring.  A  bushel  weighs  about  40  pounds  on  an  average 
and  contains  approximately  from  8,000  to  9,300  seeds. 

Rooting.  —  The  tap  root  of  pedunculate  oak  is  developed  first;  at  one  year  of  age 
it  is  often  12  inches  in  length.  Only  when  about  6  to  8  years  old  does  it  produce  a  few 
laterals;  but  at  60  to  70  years  the  laterals  are  dominant  and  the  tap  root  becomes  of 
secondary  importance  and  seldom  reaches  below  3  to  5  feet.  Stump  and  root  wood, 
with  12-inch  stumps,  represents  14  per  cent  to  17  per  cent  of  the  total  cubic  volume. 

Shoots  and  Suckers.  —  Dormant  buds  keep  alive  a  long  time  and  retain  great 
reproductive  power  to  an  advanced  age;  per  contra,  it  means  that  standards  are  liable 
to  have  numerous  root  suckers  after  the  coppice  has  been  felled.  Pedunculate  oak  is 
therefore  more  liable  to  have  epicormic  branches  than  its  associate  sessile  oak. 

Adventitious  buds  are  but  rarely  formed  and  only  in  very  fertile  soils;  they  produce 
poorly  attached  shoots  which  wind,  snow,  and  hoarfrost  easily  cause  to  break.  Stump 
shoots  root  but  superficially  and  do  not  require  deep  soil. 

Bark.  —  The  bark  is  smooth,  shiny,  and  silver-gray  up  to  20  to  30  years  .  .  . 
after  that  age,  a  brown  bark  with  longitudinal  flakes  which  becomes  thicker  and 
thicker.     .     .     . 

Geographical  Distribution.  —  The  habitat  of  pedunculate  oak  is  very  extensive. 
It  is  found  between  east  and  west  longitude  65  degrees,  from  the  Ural  Mountains  and 
the  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  southern  limit  is  from  southern 
Spain,  at  a  point  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  south  of  Sicily,  Italy,  Greece,  thence  through 
Minor  Asia  as  far  as  the  Eastern  Caucasus.  The  northern  limit  starts  from  Scotland, 
goes  to  63d  latitude  in  Norway  and  thence  southeastward  through  St.  Petersburg  to 
Orenburg,  in  the  Ural.     It  thus  extends  through  about  26  degrees  of  latitude. 

Location.  —  The  pedunculate  oak  prefers  the  plains  and  the  valley  bottoms,  but  it 
is  found  in  the  hills  and  even  reaches  as  high  as  3,280  feet  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees. 

Soil.  —  Pedunculate  oak  does  not  show  any  particular  preference  as  regards  the 
mineral  nature  of  the  soil  provided  it  is  sufficiently  moist,  and  deep.  Sandy-clay  soils, 
even  if  occasionally  flooded,  suit  it  especially  well;  it  is  a  serious  error  to  drain  them. 

Tolerance.  —  Pedunculate  oak  is  a  light  demanding  species.  In  order  to  grow,  it 
requires  at  least  four  months  of  uninterrupted  vegetative  activity  with  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  12.25°  C.  (54°  F.),  provided  no  protracted  drought  intervenes;  in  order  that 
acorns  may  mature  a  total  temperature  varying  (south  to  north)  from  28.75°  to  20.20°  C. 
(83.75°  to  68.50°  F.)  is  necessary.  The  maximum  temperatures  that  it  can  stand  are, 
in  the  south,  44°  C.  (111°  F.);  in  the  north,  37°  C.  (98°  F.).  When  in  vegetative  ac- 
tivity, it  is  easily  affected  by  cold;  young  shoots,  leaves  and  flowers  will  usually  die  if, 
during  spring,  the  thermometer  falls  below  0°  C.  (32°  F.). 

Timber.  —  It  yields  primarily  building  timber.  The  sapwood  is  white  and  clearly 
defined;  the  more  active  the  vegetation  the  wider  is  the  sapwood.  According  to  the 
Nancy  Forest  School  collection  the  total  thickness  of  sapwood  is  from  0.63  to  3.0  inches; 
the  total  number  of  annual  rings  36  to  7.  The  density  for  timber  completely  air  dried 
is  from  0.647  (Forest  of  Haye,  Nancy)  to  0.906  (Adour  oak),  with  average  yearly  incre- 
ments of  0.186  of  an  inch. 

Uses.  —  .     .     .  The  wood  is  especially  prized  for  ship  building. 

Fuel  Value.  —  Its  fuel  value  (based  on  calorific  power)  averages,  as  compared  with 
beech,  91/100,  according  to  G.  L.  Hartig;  85/100,  according  to  Worneck. 

The  market  value  of  firewood  is  below  this  because  pedunculate  oak  crackles  while 
burning,  requires  a  strong  draught,  and  the  coals  do  not  hold  the  fire  well.  There  is  a 
great  difference  as  to  quality  in  this  respect.     Bark  from  mature  trees,  on  the  other 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  389 

hand,  has  a  very  high  calorific  power;  as  compared  with  beech  wood,  the  ratio  is  108 
to  100  and  it  burns  slowly,  with  a  short  flame  to  be  sure,  but  producing  live  embers 
that  last  till  entirely  burnt  out. 

Oak  charcoal  is  valued  as  compared  with  beech  as  91  is  to  100. 

By-Products.  —  The  bark  yields  tannin  of  good  quality,  inferior,  however,  to  that 
of  the  other  species  of  the  same  genus.  Young  pole  stands  (coppice)  between  20  to  30 
years  of  age  yield  the  best  tannin. 

Silvicultural  Characteristics.  —  (See  sessile  oak.) 

SESSILE   OAK 
{Quercus  sessiliflora) 

Climate  and  Soil.  —  The  sessile  oak,  as  well  as  the  pedunculate  oak,  is  dependent 
upon  the  texture,  depth,  and  fertihty  of  the  soil  rather  than  on  its  mineral  composition. 
It  prefers  loose  clay.  For  some  time  foresters  considered  that  the  sessile  oak  could  be 
substituted  for  the  pedunculate  oak,  or  vice  versa.  Now,  they  realize  that  the  pedun- 
culate oak  requires  a  moister,  or,  at  least,  fresher  soil;  sandy  loam,  even  inundated  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year,  is  considered  very  favorable  since  it  is  a  species  of  the  plains 
or  valleys.     On  the  other  hand,  low  wet  clays  are  less  favorable  to  the  sessile  oak. 

It  is  distributed  almost  all  over  France,  except  in  the  high  mountains  and  in  the  hotter 
regions  bordering  the  Mediterranean.  The  pedunculate  oak  is  very  abundant  in  the 
southwest  where  it  forms  almost  pure  stands  in  the  Landes  and  the  Adour  Basin.  The 
sessile  oak  is  the  dominant  species  in  the  center  of  France  and  in  the  hilly  country,  where 
it  extends  to  3,281  feet  of  altitude  and  slightly  above.  Both  the  species  attain  their 
maximum  development  in  the  temperate  zone  where  they  are  of  characteristic  abundance 
in  the  region  which  corresponds  to  that  cultivated  for  grapes.  Above  the  oak  comes  the 
fir. 

Tolerance.  —  Both  species  are  hardy  when  young.  They  have  a  light  foliage,  often 
incomplete,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pedunculate  oak.  They  resist  heat  as  well  as  the  cold 
of  winter,  but  their  leaves  are  very  liable  to  spring  frost.  The  pedunculate  oak,  which 
begins  growing  later  than  the  sessile  oak,  is  less  liable  to  frost  damage.  Thej^  are  both 
good  sprouters. 

Root  System  and  Seeding.  —  Both  species  have  long  tap  roots.  The  fruit  is  a  heavy 
acorn  and  the  seed  years  are  usually  frequent  in  the  southwest  where  it  is  possible  to 
collect  seed  almost  every  year ;  as  one  advances  toward  the  north,  seed  are  less  frequent. 
In  northern  France  they  come  every  10  to  1.5  years. 

Growth  Longevity.  —  The  growth  of  these  oaks,  slow  at  the  start,  soon  becomes 
quite  rapid  on  good  soil  and  continues  to  an  advanced  age,  for  their  longevity  is  very 
considerable  and  exceeds  200  years.  The  growth  in  height  in  a  dense  stand,  as  well  as 
isolated  individuals,  slows  up  towards  100  years. 

Utilization.  —  Oak  wood  must  take  the  first  rank  for  its  general  quality  but  its 
strength  depends  more  or  less  on  whether  the  growth  is  rapid  or  slow.  Generally  speak- 
ing, the  wood  of  the  pedunculate  oak  is  denser  than  that  of  sessile  oak  and  is  better  for 
construction  purposes.  Sessile  oak  is  more  highly  valued  for  wood  working  and  for 
cabinet  work;  but  the  pedunculate  oak  of  Hungary  is  highly  esteemed  for  that  purpose. 

By-Products.  —  The  bark  is  used  for  tanning  purposes.  The  bark  of  sessile  oak  is 
generally  richer  in  tannin  than  is  pedunculate  oak  when  it  grows  in  warm  situations  and 
in  the  open. 

Silvicultural  Characteristics.  —  "  The  chief  value  of  oak  for  the  private  owner," 
says  Broilliard,  "  is  because  it  is  abundant,  because  it  grows  on  almost  every  kind  of  soil, 
because  it  flourishes  whether  growing  alone  or  in  dense  stands,  v/hether  in  high  forest 


390  APPENDIX 

or  as  coppice  and  grows  to  such  an  old  age  that  almost  every  tree  can  reach  large  di- 
mensions." 

The  oak  is  well  adapted  to  treatment  as  simple  coppice  and  furnishes  excellent  fuel, 
besides  tannin  bark,  but  its  chief  value  is  in  dimension  timber  of  large  size.  Treated  as 
high  forest  it  flourishes  in  the  plains,  but  does  not  reach  its  maximum  value  before  200 
to  300  years  of  age.  It  requires  early  thinning  and,  since  it  impoverishes  the  soil,  it 
should  not  be  grown  pure,  but  in  mixture  with  the  beech  or  hornbeam.  If  these  ac- 
cessory species  are  lacking,  it  is  indispensable  to  preserve  undergrowth  to  protect  the 
soil  from  drying  out.  From  this  standpoint,  grazing  in  an  old  high  forest  does  a  good 
deal  of  damage.  On  the  whole,  the  thicker  crown  of  the  sessile  oak  enables  its  treatment 
as  a  pure  stand  easier  than  does  the  pedunculate.  .  .  .  Especially  the  pedunculate 
oak  is  adaptable  to  standards  in  a  coppice-under-standards  forest.  It  yields,  hov/ever, 
a  smaller  proportion  of  timber  when  grown  o,s  coppice-under-standards  than  it  does  as 
high  forest.  When  grown  in  an  open  stand,  it  formerly  furnished  ribs  highly  valuable 
for  ship  construction.  These  two  oaks,  and  especially  the  sessile  oak,  possess  the  faculty 
of  adapting  themselves  to  divers  conditions  which  different  methods  of  treatment  pro- 
pose. On  the  driest  and  thinnest  soils,  the  sessile  oak  will  merely  grow  into  a  bush  and, 
while  both  species  prefer  rich  soil,  they  often  give  satisfactory  results  on  soil  of  moderate 
quahty. 

BEECH 
(Fagus  sylvatica) 

Size.  —  Beech  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  and  important  of  forest  trees; 
it  attains  great  size  but  is  smaller  than  oak  or  fir,  owing  to  much  shorter  longevity. 
It  rarely  lives  more  than  from  300  to  400  years  and  only  occasionally  grows  to  131  feet 
in  height  with  a  maximum  diameter  of  6.5  feet. 

Habit.  —  The  straight  stem  is  remarkably  cylindrical  up  to  a  great  height  and  the 
bole  remains  clear  to  the  crown.  .  .  .  The  clear  length  is  often  66  feet.  When 
grown  in  the  open  or  under  other  species  it  branches  at  from  33  to  49  feet.  .  .  .  Up 
to  10  years  of  age,  the  shoots  are  a  dark  olive-green;  beyond  this  age,  stems  and  branches 
are  ashy  gray. 

Bark.  —  ...  The  white  coloring  of  beech  bark  is  not  natural,  but  results  from 
numerous  lichens  (Verrucaris  Beformis  et  Epidermis;  graphis  scripta;  Opegraphia 
varia,  etc.)  which  coat  its  surface  as  early  as  the  10th  year  with  their  ver}^  thin  thalli. 

Buds.  —  ...  Beech  buds  are  longer,  more  tapering,  and  more  angular  than 
those  of  any  other  species;  they  are  covered  with  a  large  number  of  stipulate  scales 
that  are  brown,  dry,  hairless,  and  shiny.     .     .     . 

The  strongest  buds  produce  normal  shoots,  the  internodes  of  which  are  well  de- 
veloped; but  there  are  many  less  vigorous  ones  .  .  .  which  only  give  rise  to  short- 
ened shoots,  the  leaves  of  which  are  not  numerous,  almost  fasciculated,  lack  buds  at 
the  apex,  and  produce  a  single  terminal  bud.  Resulting  boughs  .  .  .  do  not  ramify, 
lengthen  with  extreme  slowness,  and  contribute,  on  account  of  their  great  number,  to 
increase  the  beech's  foliage  and  cover.  After  15  to  20  years  boughs  of  this  kind  attain 
at  most  4 J  to  6  inches  in  length  with  a  diameter  of  from  0.16  to  0.2  inches. 
A  few  of  the  weakest  produce  neither  shoots  nor  leaves.     .     .     . 

Tolerance.  —  Beech  requires  shelter  during  youth  and  cannot  endure  protracted 
exposure  to  the  sun;  it  is  very  sensitive  to  spring  frosts  on  account  of  its  tendency  to 
early  growth.     .     .     . 

Foliage.  —  The  consequence  is  that  its  crown  is  dense  and  foliage  heavy. 

Aspect.  —  It  prefers  north  and  northwest  exposures. 

Reproduction.  —  ...    Sprouts  come  more  frequently  from  adventitious  buds 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  391 

,     .     .     beech,  especially  if  mixed  with  other  species,  is  unsuitable  for  coppice;  it 
rarely  grows  suckers. 

Leaves.  —  Leaves  are  alternate  .  .  .  they  vary  in  size  according  to  altitude; 
the  higher  the  altitude,  the  smaller  the  leaves.  At  3,900  feet  the  leaves  are  one-half 
the  size  they  attain  at  sea  level.  An  acre  of  high  forest,  fully  stocked,  produces  as 
early  as  the  30th  year  practically  equal  quantities  of  litter  until  the  end  of  the  rota- 
tion —  a  yearly  average  of  3,664  pounds  of  air-dried  leaves  (to  be  reduced  20  per  cent 
if  oven  dried).  (Ebermayer.)  This  weight  in  litter  is  a  good  deal  greater  than  that 
of  the  kilndried  timber  grown  on  an  acre  in  the  same  time  and  under  identical  condi- 
tions. The  above  quantity  of  leaves  would  cover  ten  times  the  area  they  are  grown  on; 
decomposition  is  fairly  slow  and  the  accumulated  leaves  would  form  a  thick  laj^er  on 
the  ground. 

Seeding.  —  Beech  produces  seeds  only  at  an  advanced  age,  about  60  to  80  years  in 
closed  stands,  40  to  50  when  in  the  open;  it  bears  abundant  masts  only  every  5  to  6 
years  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  but  sometimes  only  every  15  to  20  years. 
In  the  latter  case,  between  full  seed  crops  partial  ones  take  place.  A  remarkable  fact 
about  seeding  is  that,  in  certain  years,  there  is  such  a  scarcity  of  beech  nuts  that  one 
could  not  gather  a  liter  full  even  on  a  considerable  area.  Full  seed  crops  are  more 
common  in  the  plains  and  on  moderately  sloping  ground  than  in  mountainous  districts. 
Flower  buds  are  formed  as  early  as  August  and  are  easily  distinguished  from  foliage 
buds  by  their  more  plump  shape.  The  abundance,  scarcity,  or  lack  of  flower  buds  in- 
dicates almost  to  a  certainty  what  the  next  mast  crop  will  be.  Consequently,  the 
effect  of  spring  frosts  is  not  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  irregular  seed  crops  observed 
for  this  species.  Obviously,  the  temperatures  during  the  year  when  the  buds  start 
have  a  preponderating  influence  on  bearing  capacity. 

Beech  nuts  are  very  difficult  to  preserve  even  until  the  next  spring;  therefore  it  is 
better,  as  a  rule,  to  sow  them  in  the  autumn;  they  keep  perfectly  in  pits,  however,  if 
they  are  properly  established.     A  kilogram  contains  about  1,600  seeds. 

Germination.  —  When  sown  in  autumn,  beech  nuts  germinate  very  early  in  the 
spring,  toward  the  end  of  April.  The  tigella  extends  immediately  under  the  cotyledon, 
pushing  the  latter  about  4  inches  above  the  ground.  The  two  cotyledons,  folded 
irregularly  one  over  the  other,  develop  into  two  wide,  opposite,  pulpy,  reniform,  full 
leaves  (the  upper  side  of  these  leaves  is  green  and  the  under  side  silky  white).  This 
early  germination,  coupled  with  a  rapid  development  of  the  tigella  and  cotyledon,  and 
the  tenderness  of  these  rapidly  grown  tissues,  render  the  young  plant  very  hable  to  be 
affected  by  temperature  variations,  especially  by  spring  frosts. 

Growth.  —  During  the  first  years  after  sowing  the  plant  grows  slowly  (about  4 
inches  in  height  a  year)  but  after  5  years  it  shoots  up.  At  40  to  45  years  it  reaches  its 
maximum  annual  growth;  but  when  100  years  old  the  tree  does  not  increase  appreciably 
in  height. 

Each  annual  ring  is  from  two  to  three  times  thicker  near  the  top  of  the  bole  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  main  branches  than  at  the  base;  this  fact,  which  is  true  to  a  lesser 
degree  for  all  the  other  species,  enables  beech  to  keep  its  cylindrical  shape  to  a  con- 
siderable height. 

Root  System.  —  During  the  first  few  years  of  growth  the  tap  root  grows  below  the 
ground  to  about  the  same  extent  as  the  stem  grows  above  it.  At  about  3  years  from 
two  to  three  oblique  laterals,  well  provided  with  root  hairs,  are  developed;  at  about 
12  to  15  years  they  grow  rapidly  (at  the  expense  of  the  tap  root,  which  remains  in- 
active); at  30  years  of  age  the  laterals  cease  growing  and  are  gradually  replaced  by 
superficial,  shelving  roots,  which  sometimes  protrude  out  of  the  ground  for  some  dis- 
tance from  the  base  of  the  tree.     In  rocky  soil  these  roots  frequently  interlace  with 


PROPERTY   U!5HAKT 

N,  C  State  College 

392  APPENDIX 

one  another.  To  sum  up,  the  whole  root  system  is  of  no  considerable  depth  (from  1  to 
1.6  feet)  but  widely  extended;  the  volume  of  the  root  wood  equals  one-fifth  the  total 
contents  of  the  bole  and  branches. 

Geographical  Distribution.  —  The  beech  extends  south  and  north  from  Mt.  Etna 
in  Sicily  to  the  sixtieth  degree,  beyond  Christiana  in  Norway,  over  a  length  of  about 
24°  of  latitude;  east  and  west;  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Coast,  over  about 
65°  of  longitude.  France  is  included  in  this  area,  but  the  greater  part  of  Spain  and  the 
whole  of  Algeria  is  excluded. 

Beech  becomes  a  lowland  tree  only  in  the  northern  latitudes,  on  the  North  and 
Baltic  seacoasts.  Its  hmit  of  altitudinal  distribution  naturally  increases  the  farther 
south  you  go;  its  maximum  is  not  over  850  feet  in  Norway,  but  as  high  as  7,087  feet 
on  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Etna.  In  France  the  limit  of  growth  is  4,541  feet  in  the  Vosges, 
5,223  feet  in  the  Jura,  5,381  feet  on  Mont  Cenis,  5,462  feet  on  Mont  Ventous,  and  5,577 
feet  in  the  Pyrenees. 

The  lower  limits  of  the  beech  zone  are  less  accurately  known;  it  extends  into  the  vine 
region  but  does  not  reach  the  valley  bottoms  where  the  soil  as  a  rule  precludes  beech 
forests. 

Climate.  —  Toward  the  north  and  in  the  higher  altitudes,  cold  limits  the  extension 
of  beech,  which  ceases  growing  when  the  January  mean  temperature  falls  below  5°  to 
6°  C.  (41°  F.  to  42.8°  F.)  in  the  plains  and  6°  to  7°  C.  (42.8°  to  44.6°  F.)  on  slopes. 

The  southern  limits  are  fixed  by  an  excess  of  heat  and  consequent  drying  out  due  to 
an  insufficient  rainfall.  Thus  beech  ceases  to  grow  when  a  maximum  of  44°  C.  (111.2° 
F.)  or  when  the  sum  of  the  temperatures  during  the  vegetative  season  exceeds  5,750°  C. 
And  yet,  in  order  that  beech  may  reach  the  above  extreme  hmits,  it  requires  from 
seven  to  eight  rainy  days  during  the  summer  months  —  June  to  August. 

Soil.  —  Porous,  light,  and  even  rocky  ground  is  suitable  for  beech  provided  rains 
keep  the  soil  fresh;  compact,  moist  and  marshy  soils  are  absolutely  harmful;  this  is 
why  it  does  not  generally  grow  in  the  rich  alluvial  soil  of  the  broad  valleys. 

The  mineral  character  of  the  soil  seems  of  no  great  consequence,  since  fine  forests 
are  found  in  sand,  sand  and  rock,  granite,  porphyry,  and  pure  clay;  they  seem  to 
thrive  best  in  the  latter. 

Yet  beech  is  one  of  the  most  exacting  species  in  respect  of  mineral  nutrition;  accord- 
ing to  the  averages  arrived  at  by  Ebermayer  after  numerous  experiments,  a  high  forest 
takes  from  the  soil  476  pounds  of  mineral  elements,  70  of  these  only  for  timber  and  406 
for  leaves  in  order  to  produce  14,400  pounds  of  completely  air-dried  matter  (timber 
and  leaves) ;  under  the  same  conditions  and  to  produce  an  equal  solid  volume,  a  forest 
would  absorb  only  139  pounds,  in  all  about  37  for  timber  and  102  for  leaves.  The 
requirements  of  beech  as  regards  mineral  elements  are,  therefore,  as  compared  with 
those  of  pine,  in  the  ratio  of  3.4  to  1.  No  doubt,  as  compared  with  some  other  species, 
the  ratio  would  not  be  so  great. 

Competition  with  Other  Species.  —  Favored  by  its  thick  foliage  and  its  ability  to 
endure  shade,  beech  .  .  .  has  taken  the  place  of  such  light  demanding  trees  as 
oak,  pine  and  birch.  This  was  the  case  in  Denmark,  Holland,  and  other  countries 
where  (as  proven  by  the  numerous  charcoal  pits  found  there)  this  tree  did  not  formerly 
grow,  while  pine,  judging  from  the  amount  of  the  pine  debris,  was  plentiful.  Beech 
is  nowadays  the  dominant  species  of  the  forests  of  those  countries,  while  pine  has  dis- 
appeared from  them.  Julius  Caesar  found  no  beech  in  England  where  to-day  it  is 
plentiful. 

Timber.  —  Despite  morphological  analogies,  beech  yields  a  timber  very  different 
from  that  of  oak  or  chestnut.  It  is  white  when  cut ;  it  becomes  reddish  through  exposure 
to  air,  and  after  seasoning  becomes  a  uniform  light  red,  without  any  well-marked 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  393 

distinction  between  the  sapwood  and  heartwood.  The  heart  of  the  old  trees  .  .  . 
colors  a  brownish  red  .  .  .  with  rather  prominent  but  moderately  close  medullary- 
rays.  It  lacks  pliancy  and  easily  becomes  twisted  and  cracked;  it  is  liable  to  rot  and 
does  not  polish;  when  subjected  to  alternate  drying  and  wetting  it  does  not  last  long 
but  is  fairly  durable  under  water  and  when  constantly  wet. 

Beech  is  not  therefore  a  building  timber;  but,  being  easily  worked,  it  is  frequently 
used  by  a  number  of  trades,  such  as  wheelrights  for  felloes,  by  basket  makers,  shoe- 
makers, joiners,  mechanics,  turners,  etc.  It  is  one  of  the  easiest  woods  to  be  thoroughly 
treated  with  preservatives;  when  so  treated  it  makes  good  railway  ties.  Density,  one 
of  the  most  important  properties  of  beech,  depends  on  several  circumstances  such  as 
altitude,  latitude,  aspect,  soil,  and  whether  grown  in  open  or  dense  stands.  It  is  in 
no  way  proportional  to  the  thickness  of  the  rings  which  vary  from  0.27  to  0.36  of  an  inch. 

Fuel  Value.  —  The  most  important  use  of  beech  is  for  fuel.  The  calorific  power  has 
been  taken  as  a  unit  by  the  best  authorities  (G.  L.  Hartig,  Werneck,  I.  Hartig)  not  on 
account  of  its  having  the  highest  fuel  value,  for  some  other  species  (yoke  elm  and  sorb 
tree)  exceed  it,  but  because  it  is  the  best  known  and  the  most  frequently  used.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  fuel  value  is  proportional  to  and  as  variable  as  the  density  of  the 
wood.  Beech  wood  burns  with  a  bright  clear  flame  and  gives  embers  which  remain 
incandescent  until  completely  burnt  out.  .  .  .  Beech  charcoal  is  highly  prized 
for  domestic  purposes  and  for  treating  ores. 

By-Products.  —  The  kernel  of  the  beech  nut  contains  from  15  to  17  per  cent  of  its 
weight  in  a  fat  (non-siccative)  oil  which  is  edible  raw,  when  extracted,  and  is  quite 
suitable  for  lighting  purposes. 

A  heavy  mast  is  for  this  reason  an  important  source  of  profit  both  for  the  owners 
of  the  beech  plantations  and  for  those  who  buy  the  right  to  gather  the  fruit.  An  acre 
of  150-year-old  beech  high  forest  yields,  in  years  when  there  is  a  mast,  up  to  57  bushels 
of  beech  nuts  (Retz  forest,  according  to  Fortier)  from  which  409  pounds  of  oil  may 
be  extracted. 

Silvicultural  Characteristics.  —  The  beech  is  best  grown  in  high  forest,  and 
because  of  its  dense  crown  and  abundant  htter  it  fertiHzes  the  soil.  .  .  .  It  is 
usually  regenerated  from  seed  and  the  tolerance  of  the  seedhngs  makes  complete  natural 
regeneration  all  the  easier.  While  it  can  be  grown  pm-e,  it  is  advantageous  to  mix  it 
with  species  of  more  rapid  growth,  since  beech  exerts  a  most  favorable  influence  on 
their  good  development.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  the  tend- 
ency of  the  beech  to  again  become  dominant  instead  of  remaining  in  the  understory. 
.  .  .  Beech  can  be  managed  under  the  selection  system  and  then  the  trees  furnish 
less  wood  than  in  the  high  forest.  It  does  not  retain  its  sprouting  capacity  long  enough 
to  permit  advantageous  management  as  simple  coppice.  Under  this  form  of  treat- 
ment the  stand  does  not  remain  fully  stocked  except  on  open  slopes  and  provided  it  is 
cut  very  young.  Of  all  the  forest  species  it  is  almost  the  only  one  which  accommodates 
itself  to  treatment  as  selection  coppice  (furete).  Retained  as  standards  in  the  coppice- 
under-standards  system,  the  beech  has  such  a  thick,  full  crown  that  it  shades  out  all 
vegetation  underneath;  only  short-bole  trees  are  obtained  which  yield  a  small  amount 
of  sawlogs  of  mediocre  quaUty.  To  sum  up:  The  beech  is  a  species  that  is  especially 
valuable  in  shallow  sod  and  where  the  ground  has  been  impoverished  by  grazing  or  by 
destructive  treatment.     .     .     . 

HORNBEAM 

(Carpinus  betulus) 

Climate  and  Soil.  —  The  hornbeam  is  a  tree  of  the  plains  and  valleys.  In  the 
mountains,  such  as  the  Vosges,  Jura  of  the  Central  Plateau,  it  disappears  abruptly  and 
hardly  becomes  more  than  a  bush.     It  is  foimd  throughout  the  entire  part  of  France 


394  APPENDIX 

situated  north  of  a  line  drawn  between  Grenoble  and  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde.  It  is 
very  common  in  the  northern  and  eastern  departments.  While  it  will  grow  on  all  kinds 
of  soil,  it  shows  a  marked  preference  for  fresh  and  deep  ground. 

Tolerance.  —  The  hornbeam,  although  it  becomes  quite  hardy,  has  need  of  a  nurse 
tree  during  its  youth,  because  of  its  shallow  rooting  and  the  consequent  danger  if  the 
soil  dries  out.  It  demands  considerable  light  but  not  too  much.  On  dry  rocky  soil,  it 
usually  succumbs  to  exceptional  drought.  On  the  other  hand,  in  all  regards  it  shows 
remarkable  resistance  to  spring  frosts.  Its  root  system  is  weak  and  shallow.  It  is 
composed  of  numerous  lateral  roots,  but  the  tap  root  soon  disappears  and  the  root  system, 
as  a  whole,  rarely  extends  deeper  than  20  inches.  Despite  the  shallow  root  system 
suckers  are  rare,  but  it  sprouts  from  the  stump  with  great  facility.  In  the  forest  of 
Champenoux  thickets  of  this  species  are  so  abundant  that  it  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  the 
natural  regeneration  of  oak.  The  hornbeam  begins  to  bear  seed  at  an  early  age,  at  20 
years  or  before.  .  .  .  The  fruit  of  the  hornbeam  is  a  small  nut  which,  on  account  of 
its  lightness,  is  easily  distributed.     It  only  germinates  the  second  spring  after  it  matures. 

Growth  Longevity.  —  Its  growth  is  always  slow,  being  much  less  than  that  of  the 
oak  or  the  beech.  Sprouts,  on  the  other  hand,  are  quite  rapid  in  growth  for  the  first 
20  or  30  years,  when  it  slows  down  quite  materially.  Whatever  its  origin,  whether  from 
seeds  or  sprouts,  the  hornbeam  is  always  a  secondary  tree.  It  can  live  to  100  or  120 
years  and  even  exceed  150  years  under  favoral^le  conditions,  and  when  it  is  silviculturally 
desirable  to  retain  it  in  the  stand. 

Wood  Uses.  —  It  furnishes  firewood  of  the  first  quality,  but  it  is  not  used  for  con- 
struction purposes.  .  .  .  Notwithstanding  its  hardness  ...  it  is  useful  for 
the  manufacture  of  miscellaneous  utensils.     .     .     .  ■ 

Silvicultural  Characteristics.  —  Hornbeam  is  only  found  pure  in  high  forest  because 
of  silvicultural  errors.  Due  to  its  slow  growth  it  is  always  dominated  by  species  in 
mixtures;  as  a  secondary  tree  it  is  quite  valuable  as  soil  cover.  Treated  as  coppice  it 
produces  up  to  quite  an  advanced  age  (50  to  60  years)  very  abundant  sprouts  which 
give  good  results.  In  proper  situations  it  sprouts  well,  even  under  unfavorable  condi- 
tions, and  it  is  thus  owing  to  its  presence  that  certain  coppice  on  almost  sterile  soil 
yields  a  considerable  return.  Its  growth  is  too  slow  and  its  crown  too  low  to  enable  it 
to  form  with  profit  a  standard  in  coppice-under-standards.  ...  It  has  the  same 
value  as  the  beech  as  ground  cover,  but,  of  course,  does  not  produce  the  same  bole  in 
high  forest. 

HOLM   OAK 
{Quercus  ilex) 

Climate  and  Soil.  —  This  southern  species  is  rare  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  but  very 
common  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  from  Menton  to  Ceret,  from  the  sea,  as 
far  inland  as  Digne,  Sisteron,  and  Montelimart.  It  even  extends  as  far  north  as  Valina. 
It  seems  to  prefer,  in  France  at  least,  calcareous  soils  and  is  abundant  along  the  Medi- 
terranean, except  in  the  granite  areas  on  the  Maures  and  Esterel.  .  .  .  It  is  found 
in  the  Alps  and  in  Provence  up  to  an  altitude  of  2,460  to  2,600  feet,  and  in  the  Pyrenees 
up  to  2,000  feet. 

Tolerance.  —  Holm  oak  is  quite  hardy  and  thrives  on  the  hottest  south  slopes.  Its 
evergreen  foliage  is  quite  light  and  it  sprouts  up  to  an  advanced  age. 

Root  System  and  Seeding.  —  It  is  anchored  solidly  in  the  soil  and  has  strong  lateral 
roots.  Is  an  early  seeder;  seed  years  occurring  every  8  to  10  years;  production  con- 
tinues abundantly  and  regularly  up  to  an  advanced  age. 

Growth  Longevity.  —  Its  growth  is  very  rapid  during  youth,  but  it  never  reaches 
beyond  the  size  of  a  third-class  tree.     It  lives  to  be  300  years  and  more. 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  395 

Wood  Uses.  —  The  wood  of  holm  oak  is  very  hard,  heavy,  and  extremely  compact. 
It  is  difficult  to  work  and  its  heavy  wood  and  small  size  limits  its  use  as  construction 
wood.     It  makes  excellent  fuel. 

By-Products.  —  The  bark  yields  excellent  tannin;  better  than  that  of  oaks  that  shed 
their  leaves.  The  acorns,  when  they  are  fresh,  have  an  agreeable  taste  and  make  excel- 
lent food  when  they  are  properly  cooked.  In  several  departments  they  are  collected 
as  an  edible  food. 

Silvicultural  Characteristics,  —  Since  it  does  not  reach  a  large  size,  it  is  only 
suitable  for  simple  coppice.  It  is  often  found  in  mixture  with  aleppo  pine  and  with 
this  species  it  forms  an  excellent  understory,  since  it  is  fire-resistant. 

CORK  OAK  3 

(Quercus  suber  L.) 

The  cork  oak  is  an  oak  with  persistent  leaves  like  the  holm  oak.  .  .  .  Both  belong 
to  the  southern  part  of  France  where  the  first  forms  high  forests,  the  second  coppice. 
The  economic  importance  of  cork  oak  is  considerable  in  the  south  of  France,  in  Corsica, 
and  especially  in  Algeria.  Spain  and  Portugal  also  furnish  cork  which  competes  with 
our  own  in  the  markets.  The  botanists  distinguish  cork  oak,  properly  called  Quercus 
suber,  and  the  western  cork  oak,  Quercus  suber  var.  occidentalis;  the  former  being  found 
in  the  Mediterranean  (Algeria,  Corsica,  Provence,  Pyrenees-Orientales),  and  the  second 
belonging  to  the  Atlantic  flora  (Gascogne,  where  towards  the  north  it  is  of  especial  im- 
portance, beginning  with  the  point  of  Leon).  From  our  point  of  view  it  does  not  appear 
to  be  necessary  to  make  this  distinction,  the  two  forms  having  the  same  requirements, 
furnishing  the  same  product  —  cork  —  and  being  treated  the  same  way.  Both  of  them 
avoid  calcareous  soils  and  are  confined  to  sandy  soil.  The  length  of  their  tap  roots 
makes  it  necessary  to  have  deep  soils  if  they  are  to  develop  properly.  The  cork  oak, 
although  an  xerophytic  species,  without  doubt  requires  more  moisture  than  does  the 
holm  oak.  In  Algeria  it  is  infinitely  more  common  in  the  province  of  Constantine, 
where  the  climate  is  quite  rainy,  than  in  Oran  where  it  is  very  dry;  in  France  it  is  found 
at  the  Maures  and  Estcrel  hills,  which  have  a  sufficient  altitude  to  produce  enough  rain- 
fall, and  in  Gascogne  where  the  climate  is  very  hot  but  also  quite  humid. 

Regeneration.  —  When  the  cork  oak  forms  pure  stands  they  are  always  very  open 
and  usually  even  incomplete.  (These  pure  stands,  while  common  in  Algeria,  are  rarely 
met  with  in  the  Maures  and  Esterel  and  do  not  exist  at  all,  naturally  at  least,  in  the 
Gascogne.)  On  the  other  hand,  the  fohage  of  the  tree  is  quite  hght.  It  therefore 
results  that  everywhere  in  the  forest  the  soil  is  sufficiently  open  to  permit  the  seed  to 
germinate  and  develop,  since  the  species  is  light  demanding  first  of  all.  When  cork  oak 
is  found  in  mixture  with  another  species  the  stand  becomes  denser,  but,  since  this  other 
species,  in  France  at  least,  is  almost  always  maritime  pine,  whose  cover  is  extremely 
light,  the  situation  remains  about  the  same  from  the  point  of  view  of  regeneration.  While 
this  species  exists  in  every  part  of  the  forest,  without  regeneration  fellings  it  has  to  be 
favored  and  assisted.  Systematic  fellings  are  not  made  in  cork-oak  stands,  but  the  fell- 
ings tend  to  realize  old  cork  oak  whose  production  of  cork  has  ceased  to  be  remunerative. 

Freeing  the  Young.  —  One  cannot  say  that  the  regeneration  of  cork  oak  can  be 
left  to  itself.  On  the  contrary  it  is  necessary  to  give  it  cultural  aid.  In  those  forests 
in  reality  where  the  soil  is  sandy  and  quite  open,  there  exist  thickets  of  evergreen  shrubs 
in  which  tree  heather  often  dominates  and  which  is  called  maquis  (similar  to  the  term 
chaparral).  Numerous  species  of  small  heather  increase  the  density  still  more  near  the 
soU  and  make  it  so  thick  that  it  is  not  easy  to  penetrate.     The  acorns  fall  here  and  there 

3  Traite  Pratique  de  Sylviculture,  par  A.  Jolyet.     Paris,  J.  B.  Baillere  et  Fils,  1916. 


396  APPENDIX 

in  this  brush  and  the  young  oak,  overwhelmed  by  such  a  thicket,  does  not  receive  the 
quantity  of  Hght  which  one  would  expect  in  such  open  stands.  Seeds  are  often  scattered 
by  the  birds,  chiefly  by  the  doves;  in  mixed  forests  of  oak  and  pine  often  the  oak  seed- 
lings are  found  in  the  neighl^orhood  of  the  pine  tree§  because  the  doves  love  to  perch 
on  the  branches  of  the  pine,  which  are  the  largest  trees  of  the  stand,  and  from  there  let 
fall  the  acorns  which  they  have  transported.  Often  seedlings  are  so  suppressed  by  the 
heather  that  they  cannot  develop,  remaining  poor  and  stunted  and  finally  often  dis- 
appearing altogether.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  take  care  to  search  out  the  oak 
seedlings  in  the  midst  of  the  brush  and  free  them. 

Cutting  Back  the  Young  Poorly  Formed.  —  The  seedling  which  appears  to  have 
suffered  from  the  heather  cover  to  such  an  extent  that  its  vitality  is  injured  should 
be  cut  level  with  the  ground,  and  after  this  operation  the  heather  should  be  cut  for  a 
distance  of  1  to  2  feet  around  the  shoot.  The  sprouts  which  develop  on  this  little 
stump  will  have  even  more  vigor  than  do  seedlings.  Moreover,  if  in  a  stand  of  cork 
oak  which  has  already  attained  a  height  of  4^  to  6  feet,  but  whose  growth  appears  slow, 
it  is  much  better  to  cut  them  back  in  order  to  obtain  good  sturdy  shoots  in  their  place. 
These  shoots  have  just  about  the  same  value  as  seedlings.  This  cutting  back,  it  is  true, 
has  the  objection  of  encouraging  the  formation  of  sprouts;  the  collection  of  cork  oak 
being  difficult  on  sprouts,  it  is  better  to  choose  between  them  when  they  have  attained 
the  height  of  about  6  feet  and  leave  the  best  sprouts  and  cut  the  others. 

Division  of  a  Forest  of  Cork  Oak  into  Compartments.  —  Work  such  as  this 
enables  the  improvement  of  cork-oak  stands  to  favor  whose  regeneration  there  is  no 
other  method  applicable.  To  execute  the  freeing  and  cutting  back  of  seedlings  syste- 
matically the  forest  should  be  divided  into  some  fifteen  compartments  so  that  each  one 
can  be  gone  over  every  year  to  free  the  seedlings,  cut  back  the  poor  sprouts,  and  thin  the 
sprouts  when  they  are  too  numerous.  It  would  be  a  good  plan  to  have  this  work 
coincide  in  each  compartment  with  the  removal  of  the  mature  oak.  The  cost  of  this 
work  is  small  in  comparison  with  the  benefits  received  and  the  owner  should  pay  for  it 
without  doubting  its  advisability. 

Precautions  to  Take  against  Fire.  —  The  existence  of  brush  is  a  perpetual  danger 
of  fire.  .  .  .  It  should  l)e  remarked,  however,  that  the  cork  is  an  excellent  insula- 
tion and  that  the  violence  of  the  fire  is  rarely  enough,  in  France  at  least,  to  kill  the  cam- 
bium of  the  oak  when  they  are  protected  by  a  sufficient  thickness  of  tissue.  The  oak 
recently  peeled,  however,  is  very  susceptible  to  the  slightest  fire.  ...  To  avoid 
fires  in  any  part  of  the  forest  becoming  veritable  disasters,  it  is  therefore  necessary  to 
make  sure  that  the  trees  recently  peeled  should  not  all  be  grouped  in  the  same  range. 

In  order  that  the  cork  of  a  tree  should  attain  the  thickness  demanded  by  commerce 
(27  to  29  millimeters),  the  period  varies  according  to  the  climate:  12  years  in  Algeria,  and 
15  to  28  years  in  France.  Taking  for  granted  that  the  period  of  15  years  should  be  the 
one  indicated  by  investigation,  the  forest  should  be  treated  as  follows  : 

Divide  it  into  fifteen  compartments  and  the  first  year  bark  all  the  oak  in  Compartment 
No.  1,  the  second  year  all  those  in  Compartment  No.  2,  etc.,  and  the  fifteenth  year  all 
those  in  Compartment  No.  15.  In  the  sixteenth  year  the  oak  in  Compartment  No.  1 
will  have  had  15  years  of  growth  and  reached  the  proper  thickness.  One  can  then  pro- 
ceed with  new  felling  operations  on  trees  of  this  compartment  and  continue  indefinitely. 
But  if,  by  misfortune,  fire  has  broken  out  in  a  compartment  where  the  bark  has  been 
removed  from  all  the  trees,  every  one  will  be  destroyed  and  the  compartment  will  be 
ruined  without  hope  even  of  natural  regeneration.  Under  such  circumstances  it  would 
have  been  better  to  adopt  another  combination.  The  number  of  years  necessary  for 
the  growth  of  the  bark  is  divided  by  3.  For  example  15/3  =  5;  if  the  forest  is  divided 
then  into  the  number  of  parts  given  in  this  quotient,  each  compartment  would  be 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  397 

divided  into  5  parts.  This  being  done,  one-third  of  the  oak  of  the  first  compartment  is 
barked  the  first  year,  choosing  the  trees  here  and  there  over  the  whole  extent  of  the 
compartment.  The  second  and  third  years  the  work  is  continued  similarly  in  Compart- 
ments Nos.  2  and  3.  The  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  to  the  thirtieth  years  the  second 
third  of  the  trees  is  barked  in  Compartments  Nos.  1  to  15.  The  thirty-first  and  thirty- 
second  to  the  forty-fifth  years  the  third  third  is  barked  in  each  compartment.  In  the 
forty-sixth  year  the  bark  has  reached  the  proper  thickness  on  the  trees  in  Compartment 
No.  1  which  was  peeled  the  first  time.  .  .  .  This  method  appears  to  be  more  con- 
servative than  peeling  the  trees  in  the  entire  compartment  at  one  time.  It  is  nearly  the 
same  idea  that  is  expressed  in  the  treatment  of  the  Corsican  pine  when  the  selection 
system  was  adopted  because  of  the  fire  danger  in  young  even-aged  stands  which  follow 
the  use  of  the  shelterwood  compartment  method  of  regeneration. 


SILVER  FIR 

(Abies  pedinata) 

Size,  —  Silver  fir  is  a  tree  of  first-class  size;  it  may,  when  from  180  to  200  years  of 
age,  reach  131  feet  in  height  and  6.5  feet  in  diameter  breast-high.  Its  longevity  is 
very  great,  and  some  trees  800  years  old  have  been  observed  in  the  Pyrenees.  .  ,  . 
lA  silver  fir  207  feet  high  and  10  feet  in  diameter  has  been  discovered  in  a  Bohemian 
\ virgin  forest  (Hochstetter) .  In  France  itself  ...  on  the  best  soils,  131  feet  in 
jheight  is  often  exceeded.     A  silver  fir  in  the  Gerardmer  State  Forest  is  164  feet  high. 

Habit.  —  The  straight,  slender  bole  branches  regularly.     ...     At  an  advanced 

e  .  .  .  the  crown  becomes  more  and  more  flattened;  this  is  the  period  when 
full  seed  crops  are  produced.  .  .  .  The  loss  of  the  leader  or  main  shoot  is  more 
serious  with  fir  than  with  any  other  species.  Often  this  leader  cannot  grow  out  again, 
particularly  if  the  tree  is  a  veteran.     .     .     . 

Root  System.  —  The  tree  is  well  rooted.  There  is  a  tap  root,  3  or  more  feet  deep, 
which  divides  into  long,  stout  laterals.  When  cut  flush  with  the  ground  the  stump 
and  root  wood  is  about  16  per  cent  of  the  total  volume. 

Crown.  —  The  foliage  of  fir  is  abundant  and  leaves  may  be  persistent  for  8  to  10 
years.  .  .  .  These  leaves  and  young  shoots  are  readily  browsed  by  cattle  and 
game. 

Bark.  — •  Silver  fir  bark  .  .  .  is  in  most  cases  a  characteristic  silvery  gray  color 
.     .     .     the  thickness  increases  with  age  but  rarely  exceeds  1.18  to  1.57  inches.     .     .     . 

Natural  Grafting.  —  Silver  fir  has  a  growing  bark  up  to  an  advanced  age.  This  allows 
the  bole,  Ijranch,  or  roots  to  easily  grow  together  when  the  parts  happen  to  remain  in 
contact  for  some  time.  From  this  numerous  vegetative  phenomena  arise.  One  of  the 
most  frequent  and  interesting  phases  is  when  the  stump  (after  the  tree  has  been  felled) 
.  .  .  continues  to  increase  in  diameter,  and  produces  an  excrescence  which  gradually 
covers  the  surface.  .  .  .  This  growth  ...  is  due  to  the  extensive  adhesion 
of  one  or  more  roots  of  the  tree  that  has  been  cut  down  with  those  of  a  neighboring 
unfelled  fir.  The  latter  .  .  .  acts  as  a  Vt^et  nurse  for  the  stump  and  causes  a 
continuation  of  growth. 

Seeding.  —  Seeding  is  fairly  regular  and  constant,  having  none  of  the  irregularities 
that  are  so  common  with  certain  other  species,  such  as  pine,  oak,  and  beech. 

The  seed  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  irregular,  truncated  shape,  its  shiny  brownish- 
yellow  color,  and  its  size  which  is  larger  than  most  other  firs.  It  contains  a  great  deal 
of  turpentine  which  gives  it  a  pimgent,  hot  taste;  it  is  covered  by  a  brownish  opaque 
husk,  some  remnants  of  which  always  remain,  even  when  cleaned.     There  are  10,450 


398  APPENDIX 

fresh  seeds,  and  14,090  clean  seeds  to  the  pound,  or  8,063  to  the  quart.     It  will  not  stand 
packing  nor  shipment  and  keeps  only  from  autumn  until  the  following  spring. 

Germination.  —  The  germination  of  seed  sown  in  the  spring  takes  place  in  3  to  4 
weeks.  After  the  young  plant  sprouts  ...  it  has  from  4  to  8  cotyledons  (generally 
5).     They  are  twice  as  long  as  and  broader  than  ordinary  cotyledons.     .     .     . 

Seedling.  —  During  the  first  2  to  3  years  all  the  vegetative  activity  concentrates  in 
the  deep-reaching  tap  root  and  in  stem  diameter  increase.  From  about  3  to  4  years  the 
seedling  begins  to  ramify  by  producing  annually  from  1  to  2  lateral  branches,  first  in 
one  and  then  in  the  other  direction  .  .  .  after  the  tenth  year  ramification  becomes 
normally  verticillate,  and  from  that  time  vegetation  is  rapid  if  there  is  sufficient  light. 

Tolerance.  —  Silver  fir  will  bear  protracted  shade  better  than  any  other  species. 
Under  dense  cover,  saphngs,  3  feet  high  and  0.79  to  1.18  inches  in  diameter,  are  often 
found  which  are  no  less  than  60  to  70  years  of  age  and  which,  if  given  space  and  light, 
wiU  develop  vigorously  .  .  .  and  become  splendid  trees.  Early  vegetative  activ- 
ity makes  young  fir  liable  to  suffer  acutely  from  spring  frosts;  they  often  lose  their 
lateral  shoots  (the  first  to  be  developed). 

Tunber.  —  Fir  timber  is  formed  only  of  tracheids  and  medullary  rays  and  is  almost 
entirely  devoid  of  resiniferous  channels  .  .  .  consequently  it  has  no  pronounced 
odor,  and  the  resin  is  well  disseminated.     .     .     . 

The  timber  is  white,  though  often  tinted  a  very  light  reddish-brown.  .  .  .  There 
is  no  very  appreciable  difference,  especially  when  dry,  between  the  sapwood  and  the 
heartwood.  The  sapwood  does  not  possess  the  quality  of  the  heartwood  and  is  more 
subject  to  rot.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sapwood  is  easily  injected  with  preservatives, 
while  the  heartwood  is  very  difficult  to  impregnate,  as  is  the  case  with  other  similar 
resinous  timbers,  such  as  spruce,  larch,  cedar,  and  pine. 

The  annual  rings  are  very  clearly  defined  on  account  of  the  great  difference  in  color 
and  in  hardness  between  the  spring  and  autumn  tissues.  The  lack  of  homogeneity  in 
fir  timber  (formed  of  cylindrical  zones  of  alternately  soft  and  hard  wood)  is  evident 
when  it  is  being  cut  into  firewood.  It  has  a  distinct  tendency  to  split  in  a  circular 
direction.  .  .  .  In  fir  timber,  as  in  all  those  of  non-homogeneous  structure  .  .  . 
breaks  will  occur  in  the  direction  of  the  less  resisting  tissues,  which  .  .  .  correspond 
to  the  soft  spring  rings  .  .  .  (ring  shake).  .  .  .  Its  shade-enduring  quality 
means  that  rings  close  together  may  be  followed  by  wide  rings  of  annual  growth  — 
obviously  a  defect.     .     .     . 

Specific  Gravity.  —  The  density  of  fir  wood  is  extremely  variable  and  seems  to 
increase  with  southern  latitudes,  or  as  the  trees  have  more  space  in  which  to  develop 
their  crowns;  on  the  whole  it  is  superior  to  that  of  spruce  and  varies  from  0.381  to 
0.640. 

The  horizontal  strength  and  resiliency  of  fir  timber  are  considerable  and  have  been 
ascertained  by  numerous  tests.  ...  It  was  found  that  fir  from  the  Aude  Depart- 
ment was  superior  to  any  indigenous  and  exotic  timber  except  the  longleaf  pine  (of 
the  United  States).     .     .     .     Fir  timber  will  not  last  very  long  if  exposed  to  moisture. 

Uses.  —  The  large  size,  good  quality,  and  abundance  of  fir  timber  make  it  one  of  the 
commonest  building  materials  for  planks,  boards,  beams,  laths,  etc.;  it  is  even  used 
for  masts.     It  splits  easily  and  is  good  for  basket  making,  shingles,  and  roofing. 

Fuel  Value.  —  According  to  G.  L.  Hartig  the  average  fuel  value  of  fir  as  compared 
with  beech  is  as  69  is  to  100,  and  is  inferior  to  spruce.  It  is  poor  fuel,  burning  with  a 
bright  flame  but  crackling  a  great  deal  and  smoking  badly. 

It  should  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  branch-wood  (Vosges)  which  is  formed 
of  very  thin  rings  (the  density  is  therefore  higher)  makes  far  superior  cordwood  than 
the  stump  or  bole.     .     .     . 


i 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  399 

--^•'^JHabitat.  —  Silver  fir  does  not  extend  beyond  the  limits  of  Europe  except  to  the  East, 
where  it  penetrates  for  some  distance  (beyond  the  Sea  of  Marmora)  into  Anatolia. 
Its  somewhat  restricted  area  is  in  the  shape  of  an  irregular  ellipse,  whose  main  axis 
rests*  east  and  west,  reaching  from  the  western  P^yxeaees,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
I  Gulf  of  Gascony,  to  beyond  Constantinople,  over  a  length  of  about  32°  of  longitude; 
/  the  smaller  north  and  south  axis,  from  Cologne  to  Mt.  Etna,  extends  over  14°  of  lati- 
Ttude.     Ireland,  England,  Belgium,  Holland,  Northern  Germany,  Sweden,  and  Norway, 
/  and  the  whole  of  Russia  are  beyond  the  northern  and  eastern  natural  limits  of  this 
I  species     .     .     .     also    Spain,    exclusive   of   the   Pyrenean   slopes,    Sardinia,    southern 
ISicily,  and  Greece.     There  is  a  possibility  that  silver  fir  may  be  found  in  the  Caucasus. 
In  France,  it  is  found  only  east  and  south  of  a  zigzag  line,  which  starts  from  Epinal, 
and  passes  by  Bourg,  Clermont,  Aurillac,  Carcassone  (to  reach  along  the  Pyrenees) 
and  down  to  Bayonne. 

The  distribution  of  fir  within  its  habitat  area  is  most  irregular;  eastwards  it  is  scattered 

amongst  beech  and  spruce,  but,  as  one  goes  westward,  it  becomes  more  plentiful  so  that 

it  reaches  its  maximum  development  about  the  western  hmits  of  the  area  and  forms 

pure  stands  or  is  the  most  important  species.     It  may  be  seen  pure  (in  France)  in  the 

Pyrenees,  Upper  Corsieres,  Cevennes,  the  Auvergne,  Forez  and  Loire  Mountains,  the 

Dauphine  Alps,  and  principally  the  Jura  and  Vosges;  (Germany)  in  the  Schwarzwald 

_^(Black  Forest)  and  the  Franconian  Hills. 

/        Situation.  —  Silver  fir  (Frigoris  comes  et  causa,  as  Linnaeus  put  it)  is  essentially  a 

/    species  of  the  mountains     .     .     .     above  the  vine  and  oak  but  below  the  spruce. 

j"  Coming  almost  into  the  plains  at  northern  latitudes     .     .     .     it  reaches  between  1,.300 

/      and  4,250  feet  altitude  in  the  Vosges;  1,500  to  1,960  feet  in  the  Jura;  up  to  4,900  feet 

/       in  the  Monts-Dore,  5,590  feet  in  Corsica,  6,390  feet  on   Mt.  Etna  group,  and  6,397 

/  feet  in  the  French  Pyrenees  on  northern  exposures. 

Soil.  —  It  seeks  deep,  cool,  fertile  soils,  avoiding  compact,  marshy  or  peaty  ground. 
The  mineral  nature  of  the  soil  is  of  minor  importance,  provided  its  physical  require- 
ments are  met.     In  the  Jura,  on  hmestone  soil,  the  fir  forests  are  equal  if  not  superior 
to  the  best  grown  in  the  Vosges  on  silica  or  granite. 

Conditions  of  Vegetation.  —  There  must  be  a  mean  August  temperature  of  at 
least  15°  C.  (59°  F.),  with  a  maximum  of  not  over  39°  C.  (102.2°  F.);  mean  January 
temperature  not  below  5°  C.  (41°  F.),  nor  above  27°  C.  (80.6°  F.),  with  a  vegetative 
rest  of  at  least  3  months,  and  plenty  of  moisture. 

Silvicultural  Characteristics.  —  The  fir,  like  other  indigenous  conifers,  should  be 
treated  as  high  forest.  It  forms  very  dense  stands.  A  fir  forest,  left  to  itself,  is  always 
many-storied.  ...  A  thick  cover  results  in  retaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  as 
well  as  its  freshness.  ...  In  addition  the  fir  can  be  treated  in  selection  stands. 
Moreover,  in  all  forests  which  have  been  injured  by  grazing  or  by  excessive  exploitation, 
the  natural  regeneration  is  never  lacking,  even  under  a  complete  canopy.  Unless  local 
climatic  conditions  prevent  it,  the  fir  forms  a  regular  high  forest.  .  .  .  When  it 
has  stopped  its  height  growth  its  crown  becomes  open,  exposed,  and  thin,  so  the  soil, 
insufficiently  protected  by  the  cover  .  .  .  runs  wild.  .  .  .  This  makes  natural 
regeneration  often  difficult  and  sometimes  even  impossible.  .  .  .  The  fir  forms 
excellent  pure  stands,  but  it  is  preferable  to  mix  it  with  other  species,  notably  beech 
or  spruce.  The  mixture  depends  on  the  conditions  of  the  altitude.  .  .  .  The  fir 
makes  an  excellent  mixture  with  broadleaved  trees  or  shrubs  which  protect  the  ground. 


400  APPENDIX 

SCOTCH  PINE 

{Pinus  sylvestris) 

Climate  and  Soil.  —  Scotch  pine  is  the  tree  of  the  plains  and  sandy  hiUs.  In  France 
it  is  found  growing  naturally  in  the  Vosges  up  to  an  altitude  of  3,600  feet,  in  the  Central 
Plateau  up  to  4,900  feet,  in  the  Alps  up  to  5,600  feet,  and  in  the  Pyrenees  up  to  6,560 
feet.  It  ordinarily  prefers  southern  exposures.  Except  in  the  aleppo  and  maritime 
pine  areas,  Scotch  pine  has  been  extensively  used  in  reforestation;  both  in  the  plains  and 
in  the  mountains  its  range  has  been  widely  extended  by  artificial  means.  While  it  will 
grow  on  compact  soils,  it  much  prefers  those  which  are  loose  and  porous. 

Tolerance,  —  Scotch  pine  has  a  light,  open  crown,  even  up  to  advanced  age;  seed- 
lings are  light  demanding  and  will  not  develop  in  very  dense  stands.  It  requires  plenty 
of  space  to  develop  its  crown.  .  .  .  While  this  species  withstands  winter  and 
spring  frosts,  more  than  any  other  tree,  it  is  liable  to  damage  by  insects  and  fungus, 
especially  when  growing  outside  its  natural  habitat.  The  tree  also  avoids  the  summits 
that  are  exposed  to  violent  winds;  nevertheless  it  appears  to  resist  the  rigour  of  winter, 
but  after  its  crown  exceeds  the  usual  depth  of  snow  it  may  suffer  damage.     .     .     . 

Root  System  and  Seeding.  —  The  root  system  varies  according  to  the  ground.  In 
a  light,  deep  soil  the  tap  root  develops  and  is  the  essential  part  of  the  root  system  up 
to  30  or  40  years.  After  this  period  the  laterals  increase  in  vigor  and  have  a  tendency  to 
replace  the  tap  root.  On  other  soils  the  tap  root  stops  growth  quite  early  and  the  later- 
als soon  replace  it. 

Scotch  pine  begins  early  to  bear  seed,  and  isolated  trees  produce  cones  with  good  seed 
as  early  as  15  years.  Ordinarily,  in  stands,  it  does  not  bear  until  about  50  years  and 
even  after.  On  the  whole,  some  cones  are  borne  every  year,  but  seed  is  abundant  only 
every  3  to  5  years. 

Growth  Longevity.  —  When  adapted  to  the  situation,  the  Scotch  pine  is  a  tree  of 
large  size,  which  reaches  98  to  131  feet  in  height,  but  rarely  exceeds  3.2  to  6.5  feet  in 
diameter  breast-high.  ...  Its  growth,  quite  slow  in  the  North,  is  infinitely  more 
rapid  in  the  southern  zone.  Its  longevity  is  very  great.  In  the  plains,  where  it  has 
been  introduced,  it  lives  a  much  shorter  life. 

Wood  and  Its  Uses.  —  The  wood  is  of  first  quality  in  the  northern  climate  and  in  the 
mountains,  but  becomes  of  secondary  value,  as  the  growth  increases,  in  the  milder  zones. 
In  the  latter  case  the  proportion  of  sapwood  is  considerable  as  compared  with  heartwood. 
This  heartwood,  while  of  good  quality,  is  far  less  valuable  for  lumber  .  .  .  than 
the  Scotch  pine  of  Norway  and  Finland.  As  fuel  it  is  better  than  the  fir  and  spruce 
and  is  much  sought  after  by  bakers.     .     .     .     It  is  much  used  for  paper  pulp. 

By-Products.  —  Scotch  pine  is  not  tapped  for  turpentine,  but  the  stumps,  when 
distilled,  yield  tar  and  charcoal  of  good  quaHty. 

Silvicultural  Characteristics.  —  The  Scotch  pine  should  be  treated  as  regular  high 
forest.  In  pure  stands,  in  suitable  localities,  the  young  stand  maintains  the  soil  up  to 
25  or  30  years;  afterwards,  when  the  stand  becomes  more  open,  natural  regeneration 
becomes  quite  difficult  under  the  pure  veterans.  This  explains  why,  in  run-down  forests, 
one  is  often  obliged  to  resort  to  artificial  regeneration  which,  however,  is  quite  easy, 
either  by  plantations  or  by  seeding.  Scotch  pine  grows  well  with  beech,  fir,  or  spruce, 
and,  thanks  to  its  rapid  growth,  remains  dominant  and  furnishes  an  excellent  yield. 
These  mixtures  are  unfortunately  much  too  rare  in  France,  and,  under  the  circumstances, 
it  would  be  valuable  to  create  mixed  stands  artificially.  In  the  high  mountains  it  is 
possible  to  treat  it  under  the  selection  system.  ...  On  low-grade  soil  ...  it 
is  indispensable  to  retain  every  kind  of  vegetation  (as  a  soil  cover).     Whether  it  is  pure 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  401 

or  mixed,  Scotch  pine  is  easy  to  manage.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  give  the  best  trees 
plenty  of  light  in  order  that  they  may  develop  their  crown  with  freedom.  ...  It 
is  a  valuable  species  for  valleys  and  low  mountains. 

MARITIME   PINE 

{Pinus  maritima) 

Root  System.  —  Maritime  pine  develops  a  strong  tap  root  and  laterals;  this  makes 
it  absolutely  wind-firm  and  suitable  for  forestation  on  the  so-called  "moving  sand"  of 
the  Landes.  As  with  silver  fir,  sometimes  roots  of  felled  trees  graft  with  those  left 
standing,  thus  furnishing  nourishment  to  stumps. 

Seed  Capacity.  —  Seed  crops  begin  early  (sometimes  at  15  years  of  age),  yield  abun- 
dantly, and  are  almost  continuous  through  middle  age.  .  .  .  The  seed  is  usually 
of  good  quality  and  retains  its  germinating  power  for  3  to  4  years.  It  sprouts  15  days 
after  spring  sowing  and  produces  hardy  plants  with  eight  cotyledons  which  grow  rapidly 
when  fully  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  There  are  10,000  seeds  to  the  pound 
and  12,080  to  the  quart. 

Habitat.  —  Maritime  pine  occupies  an  area  somewhat  similar  to  that  covered  by 
aleppo  pine,  but  is  somewhat  more  restricted  and  extends  farther  to  the  west.  It  is 
found  west  and  east  from  Portugal  to  Greece,  over  30°  of  longitude;  north  and  south 
from  Dalmatia  and  the  Maures  and  I'Esterel  (at  Cannes)  to  Sicily  and  Algeria,  a  distance 
of  some  10°  of  latitude.  Within  this  area  it  occupies  essentially  shore  and  insular  sites, 
never  reaching  far  from  the  sea.  In  Corsica,  however,  it  ascends  to  3,280  feet  on  hills 
facing  the  sea  and  to  4,265  feet  in  Grenada.  Its  maximum  yield  is  in  the  west,  where, 
in  Gascony,  it  forms  extensive  pure  forests.  As  you  proceed  eastward  the  tree  becomes 
smaller  and  is  more  scattered.  Its  optimum  region  is  the  opposite  of  that  of  aleppo  pine. 
There  is  but  little  maritime  pine  in  Algeria,  it  is  common  in  Corsica,  on  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean,  especially  in  the  Maures  and  I'Esterel,  in  the  Almeres  hills,  and  along 
the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  is  especially  dominant  from  Bayonne  to  the  Sables  d'Olonne. 
Its  habitat  has  been  considerably  increased  by  artificial  means.  It  has  been  used  suc- 
cessfully in  central  France  in  mixture  with  the  Scotch  pine  in  reclamation  work  in  the 
Sologne  marshes. 

Soil.  —  Its  optimum  growth  is  on  sandy  soils;  it  does  not  thrive  on  clay.  .  .  .  Its 
failure  to  grow  on  clay  soils  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  it  absorbs  too  much  lime  and 
does  not  get  enough  potash  and  iron.  If  this  mineral  requirement  is  met  it  will  grow 
on  almost  any  soil,  except  clay,  but  prefers  light,  deep,  fresh  soils;  it  will,  however, 
grow  on  rock  soils,  such  as  granite,  porphyry,  and  schist. 

Tolerance.  —  While  it  will  stand  cold  (even  the  climate  of  Lorraine),  in  central  and 
western  France,  it  is  seriously  damaged  by  severe  winters.  In  1879  to  1880  whole  forests 
in  the  Sologne  were  frost-killed.  North  of  Paris  its  growth  is  slow,  since  it  demands  a 
mean  annual  temperature  of  at  least  12°  C.  (54°  F.)  with  a  winter  average  never  below 
6°  C.  (43°  F.),  but,  given  suitable  climatic  conditions,  its  growth  is  remarkably  active; 
it  often  forms  two  whorls  of  branches  a  year. 

Timber.  —  The  sapwood  is  white;  the  heartwood  varies  from  light  red  to  more  or 
less  dark  red-brown.  The  grain  is  coarse  and  the  annual  rings  wide  and  very  conspicu- 
ous. It  is  quite  hard,  heavy,  and  pliant,  and  yields  more  resin  than  any  other  conifer. 
The  numerous  and  large  resin  ducts,  which  radiate  longitudinally,  appear  in  the  heart- 
wood  a  brownish-red  on  account  of  being  impregnated  with  resin.  Its  specific  gravity, 
when  air  dried,  is  from  0.524  to  0.769.  It  is  employed  somewhat  for  ship  building, 
construction  purposes,  railway  ties,  telegraph  poles,  piling,  and  mine  props.  It  is 
sawed  into  boards,  planks,  staves,  lath,  and  boxboards.     When  used  as  fuel  it  gives  a 


402  APPENDIX 

bright,  clear  flame,  but  does  not  hold  the  fire.  It  crackles  a  great  deal  when  burned 
and  throws  out  innumerable  sparks.  Trees  that  have  been  tapped  last  longer  in  the 
ground  than  untapped  timber.  The  tapping,  however,  slows  up  the  increment.  .  .  . 
Tapped  trees  have  less  sapwood  than  those  which  have  not  been  tapped,  and  the  wood 
is  heavier,  harder,  richer  in  resin,  more  durable,  and  of  greater  fuel  value.  The  method 
of  tapping  maritime  pine  is  described  in  detail  in  Chapter  VII. 

By-Products.  —  It  yields  turpentine  paste,  spirits  of  turpentine,  colophony,  rosin, 
pitch,  grease  used  for  machine  and  axle  lubricant,  lamp  black,  fire  lighters,  basket  ma- 
terial, etc.;  the  needles  are  sometimes  woven  into  a  sort  of  cotton  wool.  A  great  many 
mine  props  are  exported  annually. 

NORWAY  SPRUCE 

(Picea  excelsa) 

The  Norway  spruce  is  a  tree  of  very  large  size,  with  a  straight,  cylindrical  bole  that 
may  reach  up  to  131  feet  and  more  in  height.  Wessely  asserts  that  in  the  Carpathian 
Mountains  some  trees  of  this  species  are  223  feet  high  and  3.5  feet  in  diameter  at  breast 
height.     Its  longevity  is  from  400  to  500  years. 

Habit.  —  Spruce  .  .  .  has  slender  persistent  branches  .  .  .  that  form  a 
bushy,  pyramidal,  narrow,  elongated,  pointed  non-truncated  top  up  to  the  most  ad- 
vanced age.  ...  Of  all  (European)  forest  species,  spruce  probably  forms  the 
densest  stands  and  yields  the  largest  amount  of  wood.  .  .  .  Spruce  can  be  readily 
pruned  and  makes  close  and  impenetrable  hedges. 

Root  System.  —  Its  root  system  is  shallow,  without  a  tap  root,  but  with  somewhat 
slender  laterals;  consequently  this  tree  cannot  withstand  wind  pressure.  The  stump 
yields  on  an  average  of  16.5  per  cent  of  the  total  volume  when  cut  flush  with  the  ground; 
14.7  per  cent  for  the  stump  itself,  and  1.8  per  cent  only  for  roots.     (T.  Hartig.) 

Seed.  —  Seed  crops  are  more  intermittent  and  irregular  than  with  pine,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  locality,  are  abundant  only  every  2  or  6  or  even  8  years;  normally  seeding 
begins  at  30  years  of  age.  If  cones  are  sometimes  seen  on  trees  which  have  not  reached 
this  age  (chiefly  in  plantations),  care  should  be  taken  not  to  gather  them,  for,  almost 
always,  they  only  yield  sterile  seeds.  The  least  heat  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  cones  to 
open  and  release  the  seed.  .  .  .  The  abundance  of  seeds  and  the  ease  with  which 
they  are  extracted  account  for  the  low  price.  When  fresh,  with  the  wings  on,  they  run 
56,360  to  the  pound  and  62,660  to  the  quart.  Spruce  seeds  retain  their  germinating 
vigor  for  from  3  to  4  years.  If  sown  in  the  spring  they  will  germinate  after  4  or  5 
weeks;  they  contain  a  non-siccative  oil  fat  (instead  of  turpentine)  and  consequently 
have  a  pleasant  taste. 

The  Seedling.  —  The  seedling  .  .  .  usually  has  nine  cotyledons;  within  a  year 
it  elongates  its  plumule  into  a  young  shoot  with  one  to  three  very  small  laterals  .  .  . 
by  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  cotyledons  have  already  dried  up  and  the  plant  is  from 
2  to  3  inches  in  height.  ...  At  5  years  of  age  it  is,  under  good  conditions,  from 
10  to  12  inches  tall. 

Tolerance.  —  With  its  shallow  root  system  the  spruce  requires  shelter  during  youth, 
so  that  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where  it  is  planted,  should  not  become  dry;  but  it 
requires  light  and  has  not  the  same  vigor  that  pine  has  under  partial  cover;  it  dies  out 
rapidly  under  complete  shade.  If,  in  mixed  spruce  and  pine  forests,  the  soil  often 
reproduces  to  pine  under  spruce  stands,  no  other  reason  need  be  given,  other  than  the 
ability  of  the  pine  to  endure  heavy  shade  where  spruce  could  not  exist.  .  .  .  The 
tap  root  stops  growing  after  the  first  year  and  produces  numerous  very  slim  laterals 
that  spread  in  all  directions.     .     .     .     Spruce  bark  is  reddish-brown  in  color.     .     .     . 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES  403 

Distribution.  —  Spruce  does  not  extend  as  far  south  as  does  pine,  but  it  reaches 
much  farther  north,  and  its  range  is  far  more  extensive.  It  is  irregularly  distributed; 
its  narrowest  zone  is  southwest  ward.  The  region  occupied  by  spruce  broadens  as 
you  go  through  Central  Europe  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  from  the  Maritime  Alps, 
a  httle  below  44°,  on  the  one  side,  to  near  the  Iceland  Sea,  not  far  from  Cape  North 
(69°).  In  France,  there  is  little  spruce  west  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  Alps  to  the  Vosges; 
nor  in  Belgium,  Holland,  lower  North  Germany  (up  to  the  Vistula  River),  Denmark, 
and  the  British  Isles.  To  the  south,  Spain,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Italy  (except  the  Lom- 
bard Alps  and  Venetia),  Greece,  and  the  greater  part  of  Turkey  are  all  outside  the  spruce 
zone.  So  it  is  with  southern  and  eastern  Russia  where  Norway  spruce  does  not  extend 
beyond  Moscow  and  Archangel  (39°  longitude).  .  .  .  (The  Siberian  Picea,  which 
goes  farther  north,  is,  as  yet,  inaccurately  delimited). 

Habitat.  —  In  the  north  (in  Norway  for  example),  spruce  comes  to  sea  level,  but,  as 
regards  its  upper  limit,  scarcely  reaches  higher  than  655  feet.  ...  In  the  Tyrol 
(at  46°  45'  north  latitude),  spruce  grows  up  to  6,807  feet;  in  the  Engadine  (at  44°  40'), 
up  to  6,926  feet;  at  Mont  Ventoux  (44°),  up  to  5,643  feet.  As  the  upper  limit  extends, 
the  tree  leaves  the  plains  and  valley  bottoms.  .  .  .  The  lower  limit  is  about  2,000 
feet  in  the  Vosges  and  Jura  Mountains,  and  2,600  feet  in  the  Maritime  Alps.  In 
France,  therefore,  spruce  is  distinctly  a  mountain  species  which  reaches  up  to  the  Alpine 
region  and  is  characteristic  of  a  higher  vegetative  zone  than  is  the  silver  fir.     .     .     . 

Soil.  —  Any  moist  soil,  no  matter  what  its  geological  and  mineralogical  formation,  is 
suitable  for  spruce,  provided  it  is  neither  too  compact  nor  too  porous.  A  peaty  soil, 
while  not  favorable,  is  not  absolutely  objectionable.  In  dry  and  arid  soil  spruce  can 
sometimes  live,  but  it  does  not  prosper.  Under  such  conditions  the  foliage  is  yellow 
rather  than  a  dark  green  color  (so  generally  characteristic),  the  needles  short,  the  cones 
plentiful  but  half  grown  (one-third  or  one-fourth  the  usual  size). 

Vegetation.  —  Spruce  requires  a  mean  July  temperature  of  at  least  10°  C.  (50°  F.), 
but  not  more  than  18°  75'  C.  (66°  F.);  a  mean  January  temperature  not  below  12°  5'  C. 
(54°  5'  F.)  (Willkomm).  It  requires,  above  all,  a  moist  atmosphere,  frequent  rainfalls, 
and  heavy  dews  so  that  the  surface  soil  may  be  kept  fresh  —  absolutely  necessary  for 
such  a  shallow-rooted  species. 

Timber.  —  Spruce  wood  is  generally  whiter  than  pine;  some  spruce  from  northern 
Europe,  however,  is  very  light  red  (like  Scotch  pine)  and  is  indicative  of  inferior  quality. 
This  reddish  spruce  timber  comes  from  trees  grown  in  marshy  soils,  chiefly  of  the  Siberian 
variety.  .  .  .  The  sapwood  has  the  same  value  as  the  heartwood;  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  is  scarcely  distinguishable.  .  .  .  Spruce  boards  generally  have  smaller  but 
more  numerous  knots  than  pine.  In  most  cases,  these  branch  knots  are  loose.  .  .  . 
Density  varies  according  to  the  growth  conditions;  for  air  dried  timber  the  specific 
gravity  varies  from  0.337  to  0.597. 

Uses.  —  Spruce  timber  is  lighter  and  weaker  than  pine  but  serves  the  same  uses. 
.  .  .  It  is  soft,  spongy,  and  of  inferior  quality  at  lower  elevations  because  of  too 
rapid  .growth.  Near  the  upper  limits  of  habitat,  however,  it  .  .  .  may  be  worth 
from  one-quarter  to  one-fifth  more  than  pine  timber.  To  sum  up:  it  is  a  first-rate 
building  and  manufacturing  timber.  .  .  .  The  straight,  clear  boles  make  excellent 
masts.  .  .  .  The  regular  fiber  makes  splitting  very  easy  .  .  .  it  is  prepared 
for  baskets  and  for  shingles  .  .  .  and  almost  exclusively  (under  the  name  of 
"sounding  wood"),  for  sounding  boards  of  musical  instruments  —  pianos,  viohns,  etc. 
.  .  .  Match  factories  also  use  considerable  quantities  of  spruce  wood.  Reduced 
by  machinery  to  a  soft  paste  or  pulp  it  supplies,  besides,  the  raw  material  for  high 
quahty  papers  and  pasteboards. 

Fuel  Value.  —  The  fuel  value  of  spruce,  as  compared  with  beech,  is  as  70  is  to  100. 


404 


APPENDIX 


.     .     .     According  to  T.  Hartig  the  fuel  value  of  spruce,  as  compared  with  other  species 
under  identical  vegetative  conditions,  is  as  follows : 


Spruce 

Scotch  pine 

Beech 

Oak 

Birch 

Alder 


5,110 
3.600 
3,500 
3,150 
2,890 
2,200 


By-Products.  —  Spruce  is  tapped  for  rosin  by  .  .  .  means  of  long,  narrow, 
longitudinal  incisions  or  slashes  clean  through  the  bark;  the  large  radiating  channels 
in  the  liber  allow  the  turpentine  to  ooze  out  abundantly.  Those  slashes  need  only  be 
widened  from  time  to  time,  through  the  new  liber  layers,  in  order  to  secure  the  gum 
product  up  to  a  very  old  age.  This  operation  is  quite  profitable  and  is  practiced  on 
an  extensive  scale  in  the  North;  but  it  weakens  the  trees  and  decreases  their  size.  In 
France  it  is  all  the  more  objectionable  since  in  most  cases  .  .  .  instead  of  just 
gashing  the  bark,  deep  cuts  are  needlessly  made  into  the  wood.  .  .  .  Turpentine, 
colophony,  "Burgundian"  tar,  and  lamp  black  are  manufactured.  The  bark  contains 
some  tannin  and  is  used  (in  higher  Jura,  for  instance)  for  curing  leather;  for  this  purpose 
the  bark  of  trees  from  60  to  80  years  of  age  is  preferred.  In  some  countries  the  natives 
pulverize  the  inner  liber  (freed  from  its  rhytidome)  and  obtain  a  kind  of  flour  which, 
either  pure  or  mixed  with  barley  flour,  is  used  to  make  bread.  The  seed  contains 
from  20  to  25  per  cent  of  fat,  non-siccative  oil. 

Silvicultural  Characteristics.  —  Like  the  fir,  the  spruce  should  be  maintained  in  a 
dense  stand.  .  .  .  More  than  any  other  conifer  it  can  survive  in  very  dense  stands 
which  enable  it  to  return  very  large  yields.  It  is  advantageously  managed  as  high 
forest,  but  when  it  is  very  exposed  or  liable  to  wind-fall  it  is  better  to  mix  it  with  beech, 
fir,  or  larch.  ...  On  account  of  its  hardiness  it  is  a  good  species  for  natural  re- 
generation by  clear  cutting.  No  other  species  is  so  easily  transplanted.  It  is  adaptable 
to  most  any  soil.     .     .     . 

EUROPEAN   LARCH 
(Larix  europea) 

Larch  is  a  large-sized  tree,  with  a  slender,  straight  bole  98  to  115  feet  in  height  and  up 
to  27  inches  in  diameter.  ...  In  Silesia,  a  larch  has  been  measured  which  is  178 
feet  high  and  3.3  feet  in  diameter,  breast-high. 

Habit.  —  The  crown  is  shaped  like  a  narrow,  long  acute  pyramid.  .  .  .  The 
branches  are  numerous,  tapering,  thin  and  generally  pendant;  the  branches  of  forest- 
grown  trees  form  only  one-sixth  the  total  volume  (stump  wood  included). 

Root  System.  —  There  are  several  main  roots.  These  penetrate  to  a  considerable 
depth  at  oblique  angles,  and  from  these  spring  a  large  number  of  rootlets;  the  tap  root 
is  obliterated  wuthin  the  first  few  years.  The  actual  stump  and  root  timber  comprises 
about  10  per  cent  or  11  per  cent  of  the  total  volume. 

Leaves.  —  The  first  spring  leaves  of  the  larch  are  almost  exclusively  in  bundles; 
one  month  later  solitary  leaves  appear  and  also  the  young  shoots.  .  .  .  The  leaves 
form  a  somewhat  thin  crown  that  is  hght  demanding. 

Seeding.  —  When  grown  in  temperate  regions  the  larch  may  seed  early;  but  seeds 
are  then  sterile  and  it  is  only  in  middle  age  that  fructification  is  regular.     The  cones 


IMPORTANT  FOREST   SPECIES  405 

sometimes  open  in  autumn,  but  usually  during  the  following  spring.  They  are  per- 
sistent and,  when  empty,  are  brownish-black  in  color;  they  are  readily  distinguishable 
from  the  new  reddish-gray  cones. 

Seed.  —  Larch  seed  falls  in  March;  if  the  ground  is  then  covered  with  crusted  snow 
seeds  in  the  hollows  where  they  have  been  carried  by  the  wind  are  easily  gathered  with 
a  broom.  Another  way  of  gathering  seed  in  March  is  by  beating  the  branches  with  a 
pole  and  collecting  them  in  sheets  at  the  foot  of  the  tree.  Seeds  so  gathered  are  better 
in  quality  than  those  obtained  by  artificially  opening  the  cones  by  heat.  The  suc- 
cessful extraction  of  seeds  is  difficult  if  the  heat  is  at  all  above  the  normal  15°  C.  to 
17°  C.  (59°  F.  to  62.6°  F.).  The  rosin  contained  in  the  cones  becomes  fluid  and  seals 
the  scales.  Seeds  purchased  in  the  market  are  rarely  more  than  34  per  cent  to  45  per  cent 
good;  sometimes  much  less.  An  easy  test  may  be  made  by  putting  the  seeds  into  water; 
those  that  float  are  usually  sterile.  .  .  .  When  seeds  are  fresh  they  average  58,000 
to  the  pound,  58,300  to  a  quart.  If  fresh,  germination  is  rapid  —  within  3  to  4  weeks. 
They  may  be  preserved  for  3  to  4  years,  but  in  the  latter  case  the  germination  is  propor- 
tionately slower.  Seedlings  may  not  sprout  until  the  second  or  even  the  third  year.  In 
the  lowlands  a  good  plan  is  to  soak  the  seeds  in  water  for  10  to  15  days  before  spring 
sowing;  the  softening  greatly  facilitates  and  hastens  germination. 

Seedlings.  —  Seedlings  have  five  to  seven  cotyledons  (generally  six)  and  immediately 
produce  a  shoot  with  solitary  unindented  leaves  (leaves  of  silver  fir  and  pine  are  indented 
at  the  edges).  At  first  small  and  slender,  the  seedling  reaches,  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, some  4  to  5  inches  in  height  at  the  end  of  the  first  year;  its  tap  root  is  then  from  6 
to  10  inches  according  to  the  soil.  The  seedling  grows  to  2  to  3  feet  in  height  at  the  end 
of  2  or  3  years. 

Bark.  —  The  bark  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  pines,  both  on  account  of  its 
creviced,  scaly  surface  and  because  of  its  structure  and  method  of  growth.  There  are, 
however,  some  differences.     .     .     . 

Distribution.  —  Its  habitat  coincides  with  the  high  mountains  of  Central  Europe 
forming  a  narrow  strip  westerly  and  southwesterly,  from  the  Maritime  and  Dauphine 
Alps  to  the  North  and  South  Carpathians,  about  20  degrees,  from  the  third  to  the 
twenty-third  degree  of  longitude.  Its  southern  limit  is  beyond  Nice;  its  northern  hmit 
does  not  reach  in  the  Carpathians  beyond  the  fiftieth  degree  of  latitude.  This  species 
thus  is  confined  to  the  high  mountain  areas  of  middle  latitudes  and  does  not  extend  (like 
the  spruce  or  silver  fir)  to  the  northern  plains.  Perhaps  it  would  not  find  there  the 
sum  of  the  temperature,  that  is  1,672°  C,  that  it  requires  during  the  vegetative  period. 
Spruce  is  less  exacting,  being  satisfied  with  1,450°  C. 

Larch  grows  naturally  in  France  only  in  the  Savoy,  Dauphine,  and  Provence  Alps, 
where  it  begins  at  an  altitude  of  3,281  feet  in  the  North,  3,940  feet  in  the  South,  and 
reaches  up  to  8,200  feet  (and  with  cembric  pine,  the  extreme  limits  of  vegetation,  in  the 
Alpine  pastures). 

The  vegetative  requirements  are:  At  least  1°  C.  (33.8°  F.)  and  at  most  8°  C.  (46.4°  F.) 
annual  temperature  with  a  rest  of  at  least  4  months.  Larch  prefers  well-sheltered  coves 
at  high  altitudes  but  does  well  on  calcary,  dolomite,  schist,  or  sandy  soils,  if  they  are 
sufficiently  light,  fresh,  and  deep.  Larch  will  not  stand  crowding;  the  forests  are 
therefore  always  open,  with  fine  grass  which  can  be  regularly  cut  or  grazed.  It  even 
helps  to  restore  the  range  where  impoverished  by  overgrazing. 

Endeavors  have  been  made  to  grow  larch  outside  its  natural  habitat.  ...  It  wiU 
often  grow  with  remarkable  vigor  during  youth,  but  shows  early  signs  of  premature  de- 
cline.    In  these  cases  its  timber  is  of  poor  quahty  (but  very  useful  ...  for  hop  poles). 

Timber.  —  Larch  timber  has  a  very  conspicuous  and  well  defined  light  yellow  sap- 
wood,  containing  six  to  twenty  annual  rings  which  form  as  a  rule  a  very  thin  layer. 


406  APPENDIX 

This  is  especially  so  with  slow-growing  veterans.  The  heart  wood  is  reddish-brown, 
veined  with  rings  of  darker  colored  fallwood.  .  .  .  WTien  completely  air  dried  wood 
from  mountain-grown  trees  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.557  to  0.686  —  0.456  to  0.531  if 
grown  at  lower  elevations. 

Uses.  —  Larch  is  the  "  momitain  oak."  Its  timber  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  to  be 
found  in  French  forests;  its  complete  lignification  and  its  great  richness  in  rosin  make  it 
very  durable  and  the  regularity  and  thinness  of  the  annual  rings,  as  well  as  their  ar- 
rangement in  alternate  soft  and  hard  zones,  give  it  remarkable  strength  and  resiliency. 
It  does  not  crack;  it  is  not  attacked  by  insects,  and  is  suitable  for  .  .  .  mast  and 
ship  building.  In  Russia  it  is  even  used  for  ship-ribs  .  .  .  shingles,  staves,  and 
barrels  made  of  this  wood  have  the  advantage  of  allowing  very  little  evaporation;  vine 
props  and  water  pipes  made  of  larch  wiU  last  almost  indefinitely. 

Fuel  Value.  —  As  firewood  larch  crackles  and  throws  sparks,  even  more  so  than 
other  resinous  woods.  On  the  other  hand  it  has  a  fairly  high  fuel  value.  Charcoal 
obtained  from  larch,  as  compared  with  beech,  is  of  good  quality  and  better  than  that 
from  pine  or  spruce. 

Tapping  for  Resin.  —  Turpentine  is  fairly  abundant  in  larch.  .  .  .  There  are 
various  methods  of  tapping  for  resin;  the  following  is  practiced  in  the  Valais  by  the 
Lombardians : 

With  an  auger  1.2  inches  in  diameter  holes  are  bored  2  feet  from  the  ground.  These 
holes  are  incUned  upward  a  httle  .  .  .  point  to  the  center  of  the  tree  but  do  not 
reach  it.  .  .  .  The  openings  are  fitted  with  wooden  or  bar  gutters  and  a  trough 
placed  underneath.  A  tree  may  yield  on  an  average  85  to  100  grams  of  turpentine  a 
year  for  40  to  60  consecutive  years  if  care  is  taken  to  plug  thoroughly  the  holes  during 
winter;  the  total  quantity  may  reach  5.5+  pounds  (Varchland).  ...  It  seems 
that  larch  trees  so  tapped     .      .     .     are  fit  only  for  firewood.     .     .     . 

In  the  southern  Tyrol  another  method  is  used.  In  the  spring  a  horizontal  (1.1  inches 
in  diameter)  hole  is  bored  at  the  base  of  thrifty  trees  right  to  the  centre;  if  the  tree 
stands  on  a  slope  the  hole  is  bored  into  the  upper  side.  The  aperture  is  securely  plugged 
with  a  wooden  stopper.  Turpentine  gathers  in  the  hole  during  the  summer  and  in  the 
autumn  it  is  scooped  out  with  a  specially  shaped  spoon;  then  the  plug  is  put  back.  At 
the  end  of  a  year  another  quantity  of  turpentine  is  scooped  out  and  so  on  from  year  to 
year  (Hugo  Vohl).  This  method,  though  infinitely  less  productive,  does  not  injure 
the  trees  and  there  is  no  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  timber  (Wessely). 

Larch  turpentine  is  known  as  "Venetian  Turpentine"  .  .  .  it  is  purer  and  better 
quality  than  that  distilled  from  pine. 

By-Products.  —  Larch  leaves  secrete  a  peculiar  resinous  substance,  which  solidifies 
in  the  shape  of  small  whitish  grains,  and  which  is  prescribed  by  doctors  as  an  aperient 
under  the  name  of  "Brian^on  Manna."  Young  bark  is  used  for  tanning,  and  in  some 
German  States  larch  is  extensively  cultivated  on  account  of  the  excellent  quality  of  its 
bark;  it  is  used  also  for  brown  dyeing. 

Silvicultural  Characteristics.  —  In  the  high  mountains  where  the  larch  is  found 
the  stands  must  combat  the  rigorous  climate,  the  rough  soil,  steep  slopes,  and  grazing. 
Moreover,  the  management  of  any  forest  is  always  a  delicate  matter  because  the  least 
error  may  possibly  occasion  irreparable  disasters.  Because  of  its  extreme  intolerance 
the  larch  does  not  grow  well  in  more  than  one  story.  Rather  open  stands  composed  of 
trees  of  the  same  height  is  preferable  to  any  other  method.  To  continue  such  a  condition 
it  is  necessary  to  favor  it  in  every  way,  not  only  when  young,  but  even  toward  the  end 
of  the  rotation  when  regeneration  is  necessary.  If  there  is  sufficient  light  the  natural 
seeding  is  possible  in  the  grass  which  usually  covers  the  ground  in  larch  forests.  At  its 
lower  limits  of  growth  the  larch  can  be  advantageously  mixed  with  spruce,  mountain 


IMPORTANT  FOREST  SPECIES 


407 


pine,  and  Scotch  pine.  It  can  even  be  treated  under  the  selection  system  adapted  to 
these  other  species.  In  pastures  at  high  elevations,  when  retained  in  groups,  it  protects 
the  cattle  and  at  the  same  time  furnishes  excellent  products.     .     .     . 

ALEPPO   PINE 

(Pinus  halepensis) 

Soil  and  Climate.  —  This  Mediterranean  species  is  very  liable  to  damage  from 
winter  frosts.  .  .  .  It  is  confined  to  the  limestone  soils  of  the  temperate  Provence. 
It  grows  satisfactorily  on  rocky  slopes  stripped  of  vegetation  and  scorched  by  the  sun. 

Tolerance.  —  The  seedling  is  very  hardy  but  intolerant.  On  account  of  its  drought- 
resisting  qualities  it  is  a  very  valuable  tree. 

Root  System  and  Seeding.  —  The  tap  root  is  the  dominant  root,  but  the  laterals 
are  well  developed  and,  unfortunate^,  remain  shallow.  Aleppo  pine  bears  abundant 
seed  at  an  early  period  and  it  is  characterized  by  the  persistence  of  the  open  cones,  which 
remain  attached  to  the  branch  for  an  indefinite  period. 

Growth  Longevity.  —  The  aleppo  pine  has  quite  a  rapid  growth,  nevertheless  it  does 
not  exceed  the  size  of  a  secondary  species.  Toward  20  years  it  forms  a  tree  with  a 
slender,  sweeping  bole;  when  the  growth  slows  up  at  an  advanced  age  the  crown  increases 
in  size  and  becomes  umbrella-shaped  like  the  stone  pine  {Pinus  pinea) . 

Wood  and  Its  Uses.  —  The  wood,  of  mediocre  quality,  is,  nevertheless,  used  con- 
siderably by  carpenters,  and  furnishes  quite  a  good  deal  of  saw  timber  for  packing  boxes 
and  crates.     As  a  fire  wood  it  is  valuable  for  certain  kinds  of  factories. 

Silvicultural  Characteristics.  —  Aleppo  pine  is  usually  not  found  pure.  Ordinarily  it 
forms  forests  where  grazing  is  allowed,  in  mixture  with  holm  oak  and  other  broadleaf 
trees.  These  are  managed  as  coppice,  with  the  aleppo  pine  reserved  until  it  reaches 
merchantable  dimensions.     Under  these  conditions  the  tree  regenerates  very  early. 

TREES,   SHRUBS,   AND   PLANTS   USED    IN   REFORESTATION   IN   THE 
MOUNTAINS 


Large-leaved  linden  (Tilia  platyphyllos). 
Sycamore  maple  {Acer  pseudo-platanus) . 
Tree  of  heaven  {Ailanthus  glandulosa) . 
Locust  {Rohinia  pseudacacia) . 
Scotch  laburnum  {Laburnum  vulgare). 
Sweet  cherry  {Cerasus  avium). 
Mahaleb  cherry  {Cerasus  mahaleb). 
Whitebeam  {Sorbus  aria). 
Mountain  ash  {Sorbus  aucuparia). 
Common  ash  {Fraxinus  excelsior). 
Scotch  elm  {Ulmus  montana). 
Beech  {Fagus  sylvatica). 
Chestnut  {Castanea  sativa). 
Sessile  oak  {Quercus  robur  sessiliflora) . 
Holm  oak  {Quercus  ilex). 
Hop-hornbeam  {Ostrya  carpinfolia) . 
Silver  birch  {Belula  verrucosa). 
Black  alder  {Alnus  glutinosa). 
Grey  alder  {Ahius  incana). 


Green  alder  {Alnus  viridis). 

Willow  {Salix). 

White  poplar  {Populus  alba). 

Aspen  poplar  {Populus  tremula). 

Black  poplar  {Populus  nigra). 

Upright  cypress  {Cupressus  sempervirens) . 

Silver  fir  {Abies  pectinata). 

Norway  spruce  {Picca  excelsa). 

European  larch  {Larix  europea). 

Mount  Atlas  cedar  {Cedrus  atlantica). 

Scotch  pine  {Pinus  sylvestris). 

Corsican  pine  {Pinus  laricio). 

Austrian  pine  {Pinus  austriaca). 

Pyrenees   black  pine   {Pinus  laricio  mon- 

speliensis)  .^ 
Aleppo  pine  {Pinus  halepensis). 
Maritime  pine  {Pinus  pinaster). 
Swiss  stone  pine  {Pinus  cembra). 


*  See  page  68,  Vol.  I,  Restauration  et  Conservation  des  Terrain  en  Montagues. 

^  Salzmann  first  published  this  form  as  Pinus  monspeliensis .  Later  Dunal  published 
it  as  Pinus  salzmannii,  probably  not  knowing  that  Salzmann  had  previously  described 
and  published  it  as  P.  monspeliensis.  Salzmann's  name  must,  of  course,  have  prece- 
dence over  Dunal's  P.  salzmannii,  and  this  fact  would  prevent  the  use  of  the  common 
name  "Salzmann  pine." 


408  APPENDIX 

SHRUBS 

Common  clematis  {Clematis  vitalba). 
"Tanners'  sumac"  [Coriaria  myrtifolia) . 
Rest-harrow  {Ononis  fruticosa) . 

Kidney  vetch  (the  species  used  was  probably  A.  vulneraria,  "sand  clover,"  or  "wound- 
wort"). 
Smooth-fruited  apricot  {Prunus  brigantiaca) . 
Sea  buckthorn  {Hippophoe  rhamnoides). 
Filbert  {Corylus  avellana). 
Common  juniper  {Juniperus  communis). 

PERENNIAL  HERBACEOUS  PLANTS 

Alpine  poppy  {Papaver  alpinum). 
Yellow  pansy  {Viola  lutea). 
Alpine  flax  {Linum  alpinum). 
Alpine  clover  {Trifolium  alpinum). 

Sainfoin;  Holly  clover  {Onobrychis  saliva).     (Now  known  as  0.  vickvfolia). 
Creeping  avens  {Geum  reptans). 
Laserwort  {Laserpitiiim  gallicum). 
Pyrenean  valerian  {Valeriana  pyrenaica). 
Alpine  plantain  {Plantago  alpina). 

Feather-grass  {Stipa  calamagrostis) .     {L.  is  antedated  by  stipa,  which  is  now  very  gen- 
erally recognized.) 
Perennial  oats  {A  vena  sempervirens). 
Common  false-oat  {Arrhenatherum  avenaceiwi). 
Sheep's  fescue  {Fetuca  ovina) . 
"Fenasse  brun"  (probably  a  species  of  heather). 


PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE   FORESTS 


409 


APPENDIX  D 

STATISTICS   ON  PUBLIC   AND   PRIVATE  FORESTS   OVER  FIVE 
THOUSAND   ACRES   IN   AREA 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  State  and  communal  forests  over  5,000  acres  in  extent. 
It  has  been  arranged  by  departments  and  shows  for  each  forest  the  arrondissement, 
the  area  in  acres,  chief  species,  treatment,  and  the  rotation. 


Department 


Arrondissement 


Name  of  forest 


Area 

(acres) 


Chief  species  ' 


Treat- 
ment t 


Ain 

L'Aisne. 

L'Aisne. 

L'Aisne. 

L'Aisne. 

L'AIliSr. 


None. 


Laon 

Laon 

Vervins 

Montlugon.  .  .  . 
Barcelonnette. 


Hautes-Alpes 

Hautes-Alpes — 

Hautes-AIpes 

AIpes-Mari  times . 

L'Ardeche 

Ardennes 


BrianQon. 
Embrun.. 
Embrun. 


None 

Privas. . . 
Mezieres. 


Ardennes. 
Ardennes. 
L'Ariege.. 
L'Ariege.. 
L'Ariege.. 


Rocroi 

Sedan 

Foix 

Foix 

Saint-Giro  ns. 


L'AriSge . 

L'Aube. . 
L'Aube.. 


Saint-Girons. 


Bar-sur-Aube. 
Bar-sur-Seine. 


L'Aude... 
L'Aveyror 


None 

Espalion. 


Retz 

St.-Gobain-Coucy 

St.  Michel 

Troucais 

Meolans,    Revel... 


Nevache. . 
Ceillac .  . . . 
Guillestre. 


31,128 
10,376 
5,323 
7,569 

25,785 
8,481 

6,580 
5,723 
6,521 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  Scotch  pine, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Fir,        spruce,        larch, 

Scotch  pine,  cembric 


Bourg-Saint-Andeol 
Signy-l'Abbaye. 


Revin. 
Sedan. 


I'Ancien     Consulat 

de  Foix 
Hares 


Clairvaux . 
Rumilly.. 


4,972 
7,860 

8,463 

10,497 

7,631 

7,173 

5,733 

6,563 

10,502 
5,656 


Larch,  Scotch 
mountain  pine 

Larch,  Scotch 
mountain  pine 

Larch,  Scotch 
mountain  pine 


Sessile  oak,  holm  oak 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  birch,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Beech,     fir,     mountain 

pine 
Beech 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,     hornbeam,     mis. 

bd.  Ivs. 


C. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

c.u.s. 
c.u.s. 

c.u.s. 

H.F. 
H.F. 


H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 

H.F. 
H.F. 


Beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


C. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

C.U.S 

Conv. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 


150 
Unknown 
160 
35 
35 

30-33 

180 

Unknown 

80-200 


20-25 
30-32-: 


25-30 

Unknown 
30 
30 

120-144 
40 
140 
Unknown 

20 
Unknown 
144 
36 
Unknown 
30 
175 

162 
30 
15-18 


*  Mis.  bd.  Ivs.  : 
t  C.  =  coppice; 


=  Miscellaneous  broadleaves. 

Conv.  =  conversion;    H.F.  =  high  forest;   C.U.S.  =  coppice-under-standards. 


410 


APPENDIX 


Department 


Belfort 

Bouches-du- 
Rhone 

Calvados 

Cantal 

Charente 


Charente- 

Inferieure 
Cher 


Cher..., 
Correze . 
Corse . . . 


Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse. 
Corse. 

Corse. 


Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse. 
Corse . 
Corse . 

Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse. 

Corse . 


Corse 

Corse 

Cote-d'Or. 
Cote-d'Or. 
Cote-d'Or. 


Arrondissement 


None. 
None. 


None 

None 

.■^ngouleme. 


Bo  urges 
None.. . 
Ajaccio. 


.\jaccio. 
.Ajaccio. 
\jaccio. 
Corte . . . 


Corte. 
Calvi. 


Calvi. 

Calvi, 

Calvi. 
Corte. 
Corte. 

Corte. 

Corte. 

Corte. 

Corte. 


Sartene. 
Sartene. 
Beaune. 


Ch§,tillon-sur- 

Seine 
Chatillon-sur- 

Seine 


Name  of  forest 


d'Allogny 


Bastelica. . . 
Bocognano. 


d'fivisa. 
Zicavo . . 

Corte.... 


Marmano. . 
Calenzana. 


d'Albertacce,  Cala- 
cuccia,  Casamac- 
cioli,  Corsica, 

Lozzi  (dite  du 
Fango) 

Fango 

Tartagir 


Valdoniello 

d'Albertacce 

soumise  d'Asco. 


Ghisoni. 
Tova.... 
Vivario . , 


Carbini,  Figari,  Le- 
vie  (massif  de 
Cagna) 

Zonza 


Barocaggio- 

Marghese 

Citeaux,  .  . . 


Chatillon. 
Chaume. . 


Area 

(acres) 


5,459 

8,555 
5,743 
5,424 


5,439 

7,445 


9,862 
6,877 


10,954 
5,555 


6,012 
5,221 

10,129 
6,768 
8,626 

21,550 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 
birch,  Scotch  pine 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 


Holm   oak,   mis.    conif. 

and  bd.  Ivs. 
Mis.  beech 

Corsican  pine,  maritime 

pine,  holm  oak 
Beech,  corsican  pine 

Beech,    Corsican    pine, 

Maritime  pine 
Beech,  Corsican  pine 
Maritime  pine,  Corsican 

pine,  holm  oak 
Holm      oak,     maritime 

pine,  Corsican  pine 


Holm     oak,    maritime 

pine,  Corsican  pine 
Holm     oak,     maritime 

^-ne,  Corsican  pine 
Corsican  pine,  fir,  beech 
Corsican  pine 
Corsican  pine,  maritime 

pine 
Holm     oak,      Corsican 

pine,  maritime  pine 
Maritime  pine,  Corsican 

ne,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Beech,    Corsican 

maritime  pine 
Holm     oak,     marit 

pine,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


pine, 


Maritime  pine,  Corsican 

pine 
Maritime  pine,  Corsican 

pine 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  conif.  and  bd.lvs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


Treat- 
ment t 


H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

c. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 


C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 

H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 


H.F. 
C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 


PUBLIC   AND   PRIVATE  FORESTS 


411 


Department 


Arrondissement 


Name  of  forest 


Area 

(acres) 


Chief  species  * 


Treat- 
ment t 


Cote-d'Or. 
Cote-d'Or. 


C6tes-du-Nord . 

Creuse 

Dordogne 

Doubs 

Doubs 

Drome 


Dijon, 

Dijon . 

None. 
None. 
None. 


Pontarlier. 
Die 


Drome. 
Drome. 


L'Eure. 
L'Eure. 


Les  Andelys. 
Louviers .... 


D'Eure-et-Loir. 


FinistSre 

Gard 

Haute-Garonne 

Gers 

Gironde 

Gironde 

Gironde 

Gironde 


None 

None 

None 

None 

Bordeaux . 
Bordeaux. 
Bordeaux. 
Lesparre . . 


Gironde 

L'Herault 

D'llle-et-Vilaine 


L'Indre. 
L'lndre. 


Lesparre 

Montpellier . 
Rennes 


Chateauroux . 
Issoudun 


D'Indi'e-et-Loire 

D'lndre-et^Loire 

L'IsSre 

L'IsSre 


Chinon. 


L'ls^re. 
Jura.... 


Loches . . . 

Grenoble. 

Grenoble. 

Grenoble. 
Dole 


Poligny . 


Jura. 
Jura. 


Poligny . 
Poligny . 


Landes. 
Landes. 
Landes. 
Landes. 
Landes. 


Val-Suzon 

d'Is-sur-Tille. 


Besancon . 

Levier 

V'ercors . . . 


Lus-la-Crox- Haute. 


Lyons. 
Bord.. 


Teste 

Lege,  Garonne.  .  . 

Lacanau 

Soulac-Flamand- 
Hourtin 

Carcans 

Puechabon 


Chateauroux. 
Bonimiers . . . . 


Chinon. 


Loches 

Grande-Chartreuse 
Gresse 


5,199 
7,527 


5,078 
6,714 
8,691 

6,576 

8,135 

14,920 
8,649 


d'Autrans. 
Chaux 


Joux 

Poligny . 


Dax 

Dax 

Mont-de-Marsan 
Mont-de-Marsan 
Mont-de-Marsan 


Lit-et-Mixe 

Vielle-Saint-Girons . 

Mimizan 

Sainte-Eulalie 

Biscarrosse 


5,817 
10,230 
12,353 
12,835 

7,537 
5,019 
7,360 

12,704 
11,021 


16,306 
5,550 


5,550 

7,705 


6,534 
7,344 


6,395 
8,175 
8,123 
6,131 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


Oak,  beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs 

Hr,  spruce 

Beech,  fir,  spruce,  mis, 

bd.  Ivs. 
Beech,  fir,  Scotch  pine 

Beech,  fir 

Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

Scotch  pine,  mis.  bd, 

Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  conif .  and  bd.  Ivs 


Maritime  pine 
Maritime  pine 
Maritime  pine 
Maritime  pine 

Maritime  pine 

Holm  oak 

Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam,  mis. 
bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  Scotch  pine,  mari- 
time   pine,    mis.    bd. 

Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Beech,  fir,  spruce,  mis. 

bd.  Ivs. 
Beech,  fir,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Beech,  fir,  spruce 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Fir,  spruce 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Maritime  pine 
Maritime  pine 
Maritime  pine 
Maritime  pine 
Maritime  pine 


C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 


C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F 

C. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

Conv. 

H.F. 
Conv. 
C.U.S. 


H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 

H.F. 

C. 

Conv. 

Conv. 
C.U.S. 
Conv. 
H.F. 


H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 


28,30 

32 

30 


150,  180 

90,  150 

Unknown 

180 
150 
25 


60 
70 
66,67 

60 
20 
120 


25-30 
Unknown 
Unknown 


150,  180 
150-180 

162 

30 
117 

30 
Unknown 

30-33 

Unknown 
30 

Unknown 

75 
Unknown 

70,75 

60 


412 


APPENDIX 


Department 


Arrondissement 


Name  of  forest 


Area 
(acres 


Treat- 
ment 


Russy. 


Loir-et-Cher . 
Loir-et-Cher. 


Blois. 
Blois. 


Blois 

Boulogne. 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 
Scotch  pine,  mis.  bd 
Ivs. 

Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 
Scotch  pine,  mis.  bd 


H.F. 
H.F. 


Loire 

Haute-Loire. . . 
Loire-Inferieurc 


Loiret . 
Loiret . 


None 

None 

Paimbceuf . 


Orleans.... 
Montargis. 


Gavre 

d 'Orleans. 
Montargis. 


11,0.33 
84,618 
10,262 


Oak,  beech,  birch,  mari- 
time pine 

Oak,  hornbeam,  birch 
Scotch  pine 

Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 
Scotch  pine 


Lot 

Lot-et-Garonne. 

Lozere 

Maine-et-Loire  . 

La  Manche 

Marne 


None 

None 

None. . . . 

None 

None 

fipernay . 


Marne 

Haute-Marne . 
Haute-Marne. 
Haute-Marne. 


Vitre-le-Franfois 

Langres 

Wassy 

Wassy 


Traconne 

Trois-Fontair 
Auberive 


Roches     and     Bet 

taincourt 
Doulaincourt 


6,051 
12,384 
13,386 
5,577 
5,352 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


Mayenne. . . . 
Meurthe-et- 

Moselle 
Meurthe-et- 

Moselle 
Meurthe-et- 

Moselle 
Meurthe-et- 

Moselle 
Meuse 


None, 
riey. 


Meuse. . 
Morbiha 
Nievre . 

Ni^vre . 
Nord... 


Luneville. ., 
Luneville.. . 

Nancy 

Bar-Ie-Duc. 

Bar-le-Duc. 

None 

Cosne 


Moyeuvre. 

iSiieux 

Parroy 

de  Haye... 
Beaulieu . . 
Lisle 


5,216 
5,145 
6,4.35 
15,913 

6,467 
0,674 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  fir,  Scotch 

pine,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
)ak,   beech,     mis.     bd 

Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

is.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,    beech,    mis.    bd 

vs.  and  conifers 
Oak,  beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs 


Bertranges . 


Nevers ,  . 
Avesnes. 


de  Guerigny. 
Mormal 


Nord. 
Nord. 


L'Oise. 
L'Oise. 
L'Oise, 


Hazebrouck . . 
Valenciennes . 

Compiegne. . . 

Compiegne. . . 

Senlis 


Nieppe 

St.  Amand. 


Laigue 

Compiegne . 
Chantilly.  . 


9,795 
5,644 
22,650 

6,215 

8,192 

9,439 
35,650 
13,299 


Oak, 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

leech,  hornbeam 
bd.  ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  Scotch  pine, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

nd  conifers 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  conifers  and  bd. 

Ivs. 


c.u.s. 

H.F. 
Conv. 


C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
Conv. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 


Conv. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 


C.U.S. 


C.U.S. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 
C.V.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 


30 
Unknown 
150 
30 


150 
35 
30 
Unknown 
72 


PUBLIC  AND   PRIVATE  FORESTS 


413 


Department 


Arrondissement 


Name  of  forest 


Area 

(acres) 


Chief  species  * 


Treat- 

mentt 


L'Oise.. 
L'Oise.. 
L'Orne. 
L'Orne 
L'Orne. 
L'Orne. 


Pas-de-Calais . . 
Puy-de-D6me. 


Basses-Pyrenees 
Basses-Pyrenees 


Hautes-Pyrenees 
Hautes-Pyrenees 

Hautes-Pyrenee 

Pyrenees-Orien- 
tales 

Du  Rhone 

Haute-Saone . . . 


Senlis 

Senlis 

Alengon. . . 
Domfront . 
Mortagne. 
Mortagne. 

Boulogne . . 

None 

Bayonne.  . 


Mauleon . 
Mauleon. 
Oloron.  . 
Oloron .  . 
Oloron .  . , 


Argeles-Gazost . 
Argeles-Gazost . 

Bagneres-de- 

Bigorre 
Prades 


None. 
Lure.  . 


Saone-et-Loire. 

Sarthe 

Sarthe 

Savoie 


Autun 

Saint  Calais . 

Mamers 

Albertville . . 


Haute-Savoie. . 

Seine 

Seine-et-Marne . 


Seine-et-Marn 
Seine-et-Oise. 
Seine-et-Oise . 

Seine-et-Oise . 


Seine-Init'rieure . 


None 

None 

Fontainebleau . 


Melun 

Corbeil 

Rambouillet. 


Versailles . 


d'Ermenonville. 

d'Halatte  

Ecouves 

Andainea 

Belleme 

Perche 

Boulogne 


7,337 


Saint-Pee-sur- 
Nivelle 

Cize 

Soule 

Arette 

Laruns 

Sainte-Marie.. 


Saint-Savin . 
Saint-Pie. . . . 


5,834 

7,794 
19,091 

14,621 
5,612 


9,133 
6,407 


Vallee  de  Barousse . 

Casteil 


St.  Antoine. 

Planoise 

Berce 

Persiegne 

Beaufort .  .  . . 


6,356 
13,403 
12,513 

5,172 


Fontainebleau . 


Villefermoy .  . 

Senart 

Rambouillet. 

Marley 


41,659 

5,506 
6,177 
32,316 


Dieppe 


Oak,  hornbeam,  Scotch 

pine,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

and  conifers 
Oak,       beech,       birch, 

Scotch  pine 
Oak,  beech,  Scotch  pine, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,       beech,       birch, 

Scotch  pine 
Oak,  beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


H.F. 

C.V.F. 

Conv. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 


Ped.  oak,  pyr.  oak 

Beech 

Beech,  fir 

Beech,  fir,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Beech,  fir 

Oak,  beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


Beech,  fir 

Beech,  fir,  mis.  bd. 


Oak,  beech,  fir 


Fir,      mountain      pine, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


P. 

C. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

Conv 

H.F. 

H.F. 


C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

Un- 
known 


Beech,   fir,  spruce,  mis 

bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  Scotch  pine 

maritime  pine 
Oak,  beech,  Scotch  pine, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Fir,  spruce 


H.F 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 


Oak,  beech,  hornbeam 
birch,  Scotch  pine 

Oak,     hornbeam,     mis 

bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  birch,  Scotch  pine, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

Scotch  pine,  mis.  bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak,   hornbeam,   chest- 
nut, mis.  conifers  and 

bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  hornbeam,  Scotch 

pine,    Austrian    pine, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Beech,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


H.F. 
H.F. 
C.V.F. 
C.V.F. 

C.V.F. 

C. 
H.F. 

H.F. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 
H.F. 
C.V.F. 
H.F. 


414 


APPENDIX 


Arrondissement 


Name  of  forest 


Area 

(acres) 


Chief  species  * 


Treat- 
ment t 


Seine-Inferieure 
Seine-Inferieure 


Seine-Inferieure 


Seine-Inferieure 


Neufchatel . 
Rouen 


Lyons 

Roumare. 


11,293 
10,025 


Trait-  Sai  nt-Wa  n- 
driile 


Crecy . 


Tarn 

Tarn 

Tarn-et-Garonne 

Var 

Var 


Cast  res. 
Gaillac. 


None 

Brignoles 

Draguignan. 


Saint-Arnans-Soult 
Gresigne 


5,258 
8,053 


Rians . . 
Bagnols 


Var. 


Var 

Vaucluse. 
Vaueluse. 

V'endee. . . 
Vendee . . . 
Vienne. . . 


Draguignan. 

Toulon 

Ax-ignon 

Carpentras .  . 


I'Esterel. 


Pierrefeu. 
Luberon. , 
Bedoin... 


Fontenay-le- 

Comte 
Sables-d'Olonr 


Vouvant 

Barre-de-Monts. 
Mouliere 


5,943 
6,630 

14,226 

6,968 
7,967 
15,568 

5,721 
6,395 
8,.320 


Beech,  oak,  hornbeam 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

Scotch  pine,  mis.  bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs.,  Scotch 

pine 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

Scotch  pine,  mis.  bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

Scotch  pine,  mis.  bd. 

ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

Scotch  pine,  mis.  bd. 

ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  beech 
Oak,     hornbeam,     mis. 

bd.  Ivs. 

White  oak,  holm  oak 
Cork     oak,       maritime 

pine 
Holm    oak,    cork    oak 

aleppo  pine,  maritime 

pine 
Cork      oak,     maritini( 

pine 
Holm  oak,  aleppo  pine 

White       oak,        beech, 
mountain  pine 

Oak,  chestnut,  mis.  bd 

Ivs. 
Maritime  pine,  m.is.  bd. 

Ivs. 
Oak,  beech,  hornbeain, 

maritime    pine,    mis 

bd.  Ivs. 


H.F. 
C.V.F. 
C.  Conv 
H.F. 
H.F. 


H.F. 
C.  Conv 


C.V.F. 
H.F. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C. 


C. 

H.F. 


H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 


Cor 


Haute-Vienne. 
Vosges 


None.. 

iSpinal. 


Vosges . 
Vosges . 


Epinal 

Mirecourt . 


d'fipinal 

Ramber-villers . 

Marti  nvelle.  .  .  . 


Vosges . 
Vosges . 


Remiremont . 
Remiremont . 


Bussange. 


Vosges . 
Vosges . 


Saint-Die. 
Saint-Die. 
Saint-Die . 


Gerardmer 

Bois-Sauvages. 
Senones 


5,602 
13,679 
13,064 

7,101 


11,809 
5,310 
10,332 


Oak,  beech,  fir,  spruce 

Scotch  pine 
Oak,  beech,  fir,  Scotch 

pine 
Oak,  beech,  hornbean: 

Scotch  pine 
Oak,  fir,  spruce 
Oak,  fir,  spruce 

Oak,  fir,  spruce 

Oak,  fir 

Fir,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


H.F. 

C.V.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 
H.F. 


150 
150-90 


30 

120 

30 
Unknown 
30 
150-156 


20 
Unknown 


Unknown 

25-30 
Unknown 

25-30 
Unknown 
Unknown 

25-30 
144 
Unknown 


144 
30 
144 
144 
160 

150 

138 
Unknown 

150 

150 

150 
Unknown 


IMPORTANT  PRIVATE   FORESTS 


415 


IMPORTANT  PRIVATE  FORESTS 

As  of  1912  (statistique  des  Forets  de  France)  the  important  private  forests  of  France 
(over  5,000  acres  or  2,024  hectares  in  area)  are  listed  below,  with  statistical  data  for  each 
unit: 


Department 


Arrondissement 


Name  of  forest 


Chief  i 


Treat- 
mentt 


L'Ain. 

Aisne. . 
Aillier. 
Aillier. 


Hautes-AIpes.... 
Alpes-Maritimes. 


Ardeche. . 
Ardennes . 
Ardennes . 


L' Ariege . 


L'Aube . 
L'Aube. 


Bourge. . 
Vervins. 
Gannat . 
Moulins. 


Couvandieres,     Prince, 

Genou,  Priay 
Nouvion 


Montpensier,  Charmeil 

Vendat 
Chapeau,  Leyde 


None.. 

None .  . 
Grasse. 


Largentiere . 

Mezieres 

Sedan 


Lagorce  (ou  bois 

d'Ajude) 
Mazarin,    d'finelle. 


Boux,  Bas,  Bourgogne, 

Chesne,  Voncq. 
Montsegur 


Bar-sur-Aube 
and  Troyes 

Bar-sur-Aube 
and  Troyes 


Troyes . 


d'Hugemenil.Soulaines 
Chant  ecoq,  Fulvy 
Ferrieres,  Pute-Bete, 
Bouron,  Arret,  Roth 
ere,  Beaulieu 

Grand-Orient,  Larivour 

Rumilly,  Aumont,  Cha 
ource,  Praslin,  Cus 
sangy,  Perchois,  Cha 
moin 

d'Othe 


7,883 
9,234 
6,311 

5,585 

6,919 

5,251 
7,030 
5,169 

17,223 
5,879 
6,049 


13,191 
13,640 


Oak,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  mis, 
bd.  ivs. 

Beech, oak,  spruce 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd, 
ivs. 


Holm  oak,  aleppo 
pine,  maritime 
pine 

Sessile  oak,  holm 
oak 

Oak,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  co- 
nifers and  bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Beech,  fir,  mis. 
bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Iv3. 


Oak,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


Oak,  hornbeam, 
Scotch  pine, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


C. 

c.u. 
c.u. 


H.F. 
C. 

C. 

c.u.s. 
c. 

C.U.S. 
H.F. 

C. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 


C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 


H.F. 

C.U.S. 


L'Aude 

L'Aveyron. . . . 

Belfort 

Bouches-du-  Rhone 

Bouches-du-Rhone 


Bouches-du-Rhone 
Bouches-du-Rhone 


None. 

None. 
None. 
Aix... 


Aix. 


Vitrolles 

Sainte-Victoire. 


6,116 

24,587 


I'Estaque.  . 
Saint-Paul . 


Aleppo  pine,  holm 

oak 
Sessile  oak,  holm 

oak,    mis.    bd 

Ivs. 
Aleppo  pine 
Sessile  oak,  holm 

oak 


H.F. 
C. 


H.F. 
C. 


12-25 
30,  35 


10-50 
18-20 

10-20 

25 

16,  17 

20-25 

Unknowi 


30 
70 
20-25 


20-25 
25 


50-60 
20-25 


•  Mis.  bd.  Ivs.  =  Miscellaneous  broadleaves. 
t  C.  =  coppice;  Conv.  =  conversion;  H.F.  = 


high  forest;  C.U.S.  =  coppice-under-standards. 


416 


APPENDIX 


Department        Arrondissement 


Name  of  forest 


Area 
(acres) 


Treat- 
ment t 


Bouches-du-Rhone 
Bouches-du-Rhone 


Bouches-du-Rhone 
Bouches-du-Rhone 


Marseille. . . 
Aix    and     Mar- 
seille 

Aries 

Marseille .  . . 


I'fitoile... 
Regagnas. 


Alpilles 

Roussargues . 


10,625 

8,525 


5,180 
22,832 


Cantal 

Charente 

Charente-Inferi- 

eure 
Cher 


Cher. 

Cher. 

Cher. 
Cher. 
Cher. 
Cher. 


Correze. 
Corse. . . 


C6tes-du-Nord . 


C6tes-du-Nord. 


Creuse .  . 
Dorgne . 


Dordogne . 

Dorgne. . . 
Dorgne .  .  . 


Pont-l'fiveque. 


Touques    (ou    de    St. 
Gatien) 


Aleppo  pine 
Sessile  oak,  holm 

oak,  aleppo  pine 
Holm  oak 
Aleppo  pine,  holi 

oak 
Oak,    beech,     fi 

mis.        conifers 

and  bd.  Ivs, 


H.F. 

H.F. 

C. 

C. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 
H.F. 


None 

Angouleme. 
Rochefort . . 


Rochechourart . 
Benon 


Bourges 

Saint-Amand. 

Saint-Amand. 

Saint-Amand. 
Saint-Amand. 

Sancerre 

Sancerre 


None .  .  . 
Sartene . 


Chatillon-sur 

Seine 


Dijon . 


None .  .  . . 
Bergerac . 


Bergerac . 

Bergerac . 
Sarlat.... 


Castelnau,  Civray,  etc. 

I'ficoron,  Primelles,  Lu 
nerette,Thoux,  Balay 
Effe,  Chateauneuf 

Parnay,  Meillant,  Grail- 
ly,  Fleuret,  Poudy 
Chailloux,  Contres 

d'Apremont,  Boucard, 
Les  Bouranis 

d'Aubigny,  Fournay.  . . 


d'li 


le-Pre. 


Boucard,  Sens-Beaujeju 
Villegenon 


7,413 
5,931 

6,178 

22,239 

17,792 

17,297 
8,402 
6,445 

5,881 


Oak,  chestnut 
Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs 

Oak,  hornbeam 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,     hornbeam, 
is.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  mis. 
bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


C. 
C. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 


C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 


50-60 
50-60 

18 

18 
50-60 

12-30 
Unknown 


15-20 

10 

20 
18-20 


20 


Toga 

Rochefort,  Thoureau. 


Marey,    Cussey,    Mau 
champs,  et  Brun 


Lacour-d' Arcenay . 


Lorge. 


5,046 
9,390 
6,585 
6,425 


Holm  oak,  mari- 
time pine 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  co- 
nif.  and  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  mis. 
conifers  and  bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  mis. 
bd.  Ivs.,  Scotch 
pine 


Unknown 
C.U.S. 


15-20 
15-20 


20-25 
30 


C.U.S. 
H.F. 


11,614 
7,660 


Oak,      chestnut, 
maritime  pine 


Oak,    chestnut, 
maritime  pine 


Oak,  chestnut 


Oak,        chestnut 
maritime  pine 


C. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.  and 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

C.U.S. 

c. 

C.U.S. 
H.F. 


15 

Unknown 


IMPORTANT  PRIVATE   FORESTS 


417 


Department 


Arrondissement 


Name  of  forest 


Area 
(acres) 


Chief  species* 


Treat- 
mentf 


Drome. 
Drome. 


D'Eure-et-Loir. 


D'Eure-et-Loir. 


D'Eure-et-Loir. 


Finistere. 
Gard 


Haute-Garonne 

DuGers 

Gironde 

L'Herault 

D'llle-et-Vilaine. 


Valence . 
Valence . 

Bernay.. 

iSvreux . . 

fivreux. . 

fivreux. 

iSvreux. 


Louviers . 


Nogent-Ie-Ro- 
trou 


None. 
Alais. 


None 

None 

None 

None 

Mont  fort . 


'^^charasson,     Larps, 
Goulets  et  I'Allier 


Rochas,  rUfernet. 


Grands,  Rigauds,  Mont- 

pourchier 
Muzan 


5,078 
11,271 


Beaumont-le- Roger . 


15,528 


d't^ 


d'lvry,  Roseux. 


d'Acquigny,  Mesnil- 
Jourdain,  Canappe- 
ville,  Feuguerolles 

Champrond 


Ferte-Vidame,  Saucelle 


Oak,  beech 

Scotch         pine 
mis.  bd.  Iv3. 

Oak,  beech, 

Scotch         pine, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  fir, 
spruce,  mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech, 

Scotch         pine, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Sessile  oak,  holm 
oak,  beech,  mis, 
bd.  Ivs. 

Sessile  oak,  beech, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech, 
Scotch         pine, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn 
beam,  mis.  coni 
fers  and  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  coni- 
fers and  bd.  Ivs 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  coni- 
fers and  bd.  Ivs 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  coni 
fers  and  bd.  Ivs 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  coni- 
fers and  bd.  Ivs, 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  coni- 
fers, bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 


C.and 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.  and 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C. 


C. 
H.F. 


C.and 
C.U.S. 


C.U.S. 
H.F. 


C.and 
C.U.S. 


Mejannes. 
Lens 


6,351 
5,931 


Holm  oak,  sessile 

oak 
Holm  oak 

Kermes-bear- 

ing     oak,     mis, 

pine 


Paimpont . 


Oak,  mis.  conifers 
and  bd.  Ivs. 


C.U.S. 
H.F. 


10&-150 
10-20 


10-30 
80-120 


15-25 
60-80 


10-25 
12-30 


15-18 
Unknown 


3,  25-30 


20-25 
16-20 


18 
Unknown 


418 


APPENDIX 


Department 


D'lUe-et-Vilaine. 


D'llle-et-Vilaine. 


L'Indre 

L'Indre 

D'Indre-et-Loire. 


D'lndre-et-Loire . 
L'Isdre 


Jura 

Landes 

Loir-et-Cher. 


Loir-et-Cher. 
Loir-et-Cher. 


Loir-et-Cher. 
Loire 


Loire. 


Loire 

Haute-Loire 

Loire-Inferieure. 
Loiret 


Lot 

Lot-et-Garonne. . 

Lozere 

Marche 


Marne. 
Marne. 


Arrondissenient 


Chateauroux.. 
Chateauroux . 
Tours 


Tours .... 
Grenoble. 


Saint-Marcellin 


Saint-Marcellin 


None. 
None. 
Blois.. 


Blois 

Romorantin. 


Vendome. 
Roanne .  . . 


Roanne . 


Saint-fitienne . 

None 

None 

Orleans 


None.  .  . 

None 

None.... 
Mortain. 


Sainte-Mene- 

hould 
Sainte-Mene- 

hould 


Name  of  forest 


Chevre  (ou  de  la  Vallee 


Lauconne. . 
Gatines .  . . . 
d'Amboise. 


Chateau-la-Valliere. 
Vercors 


Chambarands. 


Marchenoir. 
Bruadan ... 


Greteval      (la 

niere) 
Bois  Noirs . . . 


Folleville,  Donjon,  Qua- 
tre-Vents,  Concyr, 
MaLson-Fort,  Bois- 
Gibault,  Mezieres, 
Bois-le-Roi,  Bouri, 
Villefallier,  d'Aunay, 
Gachetieres,  Cendray 
Fully,  Francs-Bois 


Lande-Pourrie. 


Belval.. 
Princes. 


5,357 
10,327 


10,013 
21,004 

14,826 


7,858 
5,683 


Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  chest- 
nut, mis.  bd 
Ivs. 

Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
and  conifers 

Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Fir,  spruce,  Scotch 
pine 

Oak,  beech,  chest 
nut,  mis.  coni 
fers  and  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  chest 
nut,  mis.  bd 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  chest 
nut,  mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 


Oak,  Scotch 

pine,     mis.   bd 

Ivs. 
Oak,     hornbeam 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,      mis.      bd 

Ivs.,  Scotch 

pine,     maritime 

pine 
Oak,     hornbeam, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Beech,  fir,  Scotch 

pine 
Oak,   beech,   mis 

bd.  Ivs. 
Fir,  Scotch  pine 


Oak,  Scotch  pine, 
mis.         conife 
and  bd.  Ivs. 


Oak,  beech,  mis. 
bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam 

Oak,  hornbeam, 
beech 


Treat 
ment  t 


C.U.S. 


C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C. 

Conv. 

H.F. 

C. 

C.U.S. 

c. 

C.U.S. 


C.U.g 


C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 


C.U.S. 

H.F. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 


C.  and 
C.U.S. 
H.F. 


C. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 


IMPORTANT  PRIVATE   FORESTS 


419 


Departne.it 

Arrondissement 

Name  of  forest 

Area 

(acres) 

Chief  species  * 

Treat- 
ment t 

Rotation 

Marne    

Sainte-Mene- 
hould 

7,117 

Oak,  beech 

C.U.S. 

20-25 

Haute-Marne 

Chaumont 

£;cot,          Champ-Briot, 

5,718 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 

C.U.S. 

25-30 

Grandes-Bois,        FIo- 

beam   mis.   bd. 

H.F. 

Unknown 

rainville,  Bosse,  Jard, 

Ivs. 

Charmoy 

Haute-Marne 

Chaumont 

fitoile,  Marchat,  Relau- 
vaux,  Bois  Charrue 

8,436 

Beech,  oak,  horn- 
beam,mis. bd. Ivs. 

C.U.S. 

20-25 

Haute-Marne 

Chaumont 

d'Arc  et  de  Chateauvil- 
Uan 

21,181 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 
Ivs.  and  conifers 

C.U.S. 

25-30 

Wassy 

du  Val 

8,550 

C.U.S. 

25-30 

beam,  mis.  bd. 

Ivs. 

Haute-Marne 

VVassy 

Cirey         I'Aillemont, 
Bellevaume,     Com- 
manderie,    Grands- 
Ordons 

6,220 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 

C.U.S. 

25-30 

Wassy 

Der 

12,101 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 

C.U.S. 

25 

Ivs. 

Moo 

T      •   1 

Charnie 

13  097 

Oak,  beech,  chest- 

C U  S 

18 

nut,    mis.    bd. 

Ivs. 

Mayenne 

M 

9  316 

Oak,  beech,  chest- 

C U  s 

18 

nut,    mis.    bd. 

Ivs.  and  conifers 

Pail 

6,573 

C.U.S. 

bd.  Ivs. 

Meurthe-et-Moselle 

Luneville 

Ban-Lemoine,      Grand- 
Breheux,  Vala,  Alem- 
combe,       Herbaville, 
Charaille,   Basse-Scie, 
Taurupt.Ton,  Moj'en- 
Sapinot,  -      Fontaine 
Voirhage,  P6t-de-Vin, 
Folie,     Gagere,    Trou 
Marmod,   Grandes  et 
Petites  Moises,  Grand 
Retour,      Voincheres, 
Chatillon,     Zoinique, 
Rupt-de-Laro,  Petit  et 
Grand       Rougimont, 
Martimont,    Guindri- 
mont 

11,589 

Oak,    beech,    fir, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

H.F. 

80-100 

Ploermel 

Pontivv 

9,192 
6  178 

Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs 
Oak,  mis.  bd   Ivs 

c. 
c. 

Morbihan       

18 

NiSvre         

Remaches        Fromage, 
Breugnet,  Sanclerges, 

5,931 

c 

bd.  Ivs. 

C.U.S. 

18-20 

Jacob  et  Pierre 

Ni^vre 

18 

non 

Morillon 

beam,  mis.  bd 
Ivs. 

NiSvre 

c 

8-10 

non 

Gouloux,  Beauvernois 

Ni^vre 

Chateau  -Chi 

11,144 

C.U.S. 

18-23 

non  and  Cla 

Cuy,Baume,d'Oussy 

beam,  mis.  bd 

mecy 

Montraute 

Ivs. 

420 


APPENDIX 


Department 


Arrondissement 


Name  of  forest 


Area 

(acres) 


Treat- 
ment t 


NiSvre 

Nevers  and 
Cosne 

Nevers  and 
Cosne 

Nevers  and 
Cosne 

Nievre 

Nievre  . 

Nievre 

Nevers 

L'Orne. 
L'Orne. 


Puy-de-D6me. 
Puy-de-D6me. 


Pyrenees  (Hautes-) 
Pyrenees  (Hautes-) 
Saone-et-Loire. 
Saone-et-Loire. 

Sarthe 

Savoie 


Chateau  -  Chi- 
non  and  Cla- 
mecy 

Chateau  -  Chi- 
non  and  Nev- 
ers 

Chateau  -  Chi- 
non  and  Nev- 
ers 

Clamecy 


Blin,  Dame,  Crots, 
Mouehes,  Vaux, 
Mouilles-Verrees 

Fours 


Clamecy . 


Alengon. . 
Argentan. 


Buremont,  Maxilles 


Bazoches,  Graviers,  Ra- 
pieres,  Ferlees,  Chev 
riere 

Dames,  Tremblee, 
Grand-Piece,  Carre- 
des-Courgeonneries, 
Minerai,  Pare 

Tronsay,  Saint-Franchj 


Beaumont-la-Ferriere. 
Reaux,  Soueilles, 
Tremone 

Vaux,  Donne,  Gros 
Buissons,  Coteauz 

Donzy,  vallee  de 
I'Epeau,  Forts,  Vaulu- 
rins 

Perray,  Chabet,  Mussy, 
d'Ye,  Loges-Fraillous, 
Cordes,  Fonds,  Nor- 
mand 

Nolay,  Mauboux,  Saint- 
Benin  Folies,  Lichy 

Ballu,  Goult,  Montgom- 

meries 
Silli-en  Gouffern 


Argentan    and 
Mortagne 


Mortagne. 


Riom . . 
Thiers. 


Bagneres-de- 

igorre 
Bagneres-de- 

Bigorre 
Chalon-sur- 

Saone 
Chalon-sur- 

Saone 
Mamers  and 

Mans 
Chambery .  .  . 


Saint-Evroult . 


de  Longny. 


Randan 

Bois  Noirs  (ou  de  Mon- 

toncel) 
Baronnies 


Noston 
Chagny,  Lessart. 

Rombois 

Le  Sille 


3,605 
6,548 


5,510 

8,248 


Montague  d'Hauterens, 
Joigny 


6,425 
6,771 

5,896 

6,410 

11,713 

8,649 

5,313 

6,672 


Oak,  beech,  horn 
beam,  mis.  bd, 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn 
beam,  mis.  bd 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd 
Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


Oak,  beech,  horn 
beam,  mis.  bd 


Oak,  hornbeam 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 

Oak,  hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 


Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd 
Ivs. 

Oak,  beech, Scotch 
ine 

Oak,  beech,  mis, 
bd.  Ivs.  and 
conifers 

Oak,  beech,  fir, 
Scotch  pine, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  mis. 
bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs 

Oak,  beech,  fir 
Scotch  pine 

Oak,  beech,  fir 

Beech,  fir 

Oak,     hornbeam 

is.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,     hornbeam 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 
Oak,  mis.  bd.  Ivs 

and  conifers 
Oak,   beech,   mis 

bd.  Ivs. 


C.U.S. 


c.u.s. 

C.U.S. 


c.u.s. 
c.u.s. 


c. 

c.u.s. 

H.F. 
C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

H.F. 

C. 

C. 

H.F. 

C. 

H.F. 

C.U.S. 

C.U.S. 

c.u.s. 
c. 


IMPORTANT  PRIVATE  FORESTS 


421 


Department 

Arrondissement 

Name  of  forest 

Area 

(acres) 

Chief  species  * 

Treat- 
ment t 

Rotation 

Seine-et-Marne.... 

Coulommiers, 
Meaux,  and 
Melun 

Grange,  Lechelles  Beau- 
rose,   d'Attilly,   d'Ar- 
mainvilliers,      d'Her- 
mieres,    Motte,    Fau- 
vins,   Crecy,   Croissy, 
Guette 

28,417 

Oak,     hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Iv3. 

C.U.S. 

18-25 

Seine-et-Marne — 

Fontainebleau 

Commanderie,  Bourron 

9,360 

Oak,  Scotch  pine, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

C. 

C.U.S. 

15-20 

Seine-et-Marne... 

Fontainebleau 

Charme,        Sucrement 

9,143 

Oak,  Scotch  pine, 

C.U.S. 

15-20 

and  Melun 

Croix-Saint-Jerome, 
Fourche,  Bois-Rond 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

H.F. 

20-40 

Seine-et-Marne... 

Fontainebleau 
and  Melun 

Valence,     Saint-Martin, 
Fresnay,         Graville, 
I'Argenterie,  Garenne, 
Champigny 

11,367 

Oak,     hornbeam, 
mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

C.U.S. 

20-25 

Corbeil 

6,425 

C.U.S. 

16-25 

Camaldules,       Pare, 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

Gros-Bois,        Notre- 

Dame,  Pontillaut 

Seine-et-Oise 

Pontoise 

Montmorency 

5,436 

Oak,       chestnut, 

c. 

12 

mis.  bd.  Ivs. 

C.U.S. 
H.F. 

15 
Unknown 

Seine  Inferieure . . . 

Dieppe    and 

d'Eu 

22,711 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 

C.U.S. 

30 

Neufchatel 

beam,  mis.  bd. 
Ivs. 

Conv. 
H.F. 

120 
120 

Var 

Total- 

Cork   oak,    holm 

C. 

15-20 

guignan  Tou- 

little value 

ing 

oak,  sessile  oak. 

C.U.S. 

18 

lon 

499,151 

white             oak 
(chene     blanc), 
aleppo          pine, 
maritime    pine, 
chestnut 

H.F. 

40-60 

L'Yonne 

Auxerre 

Pomard,  Chateau,  Char- 

6,299 

Oak,  beech,  mis. 

C.U.S. 

20-25 

bonnais,     Grand-Val- 

bd.  Ivs. 

lee,  d'Arnus 

L'Yonne 

Merry,  Vaux,  Bois-Bon- 
tin 

6,054 

Oak,  beech,  mis. 
bd.  Ivs. 

C.U.S. 

17-25 

Joigny 

L'Yonne 

Avallon 

Souche-Noire,       Vaux 

10,554 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 

C.U.S. 

20-25 

lanes,  Garenne,  Fon- 

beam,  mis.  bd. 

teaux,  Poruches 

Ivs. 

6,919 

C.U.S. 

17  and  25 

d'Othe 

16,714 
9,266 

Oak,   beech,   mis. 
bd.  Ivs. 

Oak,  beech,  horn- 
beam, mis.  bd. 

C.U.S. 
C.U.S. 

20-25 

Tonnerre 

Maulnes,   Villon,   Bour- 
ciere,  Commissey 

20-25 

Ivs. 

422  APPENDIX 

APPENDIX  E 
TYPICAL  REFORESTATION   AREAS   IN  THE  MOUNTAINS 

Alps  Region  (Department  of  Haute-Savoie,  Arc  Superieur  Forestation  Area.)  —  The 
valley  of  the  Arc  (which  corresponds  to  the  ancient  province  of  Maurienne)  has  a  length 
of  79  miles  from  the  Girard  Pass  to  the  Royal  Bridge.  It  divides  into  two  parts :  the  High 
Maurienne  from  the  source  of  the  Arc  to  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne,  and  from  the  Lower 
Maurienne  to  the  St.  Jean  at  Isere.  The  average  slope  is  2.7  per  cent  .  .  .  the 
higher  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Arc  extends  to  Modane  on  the  Italian  frontier,  from 
the  summit  of  Gin,  11,529  feet,  to  Thabon,  10,517  feet.  .  .  .  The  Arc  is  fed  by 
the  waters  of  vast  and  numerous  glaciers  which  occupy  an  area  of  more  than  9,884 
acres.  Important  secondary  valleys  bring  to  it  the  waters  of  other  glacial  groups. 
These  are,  on  the  left,  the  valleys  of  Avarole  and  of  Ribon,  and,  on  the  right,  the 
valley  of  Doron  de  Termignon.     .     .     . 

Geological  Conditions.  —  The  high  Maurienne  is  almost  entirely  included  in  the 
Brian^-onnais  and  Preniont  zones.  The  axis  of  the  zone  of  Briangonnais  is  formed  by 
carboniferous  soil  which  extends  from  Modane  to  Saint-Michel.  .  .  .  The  glacial 
deposits  and  drifts  are  of  common  occurrence  on  the  slopes  and  help  feed  the  torrents 
with  material. 

Climate.  —  The  climate  of  the  Arc  Valley  is  very  much  like  that  of  the  Haute-Alpes. 
It  is  the  continental  climate  rendered  severe  by  the  enclosure  of  the  valleys  and  by  the 
high  altitudes.  The  rainfall,  however,  is  less  frequent  and  less  abundant  than  in  the 
rest  of  the  department.  .  .  .  During  the  winter  of  1903-1904  the  average  snow- 
fall recorded  was  from  3.6  feet  at  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne,  2,195  feet  altitude,  to  a  maxi- 
mum of  12.6  feet  at  St.  Jean  d'Arves,  4,908  feet  altitude.  The  number  of  days  of  rain- 
fall and  the  amount  of  rainfall  diminishes  as  you  proceed  from  the  Iscre  toward  Modane 
which  has  quite  a  dry  climate.  This  dry  chmate  is  due  to  the  absence  of  mists  and  fogs. 
In  the  autumn  fog  rarely  passes  Chamberg.  Moreover,  the  intensity  of  the  light  is 
more  considerable  in  the  Maurienne  than  in  the  rest  of  Savoie.     .     .     . 

Production.  —  Vineyards  extend  to  an  altitude  of  about  3,280  feet  in  the  western 
part  of  the  region.  .  .  .  From  Modane  to  Belleval  the  dominant  crop  is  almost 
exclusively  rye.  At  Modane  rye  fields  are  found  between  3,280  to  4,590  feet  and  at 
Bramnas  they  reach  4,920  to  5,250  feet.  ...  In  the  valley  of  the  Averole  certain 
fields  extend  up  to  6,560  feet.  .  .  .  The  high  pasturage  is  grazed  by  sheep.  .  .  . 
The  forests  under  State  control  in  the  Haute- Maurienne  have  an  area  of  27,230  acres. 
The  larch,  the  cembric  pine,  and  the  spruce  occupy  the  best  soils,  the  mountain  pine 
and  Scotch  pine  being  found  on  the  gypsums  and  the  hot  slopes.  The  fir,  the  beech, 
and  the  elm  are  in  mixture  with  the  other  species  on  the  better  soils. 

Administrative  Situation,  Area,  Population.  —  The  basin  of  the  Arc  Superieur 
includes  26  communes  of  the  District  of  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne  and  a  portion  of  the 
communes  of  Albiez-le-Jeune  and  Saint-Jean.  The  total  area  is  308,216  acres,  some 
of  the  communes  being  the  biggest  in  the  department.  The  population  includes  23,980 
inhabitants. 

State  of  Soil  Erosion.  —  Little  or  no  grass,  arid,  steep  slopes,  burned  by  the  sun,  cut 
by  ravines  and  torrents  —  such  is  the  aspect  of  the  Haute-Maurienne  entirely  on  the 
right  side  of  the  Arc.  The  erosion,  once  started  in  the  mountains,  increases  from  day 
to  day  and  includes  bordering  surface  soil  in  good  condition.  This  erosion  is  due 
to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  to  the  steepness  of  the  slopes,  and  to  the  small  area  of  the 
forest  cover  (10  per  cent  of  the  basin  area),  to  the  excessive  grazing  and  to  too  abundant 
irrigation.     Because  of  this  situation  avalanches  slide  without  hinderance  and  continue 


REFORESTATION  AREAS  423 

to  work  deforestation,  removing  little  villages,  farms,  herds,  and  too  often  menace 
life  itself.  In  four  winters  avalanches  have  destroyed  700,000  board  feet  of  timber, 
cut  sixty-seven  roads  and  trails  of  all  kinds,  destroyed  fourteen  houses,  killed  seventy 
sheep,  and  injured  sixty-seven  people,  of  whom  eight  died.  Dangerous  torrents,  such 
as  Envers,  St.  Martin,  and  St.  Julien  have  eroded  the  mountains,  covered  the  cultivated 
fields  with  debris  and  overturned  houses.  .  .  .  The  Arc  Superieur  area  was  estab- 
lished by  the  law  of  July  26,  1892,  and  includes  7,801  acres,  of  which  6,422  acres  belong 
to  the  State. 

Work.  — •  The  work  of  restoration  is  about  finished  in  nine  of  the  thirteen  working 
groups.  The  torrent  of  Envers  .  .  .  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Petie-Mont-Denis 
(10,269  feet).  After  leaving  the  schists  of  this  higher  basin  it  flows  into  a  deep  gorge 
hedged  in  by  gypsum.  The  ravines  have  been  corrected,  embankments  have  stopped 
the  avalanches  from  destroying  the  forestation,  and  drainage  canals  (by  drying  the 
soil)  have  been  effective  in  holding  the  snow  and  assuring  the  stability  of  the  slopes. 
Cembric  pine  has  been  sown  at  an  altitude  of  6,560  to  8,200  feet  and  spruce,  larch, 
and  mountain  pine  planted  between  5,900  to  7,200  feet.  The  torrent  of  Saint-Antoine, 
communes  of  Villarodin-Bourget  and  Modane,  flows  from  the  little  glacier  of  Belle- 
fenier  (10,140  feet).  Its  upper  basin  is  a  vast  funnel  with  very  steep  slopes  formed  of 
schists.  .  .  .  The  torrent  passes  through  a  steep  gorge  of  eroded  gypsum  and,  cut 
by  a  bank  of  compact  limestone,  its  floods  are  very  dangerous.  The  correction  has 
been  effected  by  means  of  dams  or  drainage  canals  and  avalanche  walls.  Moreover, 
at  an  altitude  between  5,900  and  7,550  feet,  cembric  pine  has  been  sown  and  there 
have  been  plantations  of  spruce,  larch,  and  mountain  pine.  In  the  working  group  of 
Orelle  and  of  Thyl,  the  Pousset  runs  through  sand  and  carboniferous  schist.  The 
deforestation  of  its  basin,  the  very  steep  slopes  of  its  bed,  the  erosion  and  soaking  of 
the  soil,  make  its  floods  frequent  and  violent  between  an  altitude  of  4,920  and  7,870 
feet;  here  an  area  of  395  acres  has  been  reforested  with  spruce,  larch,  and  mountain 
pine.  When  the  young  forest  is  sufficiently  developed  the  various  branches  of  the 
torrent  will  be  improved  and  it  will  be  possible  to  gradually  take  up  the  other  work  of 
necessary  correction.  In  the  working  groups  of  Beaume,  Saint-Michel,  Saint  Martin  la 
Porte,  the  Grollaz  (see  page  168)  is  bounded  entirely  by  schists  and  carboniferous  sand. 
The  correction  work  took  place  from  1880  to  1892  and  from  1895  to  1905,  and  the  foresta- 
tion has  extended  over  most  of  the  basin.  A  complete  stand  of  124  acres  of  mountain 
pine,  spruce,  and  larch  has  modified  the  aspect  of  the  mountain.  Lower  down  in  the 
gorge,  Scotch  pine  and  alder  are  growing  well.  During  the  past  few  years  the  pine 
in  favorable  localities  has  grown  more  than  2.3  feet  per  year.  The  forest  already 
estabhshed  finishes  the  final  working  plan.  The  torrent  of  St.  Martin  in  the  com- 
mune of  the  same  name  runs  from  the  little  pass  of  Encombres.  Two  branches  eroded 
in  the  gypsum  have  been  corrected  by  means  of  dams  and  drainage  canals.  The  left 
slope  of  the  torrent  (for  the  most  part  carboniferous  in  character)  is  an  entire  area  of 
moving  earth  of  about  3,700  acres.  It  is  hoped  to  stop  this  important  slide  by  drainage 
work  which  so  far  has  given  excellent  results.  Between  3,280  and  4,260  feet  of  altitude 
very  complete  forestation  has  been  finished.  The  Scotch  pine  looks  well  but  the  in- 
stability of  the  soil  makes  the  results  as  yet  uncertain.  The  material  eroded  by  the 
torrent  is  sluiced  to  the  river  in  a  masonry  canal.  This  important  work  has  not  as 
yet  been  finished  and  is  not  maintained  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  administration. 
The  Rieu-Sec  torrent,  communes  of  St.  Martin  and  St.  Julien,  flows  from  the  rock  of 
Beaume  to  the  south  extremity  of  the  Encombres,  through  compact  limestones  and 
from  the  badly  eroded  black  schists.  The  characteristic  of  this  torrent  is  the  very 
steep  slopes  of  its  basin.  .  .  .  The  dams  of  enormous  blocks  of  stone  constructed 
from  1897  to  1900  constitute  the  absolute  correction  of  the  torrent  and  have  suppressed 
the  lava  floods  (of  stone,  mud,  water,  etc.),  which  might  have  formed  in  its  basin. 


424  APPENDIX 

The  forestation  of  the  two  slopes  and  part  of  the  cone  have  very  much  improved  matters, 
but,  with  such  a  topography,  it  is  certain  that  it  will  always  produce  dangerous  and 
sudden  floods.  The  Daret,  commune  of  St.  Julien,  flows  from  north  to  south  to  a  point 
southwest  of  the  Rieu-Sec.  On  the  left  it  is  joined  by  three  ravines  which  originate 
in  the  Croix  des  Tetes.  Its  basin  is  formed  by  gypsums,  limestone,  and  schists.  As 
in  the  case  of  the  Rieu-Sec,  the  dams  have  been  constructed  of  blocks  of  stone  each 
about  1  cubic  yard  in  volume.  Several  drainage  canals  and  forestation  of  spruce,  larch, 
and  mountain  pine  complete  the  control  work  started  by  the  dams.  The  St.  Julien 
torrent  (seepage  156),  communes  of  St.  Julien  and  Mont  Denis,  is  avast  and  complex 
torrent.  Its  basin  comprises  some  4,940  acres  and  is  cut  by  ravines  eroded  in  the  schists, 
glacial  muds,  and  marls.  All  this  kind  of  soil  is  easily  eroded.  The  floods  and  lava 
flows  of  St.  Julien  have  been  very  numerous  and  have  caused  tremendous  damage.  The 
diversion  canal,  cut  in  the  rock,  has  stopped  a  vast  landslide  which  threatened  the 
village  of  Mont  Denis.  Dams  below  and  above  the  source  of  the  damage  have  fixed 
the  bed  of  the  torrent  and  its  waters  are  now  conducted  to  the  Arc  by  a  drainage  canal. 
Forestation  of  Scotch  pine,  oak,  and  ash  has  been  completed  in  the  slide  area  and  plan- 
tations of  poplar,  willow,  and  alder  have  been  made  in  the  gorge.  It  appears  that 
considerable  damage  has  been  reduced  to  the  minimum.  The  torrent  of  Rieu-Bel, 
communes  of  Albiez-le-Jeune  and  Villergondran,  rises  in  the  commune  of  Albiez-le- 
Jeune  at  an  altitude  of  5,085  feet.  It  runs  north  for  a  length  of  more  than  2  miles. 
Its  circular  upper  basin  is  cut  by  little  ravines  which  reunite  in  one  big  torrent  below 
3,600  feet  altitude.  The  soil  comes  from  the  disintegration  of  schists,  usually  saturated 
with  water  and  shows  a  tendency  to  slide.  By  its  floods  and  rockfall  the  torrent  of 
Rieu-Bel  menaces  the  village  of  Viflergondran.  Rough  dams  have  been  constructed 
to  fix  the  bed  of  the  torrent  and  drainage  canals  have  been  established  with  a  view  to 
draining  the  soil.  Plantations  of  spruce  and  larch,  not  yet  thrifty,  completed  the  work, 
which,  however,  must  be  continued. 

The  torrent  of  Roches  Noires,  communes  of  Villergondran  and  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne, 
is  cut  in  the  black  schists  and  in  the  glacial  drifts.  The  steep  slopes  and  the  sterility 
of  the  soil  have  rendered  the  forestation  difficult  and  uncertain.  Everywhere  the  bed 
had  to  be  fixed  with  wattle  work  but  even  then  vegetation  could  not  be  introduced. 
Forestation  is  more  important  in  this  perimeter  than  in  those  which  have  already  been 
described.  The  area  forested  includes  some  1,599  acres.  The  corrective  work,  which 
remains  to  be  finished  as  soon  as  possible,  is  Hmited  to  the  construction  of  dams  at  the 
base,  and  the  establishment  of  little  accessory  dams. 

Forestation  Area  of  la  Blanche.  —  The  torrent  of  the  Blanche  is  a  tributary  of  the 
left  branch  of  the  Durance  which  rises  in  the  southeast  of  Seyne  at  the  summit  of  Roche 
Close.  It  runs  from  the  east  to  the  west  to  the  hamlet  of  Chardavox,  when  it  turns  to 
the  northwest  and  follows  into  the  Durance  after  a  course  of  19  miles.  From  the 
hamlet  of  Vierard  (commune  of  Saint-Martin-les-Seyne),  or  until  it  joins  the  Durance, 
this  stream  follows  through  narrow  rocky  gorges  and  is  called  the  torrent  of  Rabious. 
Its  drainage  area  belongs  to  the  sub- Alpine  region;  it  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  a  very 
high  chain  of  mountains,  called  la  Blanche,  whose  altitude  varies  from  7,220  to  8,860 
feet.  .  .  .  Taking  the  basin  as  a  whole,  the  Blanche  has  no  important  tributaries, 
but  several  of  them,  because  of  the  tremendous  slopes,  are  dangerous  torrents.  The 
greatest  altitude  is  that  of  the  Pic  de  la  Blanche  (9,075  feet)  and  the  lowest  is  at  the 
confluence  with  the  Durance  and  Rabious  (2,149  feet). 

Geological  Conditions.  —  The  bottom  of  the  Blanche  basin  is  occupied  by  glacial 
deposits  from  which  emerge  black  marls.  ...  At  the  extreme  southeast  of  the 
valley  there  is  a  great  deal  of  hmestone  soil.  ...  On  account  of  the  predominance 
of  the  glacial  deposits  under  the  black  marls  which  form  soil  very  susceptible  to  erosion, 
this  basin  is,  on  all  sides,  composed  of  deep  ravines  and  sharp  hills.     .     .     . 


REFORESTATION   AREAS  425 

Climate.  —  The  climate  is  very  cold  in  the  upper  valley  and  cold  in  the  lower  parts. 
On  the  summits  the  snow  begins  toward  the  end  of  October  and  persists  until  June.  In 
the  bottom  of  the  valley  it  generally  lies  from  December  to  April.  Because  of  its  ex- 
posure and  its  altitude  the  Blanche  valley  receives  more  rain  than  the  south  part  of  the 
department  of  Basses-Alpes.  Long  droughts  are  rare.  Storms  are  frequent  in  summer 
on  account  of  the  nearness  to  the  very  high  mountains.  They  have  even  the  character 
of  veritable  waterspouts  and  are  very  disastrous  to  the  crops  which  occupy  the  lower 
slopes  and  the  bottoms  of  the  valleys. 

Basins.  —  The  mountains  are  covered  with  grazing  ground  and  in  many  localities  are 
damaged  on  account  of  overgrazing.  Every  summer  the  ground  is  overstocked  by 
sheep  and  the  easily  erodable  soil  is  bared  and  forms  deep  ravines.  Coniferous  stands 
cover  large  areas  and  have  a  tendency  to  seed  the  neighboring  bare  ground.  The 
Scotch  pine  forms  pure  stands  on  south  exposures  and  is  associated  with  fir  and  spruce 
on  the  moister  slopes.  On  cold  exposures  these  two  species  are  frequently  pure  or  in 
mixture  with  beech.  The  mountain  pine  is  also  found.  Beginning  with  3,280  feet 
altitude,  there  are  stands  of  larch  on  the  drier  ground  on  north  slopes.  At  very  high 
altitudes  the  cembric  pine  appears.  The  forests  which  are  not  subject  to  Federal  con- 
trol are  exposed  to  destructive  cutting  and  to  intensive  grazing,  so  that  the  soil  becomes 
impoverished  and  the  stands  become  more  and  more  open.  The  lower  slopes  and  the 
bottoms  of  the  valleys  are  used  for  agriculture.  Fruit  trees  are  not  over-abundant. 
The  cultivated  land  yields  cereals  and  potatoes;  the  natural  prairies  occupy  large  areas 
and  produce  a  very  valuable  forage  grass. 

Administrative  Situation,  Area,  Population.  —  The  Blanche  basin  extends  over 
one  commune  (la  Breole)  in  the  district  of  Barcelonnette  and  five  communes  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Digne. 

State  of  Soil  Damage.  —  On  all  sides,  but  especially  on  south  and  west  slopes,  the 
Blanche  basin  is  cut  by  ravines  of  a  torrential  character,  all  more  or  less  dangerous. 
This  damage  has  been  caused  by  excessive  grazing  by  cattle  which  has  been  too  intensive 
on  all  the  uncultivated  land.  On  account  of  its  geologic  constitution,  the  sub-soil, 
formed  either  by  black  schists  or  by  glacial  deposits,  is  easily  eroded  after  the  cover 
has  been  removed  by  sheep  grazing.  Besides,  because  of  the  very  long  and  steep  slopes 
and  on  account  of  the  abundance  and  frequence  of  snowfall  and  the  rigor  of  the  climate, 
it  often  happens  in  spring  that  in  the  higher  areas  avalanches  contribute  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  slopes.  On  certain  areas  the  water  filters  into  the  soil  and  produces  dangerous 
landslides. 

Composition  and  Area.  —  The  Blanche  forestation  area  includes  five  working 
groups  according  to  the  law  of  August  7,  1910.  The  total  area  amounts  to  6,835  acres, 
of  which  3,623  actually  belong  to  the  State. 

Work.  —  The  Seyne  working  group  is  composed,  for  the  most  part,  by  the  old  Seyne 
area  and  some  of  the  Colle,  the  reforestation  of  which  aimed  at  preventing  the  recur- 
rence of  floods  (produced  by  the  overflow  of  the  Blanche  river)  and  at  the  extinguish- 
ment of  the  torrents  of  Faut,  Chateau,  Allevar,  Combanniere,  and  "  Terre  rouge." 
They  extend  over  the  west  slopes  of  a  high  chain  of  mountains  which  separate  the 
Blanche  basin  from  that  of  Ubaye  and  are  situated  at  altitudes  varying  from  4,590  to 
8,200  feet.  The  work  of  control  and  reforestation  was  begun  in  1862  and  is  still  in 
progress.  At  the  beginning  they  proceeded  simultaneously  with  sowing  and  planta- 
tions of  conifers  and  broadleaf  trees,  but  it  was  not  long  before  they  found  out  that  the 
sowing  generally  gave  poor  results.  .  .  .  Accordingly  plantations  became  the  rule 
except  in  special  cases.  The  species  used  for  the  most  part  were  larch,  spruce,  cembric 
pine,  mountain  pine,  Scotch  pine,  and  Austrian  pine.  The  larch  was  used  in  mixture 
with  the  cembric  pine  in  the  highest  zone,  at  an  altitude  between  6,560  and  8,200  feet, 
on  very  steep  slopes,  covered  with  snow  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  often 


426  APPENDIX 

subject  to  slides;  in  the  zone  immediately  below,  between  5,580  and  6,500  feet,  mountain 
pine,  pure  or  in  mixtiu-e  with  Scotch  pine;  below  5,580  feet,  there  were  Scotch  pine  and 
Austrian  pine,  sometimes  mixed  with  mountain  pine.  Spruce  has  been  introduced  on 
south  slopes  as  an  understory  for  the  pine.  The  plans  provide  for  little  nurseries  estab- 
lished all  over  the  area  in  order  to  avoid  the  cost  of  transport.  These  plantations  have 
produced  quite  variable  results.  The  lower  parts  of  the  working  group  are  generally 
covered  with  a  good  sapling  or  low  pole-stand  of  larch  and  pine,  but  the  higher  areas, 
because  of  the  rigor  of  the  climate,  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  short  growing  seasons, 
have  resulted  in  general  failure.  WiUows,  poplars,  alders,  etc.,  have  been  planted  and 
layered  at  the  bottoms  and  on  the  slopes  of  ravines  in  order  to  fix  the  soil  and  decrease 
the  violence  of  the  water  wherever  it  has  been  possible.  Beginning  with  the  year  1862 
the  sodding  of  the  soil  has  also  been  started  either  by  sowing  the  seed  of  "fenasse," 
"luzerne,"  or  "sainfoin,"  indigenous  to  the  locahty,  or  by  planting  tufts  of  "fettique." 
Results  have  been  very  satisfactory.  The  corrective  work  undertaken  simultaneously 
with  the  reforestation  and  sodding  is  very  important.  It  consists  in  the  construction  of 
a  large  number  of  dams  and  of  sills  in  dry  stone  in  the  bottoms  of  the  ravines,  in  order 
to  help  maintain  the  mountain  sides,  in  order  to  diminish  the  steepness  of  the  valley 
bottom,  and  to  decrease  the  speed  of  the  running  water.  Between  these  dams  fascines 
and  wattle  work  barriers  have  been  established.  Since  1876,  wherever  possible,  the 
ravines  and  the  bottoms  of  the  brooks  have  been  thinned  where  the  stands  were  too 
dense.  This  work,  which  aims  at  stopping  the  action  of  the  water  on  the  erodable  soil, 
has  given  excellent  results.  The  work  as  a  whole  has  succeeded  in  almost  entirely 
stopping  the  action  of  the  torrents  in  eroding  the  Seyne  working  group,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  torrents  of  Allevar,  Chateau,  and  Faut,  which  rise  in  very  steep  ground 
and  at  high  altitudes,  and  where  the  growth  is  very  slow,  and  which  do  not  seem  sus- 
ceptible of  correction  for  some  time  yet.  The  working  group  of  Montclar  is  formed  for 
the  most  part  by  the  old  area  of  Lachaux,  the  reforestation  of  which  aimed  at  preserving 
the  grazing  plateau  of  Lachaux  from  the  danger  of  floods  and  avalanches.  It  extends  to 
the  extreme  north  of  the  slope,  where  the  Seyne  working  group  is  at  an  altitude  which 
varies  from  6,400  to  8,200  feet.  The  reforestation  work,  which  began  in  1864,  has  con- 
sisted in  sowing  and  planting  larch  and  cembric  pine  in  the  higher  areas,  and  larch, 
mountain  pine,  Scotch  and  Austrian  pine  lower  down.  After  sowing  forage  seed  and 
planting  willow  (as  nurse  trees)  the  area  has  been  completely  restocked  to  conifers. 
Quite  a  number  of  sills  of  dry  stone  were  estabUshed  in  the  chief  ravines  at  the  same 
time  the  work  of  covering  the  slopes  began.  The  restoration  of  this  working  group  is 
just  about  completed.     The  total  area  reforested  is  approximately  3,539  acres. 

According  to  my  original  notes:  "At  Barcelonnette,  there  had  been  a  veritable  de- 
population on  account  of  the  damage  from  erosion.  The  work  of  forestation  and 
erosion  prevention  was  started  shortly  after  1862,  and  began  in  the  so-called  "  terre  noir," 
where  the  damage  was  the  worst.  After  six  years  of  practice  the  local  inspector  re- 
ported that  a  large  number  of  small  dams  were  preferred  to  a  few  large  expensive  dams, 
as  was  formerly  the  practice.  Below  5,900  feet  of  altitude  white  alder  was  generally 
preferred  along  stream  beds  and  green  alder  at  higher  altitudes.  In  this  region  the 
annual  rainfall  is  about  43  inches,  but  during  July,  August,  and  September  there  are 
very  few  storms.  The  torrents  seem  to  have  started  on  slopes  30  degrees  or  steeper. 
On  slopes  up  to  20  degrees  bad  erosion  rarely  starts  in.  The  main  damage  at  Barcelon- 
nette seems  to  have  been  caused  by  grazing  an  average  of  2.4  to  3  sheep  per  acre  whereas 
the  grazing  ground  would  only  support  0.8  to  1.6." 

Central  Plateau  Region  (Puy-de-D6me  Department,  La  Sioule  Forestation  Area). 
—  La  Sioule,  which  flows  into  the  Allier,  rises  in  the  forests  of  Mont  Dore  at 
the  Servieres  Lake,  which  occupies  an  old  crater,  at  an  altitude  of  3,937  feet.  It  flows 
with  a  rapid  slope  for  7^  miles  through  narrow  and  deep  gorges  with  an  average  descent 
of  3.5  per  cent.     .     .     .     The  basin  occupies  a  vast  undulating  plateau  shghtly  inclined 


REFORESTATION  AREAS  427 

toithe  north  and  formed,  for  the  most  part,  by  gneiss  and  mica  schists  with  granite  on 
about  half  its  drainage  area.  .  .  .  The  upper  basin  of  la  Sioule  occupies  about 
25  miles  of  circumference.  .  .  .  The  highest  altitudes  are  those  of  the  Puy-de- 
Dome,  4,806  feet.  The  lowest  altitude  is  where  the  Sioule  leaves  the  department, 
1,037  feet. 

Climate.  —  The  climate  of  the  region  is  severe,  despite  the  moderate  altitude  of  the 
plateau,  and  is  characterized  by  rapid  changes  in  temperature.  The  spring  rains  are 
very  abundant  and  result  in  sudden  floods.  During  the  summer  violent  storms  are 
succeeded  by  prolonged  droughts.  The  winter  is  long  and  vigorous  and  is  marked  by 
heavy  falls  of  snow  in  the  mountain  forests. 

Basins,  —  The  basin  of  the  Sioule  is  divided  into  two  regions  (the  grazing  area  ex- 
tends over  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  area).  The  natural  mountain  zone,  which 
bounds  the  basin  on  the  southeast  and  comprises  all  the  volcanic  soil  from  the  Domes 
chain  to  Mont  Dore.  The  agricultural  area  occupies  the  plains.  It  extends  into  the 
plateau  region  and  produces  fruit,  rye,  barley,  grain,  oats,  and  potatoes.  A  considerable 
proportion  (about  20  per  cent)  of  the  uncultivated  land  belongs  to  the  State  and  is 
covered  by  heather,  which  is  open  to  sheep  grazing.  The  forest  occupies  about  10  per 
cent  of  the  area  and  comprises  simple  oak  coppice  and  pole  stands  of  conifers. 

Administrative  Situation.  —  The  part  of  the  basin  included  in  the  department  of 
the  Puy-de-D6me  extends  over  twenty-one  communes  of  the  Clairmont  district  and 
fifty-six  communes  of  the  Riom  district.  The  area  is  about  339,769  acres  and  the  popu- 
lation about  72,600. 

State  of  Soil  Erosion.  —  The  soil  erosion  as  yet  is  not  very  important.  Because  of 
the  sohd  nature  of  the  rock  the  surface  water  flows  from  the  gentle  slopes  without  cut- 
ting in.  Once  in  the  bottom  of  the  thalweg,  it  ...  is  almost  unerodable.  The 
soUdity  of  the  rock  facilitates  the  different  correction  work;  forestation  aims  almost 
entirely  at  forming  a  cover. 

Composition  and  Area.  —  The  Sioule  area  was  laid  out  by  Art.  16  of  the  law  of 
April  4,  1882.     It  includes  eight  working  groups,  but  a  total  of  only  1,453  acres. 

Work.  —  The  forestation  undertaken  under  the  law  of  July  18,  1860,  had  as  its  first 
objective  the  creation  of  important  forests  capable  of  retaining  the  soil  on  the  slopes  and 
of  regularizing  the  general  waterflow  ...  the  work  has  been  both  by  means  of 
sowing  and  of  plantations.  In  the  case  of  the  Scotch  pine  the  seed  has  been  sown  broad- 
cast on  land  covered  with  a  short  growth  of  heather  (see  page  133).  The  pedunculate 
oak  has  been  sown  in  seed  spots.  The  species  used  in  plantations  have  been  the  fol- 
lowing: Scotch  pine,  spruce,  pedunculate  oak,  beech,  and  birch.  Usually  the  two 
methods  of  forestation  —  sowing  and  planting  —  have  been  employed  together.  The 
work  has  been  finished  for  some  time  and  the  stands  obtained  are  now  making  excellent 
growth. 

Cevennes  Region  (Lozere,  Ardeche  Departments  Chassezac  Forestation  Area). 
—  The  Chassezac  is  much  the  most  important  tributary  of  the  Ardeche.  With  a  total 
length  of  about  47  miles  it  rises  in  the  Lozere  and  extends  to  Alfigere,  but  it  flows  in  to 
the  Ardeche  River  at  the  Sampzon  rock,  not  far  from  the  confluence  with  the  Beaume. 
It  flows,  to  start  with,  in  very  narrow  but  extremely  deep  gorges,  then  in  a  valley  of 
increasing  width.  It  has  a  length  of  27  miles  in  the  Ardeche  department  with  an  average 
slope  of  2  per  cent,  and  an  average  width  of  148  feet.  Its  flow  per  second  in  the  lower 
parts  of  its  course  is  1.5  cubic  yards  at  low  water,  8  cubic  yards  under  average  condi- 
tions, and  2,500  cubic  yards  during  floods.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Cevennes 
(which  separates  it  from  the  Allier  basin)  and  by  Mt.  Tanargue  (which  separates  it 
from  the  upper  Ardeche),  this  basin  reaches  at  the  hamlet  of  Bez  an  altitude  of  4,072 
feet;  in  the  State  forest  of  Tanargue,  4,462  feet;  and  on  the  plateau  of  the  Borne  work- 
ing group  (near  Tanargue),  4,951  feet. 


428  APPENDIX 

Administrative  Situation.  —  Entirely  in  the  Largentiere  district,  it  includes  a 
total  area  of  100,633  acres  with  a  population  of  16,791  inhabitants  scattered  through 
twenty-eight  communes. 

Destruction  of  the  Soil.  —  The  Chassezac  was  established  by  the  law  of  July  18, 
1906.     It  includes  4,774  acres,  of  which,  1,315  actually  belongs  to  the  State. 

Work.  —  There  is  only  one  working  group,  that  of  Laubresse,  exappropriated  in  1886. 
Others  are  now  being  acquired.  This  working  group,  situated  on  the  mica  scliists  at 
an  altitude  varying  from  3,280  to  4,167  feet,  forms  (on  the  Laubresse  plateau)  several 
isolated  cantons  covered  with  superb  stands  of  pine  from  18  to  20  years  old.  In  the 
purchases  in  the  working  circles  of  Borned,  Saint  Laurent  les  Bains,  Mont  Selgues, 
there  is  also  at  the  same  altitude  on  the  same  plateau  and  on  the  same  kind  of  ground 
a  very  complete  thrifty  stand  of  pine  from  24  to  28  years  old.  The  total  area  actually 
reforested  is  1,594  acres. 

Pyrenees  Region  (Department  of  Haute-Pyrenees,  Gave  de  Pau Forestation  Areas). 
—  The  Gave  de  Pau  is  the  most  important  water  course  in  the  Hautes-Pyrcnees. 
When  it  flows  into  the  Adour  at  Peyrehorade,  after  a  length  of  109  miles,  its  volume 
has  increased  fourfold.     .     .     .     The  highest  altitudes  vary  from  7,487  to  10,673  feet. 

Geologic  Conditions.  —  The  high  basin  of  the  Gave  de  Pau  only  includes  stable 
ground,  with  the  exception  of  the  watershed  of  Gararie,  formed  of  white  limestone, 
and  the  Blanc  and  Gavieton,  which  are  formed  of  gravel,  marls,  and  limy  marl.  The 
granite  occupies  the  higher  basin  of  the  Gave  de  Cauterets.  .  .  .  The  glacial 
deposits  and  detritus  are  frequently  mixed  with  the  original  soil  on  the  slopes. 

Climate.  —  The  climate  of  the  valley  of  the  Gave  de  Pau  is  similar  to  the  general 
Pyrenees  climate,  that  is  to  say  it  is  temperate  and  humid.  In  the  high  areas  there 
are  considerable  changes  in  temperature.  The  northwest  winds,  which  always  bring 
rain,  give  rise  to  erosion  on  the  slopes.  The  aspect  is  without  influence  on  the  forma- 
tion of  avalanches,  since  they  are  produced  on  both  north  and  south  slopes  of  the  Cau- 
terets valley.  Fogs  and  mists  are  frequent.  The  snow  and  the  rain  are  very  abundant, 
but  the  river  is  chiefly  dangerous  in  spring  when  the  winter  snow  is  not  yet  melted,  or 
sometimes  in  autumn  after  the  first  snowfall.  Hail  storms  are  quite  frequent  but  their 
effect  is  very  localized. 

Production.  —  The  basin  of  the  Gave  de  Pau  was  formerly  more  heavily  forested 
than  it  is  to-day.  .  .  .  The  forests  have  been  cut  so  as  to  give  place  to  pasturage, 
which  is  often  mediocre  in  character.  Outside  the  forests  and  the  grazing  ground  the 
cultivated  fields  are  very  limited  and  only  occupy  the  bottom  of  the  valleys  and  the 
foot  of  the  slopes.  They  consist  of  meadows  for  fattening  beef,  or  are  in  grain  and  po- 
tatoes used  l)y  the  agricultural  or  pastoral  population  of  the  region. 

Administrative  Situation.  —  The  upper  basin  of  the  Gave  de  Pau  is  situated  in  the 
District  of  the  Argeles.     Its  area  is  244,633  acres  and  its  population  about  31,000. 

State  of  Soil  Erosion.  —  The  causes  of  erosion  are :  The  steepness  of  the  slopes,  the 
abundance  of  erodable  deposits,  the  climate,  and  the  occupation.  Too  often  the  forests 
are  destroyed  and  the  sod  broken.  Occasionally,  in  the  more  inaccessible  areas,  the 
forest  cover  has  been  perfectly  maintained  and  there  are  no  avalanches.  Overgrazing 
results  in  landslides  or  erosion. 

Composition  and  Area.  —  The  area  includes  five  working  groups,  comprising  2,832 
acres,  of  which  917  belong  to  the  State. 

Work.  —  This  area  included  the  Peguere  slide  and  the  torrent  of  Lizey.  The  fixation 
of  the  Peguere  slide  is  worth  a  special  visit.  The  Lizey  torrent,  which  used  to  be  an 
apparently  inoffensive  brook,  quickly  changed  its  character  in  1895.  From  the  22d 
to  the  27th  of  April  a  flood  cut  the  national  highway  for  a  distance  of  1,970  feet  and  to 
an  average  depth  of  5  feet.  .  .  .  The  volume  of  the  material  deposited  has  been 
estimated  at  40,000  cubic  yards.     All  this  debris  came  from  slopes  covered  with  glacial 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  TAPPING  429 

deposits.  This  danger  has  now  been  corrected.  The  State  lands  of  the  Peguere  and 
Lizey  are  partly  forested.  The  stands  have  been  fully  stocked  and  the  openings  filled 
in  by  means  of  local  species,  beech,  pine,  and  fir,  and  to  a  lesser  extent,  the  larch,  spruce, 
birch,  and  alder.     The  total  area  forested  amounts  to  734  acres. 


APPENDIX  F 

SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  TAPPING   MARITIME  PINE  AND   FOR  FIXING 
SHIFTING   SAND   DUNES 

The  rules  and  specifications  governing  the  tapping  in  (a)  France,  (b)  British  India, 
and  (c)  the  United  States  are  given  in  full. 

According  to  the  conditions  for  sales  for  the  extraction  of  resin  (cahier  des  charges), 
approved  May  17,  1912,  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  work  will  be  ordered  as 
follows : 

Arts.  1-17  cover  the  method  of  sale,  terms  of  payment,  and  various  technical  costs. 

Beginning  with  Part  III,  Exploitation,  the  instructions  are: 

Art.  17.  —  The  permit  to  cut  will  be  delivered  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  agents, 
chief  of  service,  on  the  presentation  (a)  of  certificates  showing  that  the  contractor 
has  furnished  his  sureties  or  his  security  and  fulfilled  payments  called  for  by  Art.  12 
of  the  current  cahier  des  charges;  (6)  for  State  woods  ...  as  provided  by  the 
law  of  July  18,  1907.  The  Waters  and  Forests  agent  will  sign  these  papers.  He  will 
also  deliver  to  the  contractor  if  demanded:  (a)  A  copy  of  the  record  of  sale  which  will 
be  certified  to  by  the  secretary  at  the  place  of  sale;  (6)  a  copy  of  the  advertisement 
data  with  the  articles,  clauses,  and  conditions  which  concern  it  when  this  advertise- 
ment is  a  part  of  the  record  of  sale.     All  these  papers  will  be  stamped. 

Art.  18.  —  The  contractor  will  deliver  the  permit  to  the  head  ranger  and  inform 
him  of  the  day  when  he  expects  to  commence  exploitation.  In  any  case  this  cannot 
be  before  January  1  of  the  first  year  of  the  cutting  period. 

Art.  19.  —  Unless  otherwise  indicated  (see  p.  190)  or  contrary  to  the  special  contract 
clauses,  the  extraction  of  resin  must  conform  to  the  following  provisions: 

(A)  Tapping  without  Killing  (Gemmage  a  vie).  — The  tapping  will  have  either 
one  or  two  faces,  according  to  the  directions  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service.  Trees 
to  be  tapped  with  two  faces  are  only  those  which  have  been  so  designated  and  indicated 
in  the  record  of  sale.  The  faces  will  be  begun  above  the  root  collar,  but  will  be  raised 
vertically,  following  the  grain  of  the  wood.  If  the  period  of  tapping  is  for  5  years  the 
face  may  be  raised  23.6  inches  during  the  first  year  and  25.6  inches  during  the  follow- 
ing years,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  total  height  will  not  exceed  10.5  feet.  If  the  tap- 
ping period  is  4  years  (now  the  current  practice,  but  see  p.  193  for  latest  sizes)  the  face 
may  be  raised  23.6  inches  during  the  first  year,  25.6  inches  during  the  second  year, 
33.5  inches  during  the  third,  and  39.4  inches  during  the  fourth,  so  that  the  total  height 
of  the  face  shall  not  exceed  10.2  feet.  In  any  case  the  width  of  the  faces  must  not 
exceed  3.5  inches  the  first  year,  3.1  inches  the  second,  2.7  inches  the  third,  and  2.4 
inches  beginning  with  the  fourth.  The  decrease  in  width  must  take  place  gradually 
so  that  the  width  of  the  face  at  the  end  of  a  year  will  equal  the  width  of  the  face  (pre- 
scribed) for  the  beginning  of  the  next  year.  Their  depth  must  not  exceed  0.4  inches 
measured  with  a  string  stretched  from  one  side  of  the  gash  to  the  other,  beginning 
at  the  red  part  of  the  bark.  The  tapping  will  take  place  in  accordance  with  the  direc- 
tions from  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service;  either  on  four  faces  (au  quart),  all  faces 
being  made  as  far  as  possible  two  by  two  on  opposite  diameters;  or  by  three  faces  of 


430  APPENDIX 

three  made  by  dividing  the  circumference  of  the  tree  into  three  practically  equal  parts, 
the  second  having  been  cut  at  the  right  of  the  first  when  facing  it.  Unless  specially 
provided  for  in  the  sale  contract,  the  tapping  will  be  done  on  four  faces.  The  former 
faces  will  be  abandoned  no  matter  what  their  height.  The  contractor  may,  on  his 
demand,  be  authorized  by  the  conservator  to  replace  a  5-year  tapping  period  by  a 
4-year  period,  adopting  for  the  faces  the  sizes  prescribed  for  the  4-year  period.  This 
request  may  be  made  during  the  course  of  exploitation  but  must  be  before  the  face 
exceeds  the  dimensions  prescribed  for  the  year  corresponding  to  the  chosen  period. 

(B)  Tapping  to  Death  (Gemmage  a  mort).  —  If  the  trees  to  be  tapped  to  death 
form  part  of  the  sale  or  are  marked  for  the  contractors,  the  latter  can  work  them  as 
they  think  best.  On  the  other  hand,  contractors  cannot  tap  trees  so  as  to  diminish 
their  value  as  sawlogs  or  firewood.  The  size  of  the  faces  should  be  such  that  their  whole 
area  never  exceeds  the  limits  of  a  regular  face. 

Art.  20.  —  Any  tree  worked  contrary  to  the  principles  described  in  the  preceding 
article  or  the  special  clauses  will  be  considered  as  having  been  mutilated,  thus  falling 
under  the  penalty  of  Arts.  192  and  196  of  the  Forest  Code.  The  contractor  will  be 
liable  to  the  same  penalties,  if  at  any  time,  in  order  to  lead  the  resin  into  the  cup,  he 
shall  have  made  at  the  foot  of  the  trees  tapped  alive  circular  incisions  sufficiently  deep 
to  damage  the  wood. 

Art.  21.  —  Tapping  operations  shall  be  limited  to  between  March  1  and  October  31 
of  each  year,  but  the  contractor  may  commence  to  bark  the  pine  to  be  tapped  and  to 
place  the  cutters  after  February  1.  He  may  also  collect  the  scrape  up  to  December  1 
of  each  year  of  the  tapping  period,  except  that  the  last  year  (of  the  period)  must  be 
terminated  by  November  15.  If,  by  any  reason  of  local  conditions,  other  periods  must 
be  adopted  for  the  aforesaid  collection,  mention  will  be  made  of  it  in  the  special  sales 
clauses. 

Art.  22.  —  The  contractor  may  prune  the  trees  to  be  tapped  alive  up  to  a  height  of 
13.1  feet.  Unless  stipulations  have  been  made  to  the  contrary,  he  may  dispose  of  the 
products  of  this  operation. 

Art.  23.  —  The  felling  of  trees  sold  to  be  tapped  to  death  cannot  commence  before 
July  1  of  the  year  before  the  final  year  of  the  felling  period.  The  contractors  who 
wish  to  anticipate  the  feUing  of  all  or  a  part  of  these  trees  shall  ask  authorization  for  it 
from  the  Director-General  of  Waters  and  Forests,  who  will  fix  the  new  conditions  of 
exploitation  and,  if  there  are  any,  for  the  payment  of  annuities.  In  any  case  this  author- 
ization will  not  be  necessarj'  for  trees  unfit  for  tapping  that  measure  less  than  6  inches  in 
diameter  at  breast  height;  the  contractors  will  have  the  privilege  of  varying  them  at 
any  time  during  the  exploitation  period  on  condition  that  they  notify  the  local  agent 
when  they  commence  felling.  Dead  standing  trees  designated  at  the  time  of  the  mark- 
ing shall  be  felled  either  in  the  first  month  of  the  period  of  exploitation  or  within  one 
month  from  the  day  of  the  auction,  if  this  took  place  after  the  beginning  of  the  exploita- 
tion period. 

Art.  24.  —  Trees  sold  shall  be  cut  with  the  axe  or  with  the  saw  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  stamp  on  the  stump  without  injuring  it.  In  no  case  and  under  no  pretext  may 
the  imprint  of  the  State  marking  hatchet  be  erased  from  trees  tapped  alive  or,  with 
equal  force,  those  which  are  to  be  tapped  to  death;  these  marks  must  remain  intact 
through  the  entire  period  of  exploitation  and  to  this  end  all  necessary  precautions  shall 
be  taken  from  the  first  cutting  of  the  faces;  it  shall  even  be  carefully  seen  to  that  these 
marks  are  not  covered  by  the  resin.  Every  tree  on  which  the  aforesaid  marks  shall 
have  disappeared  will  be  considered  as  not  forming  a  part  of  the  sale  and  will  render 
the  contractor  liable  to  the  application  of  Arts.  34  and  196  of  the  Forest  Code.  The 
method  of  marking  will  be  indicated  in  the  advertisement  and  in  the  sale  record. 

Art.  25.  —  If,  because  of  unforeseen  circumstances,  such  as  patrol  paths,  fire  lines, 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  TAPPING  431 

working-plan  improvements,  work  for  the  protection  of  the  coast  hne,  ahenation,  and 
resale,  or  for  any  other  cause  of  this  sort,  trees  tapped  alive,  felled,  or  diverted  from 
felling  an  indemnity  equal  to  the  average  new  revenue  produced  by  each  tree  alive  shall 
be  allowed  to  the  contractor  for  each  year  remaining.  When,  under  the  same  condi- 
tions, trees  to  be  tapped  to  death  should  be  felled  or  included  in  compartments  out- 
side the  feUing  area,  a  like  indemnity  shall  be  credited  him  for  these  trees  if  the  priva- 
tion of  tapping  occurs  before  the  third  year  of  the  exploitation  period.  Under  such  con- 
ditions the  contractor  shall  be  bound  to  exploit  them  and  remove  them  within  the  period 
which  shall  be  allotted;  in  default  of  which  the  owner  of  the  forest  may  dispose  of  the 
trees  as  he  likes.  These  indemnities  shall  be  arranged  between  the  head  ranger  and  the 
contractor  or  his  representative  after  a  hearing  and  approval  by  the  conservator. 

Art.  26.  —  When  the  plan  of  sale  authorizes  or  requires  feUing  by  extraction  of 
stumps,  the  contractors  shall  fill  up  and  level  the  holes  made  by  the  uprooted  trees  as 
the  cutting  proceeds. 

Art.  27.  —  The  contractors  shall  only  be  required  to  brand  and  top  trees  (before 
feUing)  marked  for  exploitation  which  shall  be  so  designated  by  the  Waters  and  Forests 
Service;  the  number  of  such  trees  and  how  they  are  marked  shall  be  indicated  in  the 
advertisements  and  sale  data.  The  wood  resulting  from  these  operations  as  well  as 
that  from  the  removal  of  branches  and  tops  (done  at  the  contractor's  option)  shall  be 
immediately  removed,  and  especially  before  felhng,  when  they  cover  either  young  growth 
or  seedlings. 

Art.  28.  —  Trees  shall  be  cut  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  damage  those  reserved  and  felled 
so  far  as  possible  upon  areas  where  there  is  no  reproduction. 

Art.  29.  —  The  twigs  and  branches  shall  be  removed  and  piled  as  the  cutting  proceeds 
so  as  not  to  hinder  access  to  the  felling  areas. 

Art.  30.  —  Unless  otherwise  stipulated  in  the  special  clauses  of  sale,  the  felling  of  all 
wood  shall  be  terminated  by  April  15  of  the  last  year  of  the  period,  whether  the  wood 
has  been  tapped  or  not. 

Art.  31.  —  Every  contractor  who  cannot  finish  felling  or  cording  according  to  the 
prescribed  periods  and  requires  an  extension  of  time  shall  be  bound  to  make  the  demand 
of  the  conservator  on  "stamped"  paper  at  least  20  days  before  the  expiration  of  the 
cutting  period.  This  request  shall  include  information  as  to  the  amount  of  wood  re- 
maining to  be  cut  or  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  wood  remaining  to  be  corded,  the 
causes  of  the  delay  in  feUing,  and  the  extension  which  it  is  necessary  to  grant.  It  wiU 
be  judged  on  its  merits  by  the  conservator.  The  contractor,  simply  by  making  such  a 
request  for  an  extension  of  time  for  felling,  obligates  himself  to  pay  the  costs  fixed  by 
the  administration.  The  extension  runs  from  the  day  of  the  expiration  of  the  periods 
fixed  in  the  preceding  article.  When  the  contractors  have  not  profited  by  the  exten- 
sions which  they  have  been  granted,  they  cannot  obtain  any  refund  of  the  indemnity 
fixed  except  by  a  report  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  agent  or  head  ranger,  dated  at  the 
latest  on  the  day  of  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  exploitation,  and  showing  clearly  they 
have  profited  by  the  benefits  of  the  decision.  This  report  is  exempt  from  stamp  and 
registry  fees.     (Law  of  May  15,  1818,  Art.  30.) 

Art.  32.  —  The  contractor  is  forbidden :  (a)  To  pile  or  aUow  branches,  chips,  sawdust, 
bark,  etc.,  to  remain  (on  the  ground)  except  on  areas  designated  by  the  local  Waters  and 
Forests  agent  or  his  representative  The  contractor  may  be  required  to  scatter  these 
remnants  if  it  is  considered  necessary;  (6)  to  place  or  pile  wood  on  young  growth  or 
against  reserved  trees;  (c)  to  place  the  material  of  exploitation  outside  the  limits  of  the 
felhng  except  at  depots  specially  designated  by  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent  or 
his  representative. 

Art.  33.  —  As  cutting  proceeds  the  contractor  must  remove  wood  which  faUs  in  the 
paths  separating  the  felling  areas. 


432  APPENDIX 

Art.  34.  —  The  roads  must  be  continually  kept  free  in  the  felling  areas  so  that  wagons 
can  pass  at  any  time. 

Art.  35.  —  The  contractor  must  not  injure  any  reserved  trees,  whatever  their  quaUty 
or  number.  Under  no  circumstances,  except  as  specified  in  these  rules,  can  the  con- 
tractor have  reserve  trees  marked,  even  when  he  finds  the  number  of  trees  sold  less  than 
those  recorded  in  the  auction  estimate  sheet.  This  difference  cannot  give  the  contrac- 
tor any  right  to  an  indemnity.  When,  during  the  course  of  felhng,  the  trees  to  be  tapped 
aUve  or  reserved  trees  are  burned,  die,  are  overturned  or  damaged  by  the  wind  or  by 
any  other  cause  over  which  the  administration  has  no  control,  the  contractor  will  notify 
the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent,  so  that  reconnaissance  of  these  trees  can  be  made 
without  delay.  The  contractor  must,  upon  demand,  fell  such  trees  within  15  days, 
except  those  burned.  He  will  have  the  right  to  receive  the  stocktaking  sheet  and  esti- 
mate, which  shall  be  drawn  up  by  the  local  agent  and  which,  signed  by  the  contractor, 
and  approved  by  the  contractor,  shall  be  executed  without  further  formality  under  the 
conditions  prescribed  in  Art.  59.  The  contractor  shall  be  considered  as  having  re- 
nounced his  preemption  right,  if  within  15  days  of  the  time  he  was  formally  notified  he 
has  not  returned  this  paper  to  the  local  agent  showing  his  acceptance.  Said  notification 
shall  be  made  in  the  discretion  of  this  agent  either  by  the  intermediary  of  an  employee 
or  by  registered  letter  but  no  indemnity,  restitution,  nor  decrease  in  price  shall  be 
granted  the  contractor  for  any  loss  which  he  may  occasion  from  trees  destined  to  be 
tapped  alive. 

Art.  36.  —  Trees  to  be  tapped  to  death  and  sold,  which  die  during  the  course  of  the 
felhng  period,  must  be  immediately  felled  by  the  contractor  and  at  the  latest  within  15 
days  after  notification  of  their  death  has  been  made  by  the  local  agent.  If  the  trees 
tapped  to  death  are  not  sold,  the  same  procedure  shall  be  followed  during  the  course  of 
the  felling  period  as  has  already  been  described  for  the  trees  to  be  tapped  alive  and  for 
the  reserves.     The  contractor  cannot  claim  any  indemnity  for  loss  of  resin. 

^^i_  37.  —  When  any  tree  marked  for  felhng  shall  lodge  on  a  reserve,  the  contractor 
cannot  fell  this  reserved  tree  until  after  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent  or  his  repre- 
sentative acknowledge  the  necessity  for  the  felhng. 

Arts.  38-39.  —  When,  despite  the  observations  of  the  rules  relative  to  the  fellings,  re- 
serves are  knocked  down  or  damaged  by  felling,  or  knocked  down  under  the  conditions 
described  in  the  preceding  article,  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent  or  his  representa- 
tive shall  proceed  in  company  with  the  contractor  for  a  reconnaissance  of  this  wood, 
and,  after  an  estimate  of  the  damage  caused,  the  contractor  shall  pay  to  the  owner  of 
the  forest  an  indemnity  equal  to  the  total  damage.  When  reserves  are  knocked  over 
or  felled  the  indemnity  will  not  be  less  than  the  following  minimum: 

Stumps  less  than  7  inches  in  diameter  at  — 

3.3  feet  above  the  soil S0.03  per  inch  of  diameter 

7  to  14  inches 0-06  per  inch  of  diameter 

14  to  24  inches 0.08  per  inch  of  diameter 

24  to  35  inches 0.10  per  inch  of  diameter 

Over  35  inches 0.12  per  inch  of  diameter 

This  minimum  will  be  equally  applicable  to  reserves  damaged,  which  the  local  agent 
beUeves  cannot  thrive  or  remain  standing,  and  the  contractor  will  be  bound  to  fell  these 
trees  within  8  days  after  notification  by  the  aforesaid  agent.  .  .  .  Until  the  pay- 
ment of  said  indemnities  the  reserves  overturned,  damaged,  or  felled  will  continue  to 
belong  to  the  owner  of  the  forest;  but  the  contractor  will  have  the  right  to  acquire  the 
trees  overturned  or  felled  according  to  the  method  and  conditions  indicated  in  Art.  36. 
Art.  40.  —  The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  will  have  the  right  to  sell,  without  wait- 
ing for  the  final  inspection  of  the  cutting  area,  the  windfall,  wind  damaged,  burned  or 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  TAPPING  433 

dead  trees,  as  well  as  reserves  overturned,  felled,  or  broken,  which  the  contractor  refuses 
to  take  under  the  conditions  specified  in  Arts.  46  and  39.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  contractor  will  be  bound  to  allow  the  lumberman  to  bring  his  workmen  and  tools 
into  the  felUng  area.     .     .     . 

^^^  j^l^  —  All  collection  or  removal  of  cones,  where  the  trees  are  standing  or  felled,  is 
strictly  forbidden.  These  products  are  not  part  of  the  sale  and  their  removal  will  be 
prosecuted  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  Ai-t.  44  of  the  Forest  Code. 

^,.;  j^2.  —  The  contractors  may  establish  in  the  interior  of  the  felHng  areas  workshops 
for  the  manufacture  of  wood,  huts,  charcoal  pits,  forges,  distillation  outfits,  and  steam 
sawmills  only  after  making  a  demand  (free  from  stamp  rights)  of  the  local  Waters  and 
Forests  agent  who  shall  designate  in  writing  the  location  and  areas  where  leaves,  moss, 
stones,  brush,  and  sod  considered  necessary  (for  construction  purposes)  shall  be  removed. 
This  material  shall  be  granted  free  of  charge,  but  the  holes  caused  by  the  trees'  removal 
shall  be  immediately  filled  up  and  leveled.  Charcoal  pits  shall  be  surrounded  at  4.4 
yards  from  their  base  by  a  ditch  4.9  inches  wide  at  the  bottom.  The  ground  between 
the  base  of  the  charcoal  pit  and  the  ditch  surrounding  it  shall  be  entirely  cleared.  Fire 
cannot  be  lighted  before  October  I  and  will  be  put  out  before  March  1  of  each  year. 
The  chimneys  of  steam  engines  and  other  similar  apparatus  must  be  covered  with  metal 
screens,  fine  enough  to  prevent  the  ejection  of  sparks.  The  contractors  must,  besides, 
take  all  precautions  prescribed  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  agent  and  shall  be  bound  to 
conform  to  the  laws  and  rules  in  force.  Under  any  circumstances  they  shall  be  held 
responsible  for  damage  resulting  from  the  use  of  these  machines  and  apparatus  and 
from  fire  which  occurs  in  consequence. 

Art.  43.  —  The  contractor  shall  have  the  privilege  of  constructing,  in  the  cutting 
area,  on  areas  indicated  by  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent  or  his  representative, 
huts  for  the  lodgement  of  the  resin  workers.  These  huts  shall  be  required  to  be  demol- 
ished and  the  material  removed  within  two  months  after  the  period  fixed  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  removal  of  the  timber  or  of  the  tapping.  In  default,  or  beyond  this  period, 
the  houses  will  become  the  property  of  the  owner  of  the  forest. 

Art.  44.  —  Existing  houses  which  can  be  put  at  the  disposal  of  the  contractor  will 
be  suitably  maintained  during  the  period  of  exploitation  and  rendered  in  perfect  state 
of  habitation.     .     .     . 

Other  special  rules  which  bind  the  contractor  are  as  follows : 

He  can  build  new  roads  where  necessary. 

He  is  forbidden  to  drag  wood  on  carriage  roads,  to  slide  or  roll  wood  down  steep 
slopes  or  to  graze  work  animals  in  the  forest.  The  removal  of  all  products  must  be 
finished  by  November  15  for  improvement  cuttings  and  by  April  15  for  regeneration 
fellings. 

The  other  rules  are  similar  to  those  given  under  timber-sales  clauses,  p.  438  of  the 
Appendix. 


RULES  FOR  TAPPING  IN  THE  NAINI  TAL  DIVISION  AS  AT  PRESENT 

IN   FORCE 

The  following  revised  tapping  rules  are  circulated  for  guidance: 

2.  Attached  is  a  statement  showing  the  areas  so  far  set  aside  for  tapping.  Early  in 
the  year  the  trees  in  the  areas  set  aside  for  tapping  will  be  numbered  with  a  serial  number 
as  the  numerator  and  the  numbers  of  the  channels  as  the  denominator,  e.  g.,  2674/2 
which  means  that  2,674  is  the  serial  number  and  2  the  number  of  pots  the  tree  is  to 
carry.  Each  compartment  will  have  a  series  of  its  own.  The  forester  or  a  trusty  forest 
guard  can  number  the  compartments  to  be  light  tapped  and  the  range  officer  those 


434  APPENDIX 

compartments  to  be  heavy  tapped.  Heavy  tapping  will  be  only  carried  out  in  those 
areas  to  be  felled  for  firewood  within  the  next  5  years  and  only  those  trees  in  them  will 
be  heavy  tapped  that  are  to  come  out  at  the  felling,  the  remaining  trees  in  the  coupe 
being  hght  tapped. 

NUMBER   OF    POTS   PER   TREE 

3.  Light  tapping.  —  One  pot  for  trees  between  3|  feet  and  4J  feet  in  girth. 

Two  pots  for  trees  between  4^  feet  and  7  feet  in  girth. 
Three  pots  for  trees  over  7  feet  in  girth. 

Heavy  tapping.  —  One  pot  for  every  foot  in  girth  of  bark. 

METHOD    OF   TAPPING:    HANGING   OF   THE    POTS 

4.  Having  arranged  for  pots,  tools  and  lips,  the  pots  will  be  hung  on  the  trees  as 
follows:  Choose  places  for  the  pots  at  the  base  of  the  tree,  taking  care  that  when  two 
or  more  pots  are  prescribed  that  they  are  equidistant  from  each  other,  then  cut  a  channel 
4  inches  wide  by  1  inch  deep  and  about  6  inches  long  at  the  base,  so  as  to  allow  a  free 
hang  to  the  top,  place  the  lip  (a  piece  of  thin  iron  sheet  5  inches  by  1^  inches)  in  a 
curved  incision  (made  by  a  special  chisel  with  that  curve),  care  being  taken  that  the 
lip  slopes  downward  from  the  tree  and  underneath  toward  a  side  drive  in  a  nail  on  to 
which  the  pot  will  be  himg. 

The  channel  when  first  cut  should  be  4  inches  to  6  inches  long  above  the  hp.  For 
the  cutting  of  a  channel  an  ordinary  sharp  adze  is  required.  When  commencing  work 
for  the  year  on  trees  already  tapped,  the  old  hp  will  be  extracted  and  inserted  at  the 
head  of  the  previous  year's  channel,  the  pot  being  hung  below  it  as  before. 

FRESHENING 

5.  For  this  a  very  sharp  adze  (Basula)  is  required.  As  the  flow  ceases,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  time  of  year,  may  be  after  one,  two  or  three  weeks,  a  point  on  which  the 
range  officer  and  beat  guards  must  be  particularly  careful,  the  channel  will  require 
freshening  at  the  top.  This  is  done  by  the  removal  of  a  thin  shaving  not  more  than  2§ 
inches  of  the  vertical  length  of  the  tree.  The  flow  has  ceased  because  of  the  clogging 
of  the  outlet  of  the  resin  ducts,  and  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  remove  those  clogged  and 
to  open  out  other  ducts  —  the  ducts  more  or  less  ramifying  through  some  2  inches  or  so 
of  outer  wood  in  a  vigorous  first-class  tree. 

No  hard-and-fast  rule  can  be  fixed  as  to  the  length  of  the  channel  to  be  cut  each 
year,  as  this  depends  on  the  extent  of  the  freshening  necessary  and  on  the  tree  itself  as  a 
resin-producer.  A  maximum  of  15  inches,  however,  is  fixed;  but  the  less  the  better, 
as  the  longer  the  use  of  the  ladder  is  postponed  the  more  quickly  can  work  be  done. 

The  cutting  of  the  bark  on  the  sides  of  the  channel  is  not  allowed;  simply  remove 
the  old  pieces  of  loose  bark  by  hand  and  put  a  piece  of  bark  over  the  pot  itself  to  pre- 
vent foreign  matter  falling  into  the  resin. 

COLLECTION 

6.  As  the  pots  become  full  they  must  be  emptied  of  their  resin.  Here  again  no  fixed 
period  can  be  fixed,  but  during  the  season  of  greatest  flow  once  every  fifteen  days  is 
necessary,  but  otherwise  not  less  than  once  a  month.  As  a  rule,  the  resin  should  not  be 
allowed  to  reach  within  ^  inch  of  the  nail  hole  or  the  top  of  the  pot,  whichever  is  lowest. 

The  collection  will  be  made  by  means  of  wooden  spoons,  the  resin  being  put  into 
kerosene  oil  tins  fixed  up  with  a  handle,  which  will  be  emptied  into  other  tins  at  con- 
venient centers  for  transport  to  Bhowali. 

7.  Tapping  will  go  on  for  five  successive  years  between  about  March  15  and  Novem- 
ber 15,  according  to  season  and  then  a  rest  of  10  years,  so  that  during  14  years  the 
4-inch  channel  should  be  closed  over  by  callous  formed  on  the  sides. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  TAPPING  435 

United  States  Forest  Service  —  Florida  National  Forest 

SAMPLE  TURPENTINE  PERMIT 

December  11,  1911. 
In  consideration  of  the  granting  to  us  of  this  permit  to  work  for  turpentine  certain 
longleaf  and  slash  pine  timber  on  an  area  to  be  definitely  designated  by  a  forest  officer 
before  cupping  begins,  located  in  Sections  14,  24,  and  26,  T.  2  N.,  R.  21  W.,  Talla- 
hassee Meridian,  within  the  Florida  National  Forest,  estimated  to  contain  19,000 
cups  more  or  less,  we  do  hereby  promise  to  pay  to  the  First  National  Bank  of  Albu- 
querque, New  Mexico  (U.  S.  Depository),  for  said  permit  at  the  rate  of  $86  per  thousand 
cups  in  two  payments  of  at  least  one-half  of  the  total  amount  due,  credit  being  given 
for  the  sums,  if  any,  hitherto  deposited  with  the  said  First  National  Bank  of  Albuquerque 
in  connection  with  this  permit;  and  we  further  promise  and  agree,  should  this  permit 
be  granted  to  us,  to  work  said  timber  in  strict  accordance  with  the  following  and  all 
other  related  regulations  governing  the  National  Forests  and  prescribed  by  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture: 

1.  Timber  on  valid  claims  and  timber  under  other  contract  is  exempt  from  this 
permit. 

2.  No  tree  will  be  cupped,  chipped,  raked,  or  worked  in  any  manner  until  the  first 
payment  has  been  made. 

3.  No  gum  or  other  product  of  the  timber  will  be  removed  before  the  cups  on  the 
area  have  been  counted  and  recorded.  Title  to  the  product  of  the  timber  included  in 
this  permit  will  not  pass  to  the  permittee  until  it  has  been  paid  for  as  herein  prescribed. 

4.  No  timber  will  be  cupped  except  that  on  the  area  designated  by  a  forest  officer; 
and  no  marked  trees  or  trees  under  the  diameter  hmits  will  be  cupped  or  chipped  imder 
any  consideration. 

5.  No  tree  10  inches  or  less  in  diameter  will  be  cupped;  not  more  than  one  cup  will 
be  placed  on  trees  from  11  to  15  inches  inclusive  in  diameter;  not  more  than  two  cups 
will  be  placed  on  trees  from  16  inches  to  25  inches  inclusive  in  diameter,  and  not  more 
than  three  cups  will  be  placed  on  any  tree.  All  diameter  measurements  are  to  be  taken 
at  a  point  2 J  feet  above  the  ground. 

6.  So  far  as  possible,  the  depth  of  all  streaks  will  average  one-half  inch  or  less,  and 
in  no  case  will  the  depth  of  streaks  exceed  three-quarters  of  an  inch  not  including  bark. 
The  width  of  the  streaks  will  be  so  regulated  that  no  more  than  one-half  inch  of  new 
wood  will  be  taken  from  the  upper  side  with  each  streak  and  so  that  the  total  height 
of  the  faces  shall  not  exceed  fifty  inches  during  the  hfe  of  this  permit.  Bars  or  strips 
of  bark  no  less  than  4  inches  wide  in  the  narrowest  place  will  be  left  between  faces,  and 
the  edges  of  faces  will  be  parallel  with  each  other  and  be  placed  vertically  up  the  tree. 
So  far  as  possible,  where  more  than  one  face  is  placed  on  a  tree,  one  bar  between  them 
will  not  exceed  6  inches  in  width.  No  more  than  one  streak  will  be  placed  on  any  face 
during  any  one  week.  The  chipping  will  be  uniform  in  depth  from  shoulder  to  peak. 
Faces  not  chipped  in  accordance  with  these  specifications  may  be  marked  out  and  the 
cups  removed  by  the  forest  officer. 

7.  One  of  the  modern  cupping  systems  will  be  used,  and  the  cups  and  aprons  or 
gutters  will  be  so  placed  that  the  shoulders  of  the  first  streak  will  not  be  more  than  12 
inches  distant  from  the  bottom  of  the  cup  and  the  cups  will  be  placed  as  near  the 
ground  as  possible.  No  wood  will  be  exposed  on  any  tree  by  removing  the  bark  below 
the  gutter  or  aprons. 

8.  No  unnecessary  damage  will  be  done  to  cupped  trees,  marked  trees,  or  to  trees 
below  the  diameter  limit.  Trees  that  are  badly  damaged  during  the  life  of  this  permit, 
when  such  damage  is  due  to  carelessness  or  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  permittee, 


436  APPENDIX 

shall  be  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  $5  per  1,000  feet  b.  m.,  full  scale,  and  the  forest  super- 
visor shall  decide  as  to  the  presence  and  extent  of  damage. 

9.  No  cups  will  be  placed  later  than  March  1,  1912,  without  written  permission 
from  the  forest  supervisor,  and  all  timber  embraced  in  this  permit  will  be  cupped  before 
said  date. 

10.  Unless  extension  of  time  is  granted,  all  timber  will  be  cupped,  chipped,  dipped, 
scraped;  the  product  and  all  cups,  aprons,  gutters  and  nails  removed  and  each  cupped 
tree  thoroughly  raked  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  forest  officer,  on  or  before  and  not  later 
than  January  1,  1915. 

11.  No  fires  shall  be  set  to  the  timber,  underbrush  or  grass  on  the  area  included  in 
this  permit  without  the  written  permission  of  the  forest  supervisor,  and  every  effort 
will  be  made  by  us,  our  employees,  sub-contractors  and  employees  of  sub-contractors, 
to  prevent  the  burning  over  of  said  area  from  any  unauthorized  cause;  and  during  the 
time  that  this  permit  remains  in  force  and  effect  we  and  all  our  employees,  sub-contrac- 
tors and  employees  of  sub-contractors,  without  any  charge  whatsoever  to  the  Forest 
Service,  will  do  all  in  our  power  both  independently  and  on  request  of  forest  officers  to 
prevent  and  suppress  unauthorized  forest  fires. 

12.  All  cupped  trees  will  be  raked  in  a  workmanlike  manner  for  the  space  of  2^ 
feet  around  each  tree  before  January  1  of  each  year  of  the  hfe  of  this  permit;  and  a  fire 
line  not  less  than  3  feet  wide  in  the  narrowest  place  shall  be  hoed  or  plowed  around  the 
area  covered  by  this  permit  in  such  a  manner  as  to  completely  isolate  it  from  adjoining 
lands.  Natural  fire  brakes,  such  as  creeks,  swamps,  roads,  etc.,  may  be  utilized  with 
the  consent  of  the  forest  officer.  These  fire  lines  must  be  made  and  receive  the  approval 
of  the  forest  officer  before  any  cups  are  placed  the  first  year  or  new  streaks  made  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second  and  third  years. 

13.  Special-use  permits  will  be  obtained  for  such  cabins,  shelters,  camps,  telephone 
lines,  etc.,  as  may  be  required  on  Government  land  in  carrying  out  the  terms  of  this 
permit. 

14.  The  first  payment  .shall  be  made  before  the  cups  are  placed  the  first  year  and  the 
second  payment  shall  be  made  on  or  before  December  31,  1912. 

The  decision  of  the  district  forester  shall  be  final  in  the  interpretation  of  the  regula- 
tions governing  this  permit. 

Work  may  be  suspended  by  the  forest  supervisor  if  the  regulations  contained  in  this 
permit  are  disregarded,  and  the  violation  of  any  one  of  said  regulations,  if  persisted  in, 
shall  be  sufficient  cause  for  the  district  forester  to  revoke  this  permit  and  to  cancel  all 
other  permits  for  other  privileges. 

"No  member  of  or  delegate  to  Congress,  or  resident  commissioner,  after  his  election 
or  appointment,  and  either  before  or  after  he  has  qualified  and  during  his  continuance 
in  office,  and  no  officer,  agent,  or  employee  of  the  Government  shall  be  admitted  to  any 
share  or  part  of  this  contract  or  agreement,  or  to  any  benefit  to  arise  thereupon.  Noth- 
ing, however,  herein  contained  shall  be  construed  to  extend  to  any  incorporated  com- 
pany, where  such  permit  or  agreement  is  made  for  the.general  benefit  of  such  incorpora- 
tion or  company.     (Section  3741  R.  S.  and  Sections  114-116,  Act  of  March  4,  1909.)  " 

No  person  undergoing  a  sentence  of  imprisonment  at  hard  labor  can  be  employed  in 
carrying  out  the  terms  of  this  permit.     (See  Executive  Order  of  May  18,  1905.) 

Refund  of  deposits  under  this  permit  will  be  made  only  at  the  discretion  of  the  district 
forester,  except  when  the  amount  of  such  deposits  is  more  than  the  total  amount  re- 
quired under  this  permit. 

This  permit  is  non-assignable.  (See  Section  3737,  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United 
States.) 

The  conditions  of  this  permit  are  completely  set  forth  herein,  and  none  of  its  terms 
can  be  varied  or  modified  except  with  the  written  consent  of  the  forest  supervisor. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  TAPPING  437 

No  subordinate  forest  officer  has,  or  wiU  be  given  authority  for  this  purpose.  If  re- 
quired as  a  guarantee  of  a  faithful  performance  of  the  conditions  of  this  permit  we 
will  submit  a  bond  in  the  sum  of  $500,  which  bond,  together  with  all  moneys  paid  or 
promised  under  this  contract,  upon  failure  on  our  part  to  fulfill  all  and  singular  the 
conditions  and  requirements  herein  set  forth,  or  made  a  part  thereof,  shall  become  the 
property  of  the  United  States  as  liquidated  damages  and  not  as  penalty. 

CONTRACT  STIPULATIONS 

In  the  dunes  of  the  Gironde  and  the  Landes,  the  following  contract  stipulations  must 
be  followed  by  contractors : 

Chapter  I.  —  General  Rules.  —  Fixation  and  Maintenance  of  Dunes. 

Art  1.  —  The  dunes  are  fixed  according  to  plans  by  the  director  of  works,  (a)  by 
sowing  with  ground  cover  or  (b)  by  the  plantation  of  maram  grass  {Psamma  arenaria), 
and  (c)  by  broadcast  sowing  or  transplanting  in  the  waterholes  between  the  dunes. 

SOWING   WITH   COVER   AND   TRANSPLANTING 

Art.  2.  —  Contractors  shall  use  per  acre  of  dune:  (a)  The  amounts  of  maritime  pine 
seed,  genista  or  gorse,  and  maram  specified  in  the  plans;  (6)  the  number  of  brush  fagots 
properly  called  "bourees"  likewise  to  be  determined  by  the  plan  (80  to  400  per  acre)  and 
according  to  the  conditions  detailed  in  Art.  9  which  follows.  The  transplanting  of  the 
water-hollows  between  the  dimes  shall  be  at  the  rate  of  (except  upon  contrary  stipulation) 
3.5  poimds  of  pine  seed  and  1.7  pounds  of  genista  or  gorse  seed  per  acre. 

PLANTATION    OF   MARAM    (gOURBET) 

Art  3.  —  When  maram  is  planted  the  tufts  are  placed  in  quincunx,  spaced  1.6  feet 
apart;  the  spacing  of  the  clumps  may  be,  however,  on  order  of  the  director  of  works, 
reduced  to  8  inches  or  increased  to  3.3  feet.  The  maram  shall  be  planted  in  conformity 
with  the  rules  in  Art.  10. 

PALISADES,    BARRIERS 

Art.  4.  —  Contractors  shall  use  for  each  328  linear  feet  (109  yards)  of  palisades  an 
average  of  500,  5.2  feet  in  length,  1.2  inches  thick,  and  between  6.7  and  8.6  inches  in 
width.  The  stakes  for  the  woven  barriers  shall,  according  to  the  orders  of  the  local 
agents,  have  a  length  between  8.2  feet  and  29  inches.  For  each  328  linear  feet  of  barrier 
the  following  stakes  and  fagots  shall  be  set:  200  stakes  8.2  to  4.9  feet  in  length,  80 fagots; 
200  stakes  4.1  feet  in  length,  60  fagots;  200  stakes  3.3  feet  in  length,  40  fagots;  200 
stakes  29  inches  in  length,  20  fagots;  per  328  linear  feet  of  simple  barrier  (cordon),  70 
fagots. 

EXCAVATIONS 

Art.  5.  —  The  fagots  for  excavations  shall  be  set  in  holes  16  to  20  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence with  a  depth  of  16  inches,  and  separated  12  to  16  inches  from  circumference  to 
circumference,  according  to  the  instructions  of  the  director  of  works.  The  height  shall 
vary  from  8  to  24  inches  above  the  soil  according  to  the  locality. 

LEVELING 

Art.  6.  —  The  places  to  be  leveled  shall  be  worked  to  a  depth  of  14  inches  and  the 
ground  shall  be  cleared  of  all  vegetation  and  debris  whatsoever  which  could  stop  the 
movement  of  the  sand.  The  green  maram  susceptible  of  being  replanted  will  be  care- 
fully taken  out,  made  into  bundles,  and  heeled  in;  the  maram  which  cannot  be  used  and 
debris  of  all  kinds  will  be  placed  in  the  nearest  excavations. 


438  APPENDIX 


THINNING   THE   MARAM 

Art.  7.  —  The  maram,  where  it  is  too  thick,  will  be  thinned  in  conformity  to  the  pre- 
scriptions of  the  director  of  works.  The  stumps  which  are  removed  will  be  dug  out  and 
deposited  where  specified  by  the  foreman. 

Chapter  II.  —  Places  of  Extraction.  —  Nature  and  Quality  of  the  Material.  —  Fagots 
and  Stakes. 

Art.  8.  —  The  fagots  and  stakes  will  come  from  the  places  indicated  by  the  agents  in 
the  State  forest  and  situated  at  the  average  distance  specified  in  the  plans.  Without 
special  authorization  from  the  supervisor  (chef  de  service)  they  cannot  be  removed  from 
the  so-called  protection  zone.  The  thinnings  will  be  under  the  direction  of  a  forest  em- 
ployee and  conducted  without  interruption,  as  the  work  proceeds.  When  the  work  is 
stopped  at  any  point  the  boundary  of  the  area  thinned  shall  be  regularized  so  far  as 
possible  by  straight  lines.  If  the  brush  and  the  stakes  cannot  be  secured  in  sufficient 
quantities,  or  are  completely  lacking  in  the  Federal  forest,  the  contractor  must  procure 
them  at  his  expense  in  private  forests,  provided,  however,  that  the  average  distance  of 
transport  shall  not  exceed  the  average  distance  specified  in  the  plans. 

Art.  9.  —  The  brush  and  the  stakes  shall  be  used  green.  The  fagots  shall  not  include 
cones  or  branches  with  a  diameter  of  more  than  1.2  inches.  Maritime  pine,  genista  or 
gorse,  shall  be  used  for  their  manufacture  instead  of  heather,  unless  specially  stipulated 
in  the  plans.  The  brush  fagots  must  weigh  at  least  44  pounds  from  September  1  to 
May  31  and  33  pounds  from  June  1  to  August  31 ;  those  which  do  not  come  up  to  the 
proper  weight  shall  be  rejected  and  immediately  rebundled.  No  account  shall  be  made 
for  the  contractor  for  the  fagots  which  exceed  the  stated  weight.  The  stakes  .  .  . 
4.9  to  8.2  feet  shall  have  a  minimum  diameter  of  2.4  inches  at  the  small  end.  Those '4.1 
feet  and  less  shall  not  be  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end. 


Art.  10.  —  The  maram  to  be  transplanted  shall  be  secured  in  the  areas  designated  by 
the  director  of  works  at  the  average  distance  indicated  in  the  plans  and  extraction  shall 
be  made  by     .     .     • 

APPENDIX  G 

STATE   AND    COMMUNAL   TIMBER   SALE   REGULATIONS 

The  regular  contract  conditions  and  clauses  were  issued  by  the  administration  at 
Paris,  June  22,  1903,  and  revised  May  27,  1909,  and  again  May  11,  1912.  The  following 
translation  of  Part  III  —  Exploitation,  is  given  in  full  since  it  is  basic  for  all  timber 
sales  throughout  France  unless  exceptions  are  made  in  the  special  clauses  issued  by  the 
local  conservators. 

PART   III.  —  EXPLOITATION  i 

^r^  17.  — Every  successful  bidder  who,  before  the  delivery  of  the  cutting  permit, 
shall  demand  a  recount  because  of  an  alleged  deficit  in  the  number  of  trees  indicated 
in  the  record  of  the  trees  reserved  and  marked  for  cutting  binds  himself,  merely  by  his 
request,  to  pay  at  the  depository  of  the  collector  for  the  local  Canton  an  indemnity  of 
10  francs  per  day's  work  for  each  agent  and  3  francs  per  day's  work  for  each  guard,  if 
there  is  found  to  be  no  deficit. 

1  Part  I  describes  the  routine  of  the  auction;  Part  II  explains  payments,  charges, 
stamp  rights,  and  registry.     See  page  292. 


STATE  AND  COMMUNAL  TIMBER  SALE  439 

Art.  18.  —  The  permit  to  cut  will  be  delivered  by  the  agent  of  Waters  and  Forests 
service,  chief  of  service,  on  the  presentation  of  certificates  showing  that  the  purchaser 
has  put  up  his  securities  or  security,  furnished  his  remittances,  promissory  notes,  or  cash 
and  made  the  payments  required  under  Art.  12  of  this  circular. 

The  Waters  and  Forests  agent  will  sign  these  papers.  He  will  besides  give  to  the  pur- 
chaser if  he  asks  for  them :  (a)  A  copy  of  the  minutes  of  his  auction,  as  soon  as  they  have 
been  verified  at  the  Secretary's  office  at  the  place  of  sale;  (5)  a  copy  of  the  sales  circular 
and  of  the  special  clauses:  (c)  a  copy  of  the  special  circular  for  the  articles,  clauses,  and 
conditions  which  concern  him  when  this  bill  of  sale  is  added  to  the  auction  circular; 
(d)  a  copy  of  the  survey  notes  and,  if  there  is  one,  a  map  of  the  felhng  area.  All  these 
papers  shall  be  vised  for  stamps. 

Art.  19.  —  The  contractor  shall  send  the  permit  to  the  ranger  in  charge  and  inform 
him  in  advance  of  the  day  he  plans  to  start  cutting. 

Art.  20.  —  Unless  otherwise  indicated  or  supplementary  to  the  special  auction  clauses 
the  wood  shall  be  cut : 

In  the  coppice  fellings:  "  a  tire  et  aire  "  with  the  axe  as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible, 
and  so  that  the  water  cannot  remain  on  the  stumps.     The  roots  must  remain  intact. 

In  the  high  forest  fellings:  level  with  the  ground,  with  the  axe  or  saw. 

Conifers  marked  for  cutting  in  coppice  felling  areas  may  also  be  sawed  down. 

Art.  21.  —  When  the  sales  circular  authorizes  or  prescribes  felling  with  stump  ex- 
traction, the  purchasers  must  fill  up  and  level  the  holes  made  by  the  uprooted  trees  as 
the  cutting  proceeds. 

Art.  22.  —  The  purchasers  shall  be  bound  to  limb  and  top  before  felling  only  those 
trees  marked  for  cutting  which  have  been  previously  designated  by  the  Waters  and 
Forests  Service.  The  number  of  these  trees  and  how  they  have  been  designated  shall 
be  given  in  the  sales  circular.  The  wood  resulting  from  the  operations  including  that 
from  the  preliminary  work  of  hmbing  and  topping  undertaken  voluntarily  by  the  suc- 
cessful bidders  shall  be  immediately  removed,  and  especially  before  further  felhng, 
when  it  covers  young  growth  or  seedlings. 

Art.  23.  —  The  trees  shall  be  felled,  so  far  as  possible,  so  as  not  to  damage  those 
reserved  and  cut  areas  where  there  is  no  young  growth.  In  felling  areas  on  a  rapid  slope 
the  trees  shall  be  feUed,  unless  otherwise  authorized,  in  the  direction  of  the  slope,  with 
the  crown  up  hill. 

Art.  24.  —  As  cutting  proceeds,  the  purchasers  in  coppice  fellings  shall  be  bound, 
unless  waived  in  the  sales  circular,  to  remove  old  stumps  and  to  cut  level  with  the 
ground  the  boles  bent  or  broken,  the  brush,  brambles,  weeds,  shrubs,  and  injurious 
undergrowth. 

This  cleaning  is  not  obligatory  in  high  forest  felhngs  unless  prescribed  in  the  contract. 

Art.  25.  —  The  small  branches  and  limbs  shall  be  removed  and  piled,  as  the  cutting 
proceeds,  so  as  not  to  obstruct  hauling  in  the  felling  areas. 

Art.  26.  —  The  material  resulting  from  cording  the  small  branches  and  limbs  shall 
be  stacked  or  placed  in  piles  as  cutting  proceeds. 

Art.  27.  —  The  cutting  of  wood  shall  be  finished  by  April  15  after  award. 

The  wood  peeled  by  virtue  of  the  contract  shall  be  cut  before  July  1. 

The  cording  of  small  branches  and  limbs,  including  piling  or  stacking  the  material 
resulting  from  this  cording,  shall  be  finished  by  June  1  following  the  award. 

As  regards  the  small  branches  and  limbs  resulting  from  wood  peeled  by  virtue  of 
the  contract,  this  period  is  extended  to  July  15  following. 

If  local  conditions  necessitate  other  terms  they  will  be  given  in  the  special  clauses 
of  the  contract. 

Art.  28.  —  Every  purchaser  who  cannot  finish  felling  or  cording  during  the  pre- 
scribed period  and  who  requires  an  extension  shall  be  bound  to  make  the  request  of 


440  APPENDIX 

the  conservator,  on  stamped  paper  at  least  20  days  before  the  expiration  of  the  afore- 
said period.  This  request  shall  explain  the  area  or  the  amount  of  timber  remaining  to 
be  cut,  or  else  the  amount  and  kind  of  wood  remaining  to  be  corded,  the  causes  of  the 
delay  in  the  logging,  and  the  extension  that  it  is  necessary  to  have.  It  will  be  judged 
on  its  merits  by  the  conservator.  The  purchaser,  solely  by  his  request  for  an  extension 
of  time  for  logging,  obligates  himself  to  pay  the  indemnities  fixed  by  the  administration. 
The  extension  will  run  from  the  day  of  the  expiration  in  the  periods  fixed  in  the  pre- 
ceding article.  In  case  the  purchasers  do  not  make  use  of  the  extensions  which  they 
have  been  granted,  they  cannot  obtain  a  refund  of  the  charge  made,  except  after  a 
report  from  the  agent  of  Waters  and  Forests  local  officer  in  charge,  dated  at  the  latest 
on  the  day  of  the  expiration  of  the  felling  period,  stamped  and  registered  at  their  ex- 
pense and  showing  unmistakably  that  they  could  not  profit  by  the  extension. 

Art.  29.  —  The  purchaser  is  forbidden,  at  least  unless  the  sales  circular  contains  an 
explicit  authorization,  to  peel  or  bark  standing  any  wood  in  his  sale,  under  the  penalties 
prescribed  by  Art.  36  of  the  Forest  Code. 

Art.  30.  —  It  is  also  forbidden:  (a)  To  leave  branches,  twigs,  chips  or  bark  on  areas 
stocked  with  seedlings;  (6)  To  place  or  pile  wood  on  seedlings,  live  stumps,  or  against 
reserved  trees;  (c)  To  notch  these  trees  on  the  bole  or  roots  or  to  drive  nails;  {d)  To 
pile  the  products  of  logging  outside  the  boundaries  of  the  felling  area,  except  on  land- 
ings specially  designated  by  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent  or  his  representative. 

Art.  31. — -The  purchasers  must  remove,  as  the  cutting  proceeds,  the  wood  which 
falls  into  the  lanes  separating  felling  areas. 

Art.  32.  —  They  must  always  keep  the  roads  open  in  the  felling  areas,  so  that  wagons 
can  pass  at  any  time. 

Art.  33.  —  The  purchaser  will  protect  all  the  reserved  trees,  whatever  their  quality 
and  number.  In  no  case,  nor  under  any  pretext  whatever,  can  any  reserved  tree  be 
marked  for  the  purchaser,  even  when  it  may  be  found  that  there  are  more  than  recorded 
in  the  marking  and  sales  report.  He  wUl  protect  (coppice)  standards  of  every  age 
class  and  other  reserved  trees,  even  if  they  may  be  broken,  or  overturned  by  the  wind, 
or  damaged  by  an  act  of  Providence  independent  of  the  logging.  He  will  be  bound 
to  preserve  them,  as  well  as  their  crowns  and  branches. 

Art.  34.  —  When  a  tree  marked  for  cutting  shall  lodge  in  its  fall  on  a  reserved  tree, 
the  purchaser  cannot  fell  this  reserve  until  after  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent 
or  his  representative  shall  have  recognized  the  necessity  for  felhng. 

Art.  35.  —  Whenever,  despite  the  observance  of  the  felling  rules  applicable  to  the 
cutting  areas,  the  reserves  shall  have  been  overturned  by  logging,  or  when  the  reserves 
shall  have  been  knocked  down  under  the  conditions  anticipated  in  the  preceding  article, 
the  purchaser  shall  be  bound,  if  the  Waters  and  Forests  agent  considers  it  necessary, 
to  replace  these  reserves  by  trees  taken  from  those  marked  for  felling.  These  trees 
shall  be  chosen  by  the  aforesaid  agent  and  marked  with  his  special  marking  hatchet. 
Under  no  circumstances  can  the  value  of  the  tree  thus  designated  exceed  that  of  the 
trees  replaced.  If  the  restitution  is  not  required  or  if  it  is  effected  by  trees  less  valuable 
than  those  reserves  overturned  or  knocked  down,  the  purchaser  will  pay  as  damages 
the  value  of  these  reserves  or  the  difference  between  their  value  and  that  of  the  trees 
marked  to  replace  them,  after  a  check  valuation  has  been  made.  The  valuation  of  the 
reserves  can  never  be  less  than  the  following  established  minimum: 

COMPOUND    COPPICE    FELLING   AREAS 

Standard  of  the  first  rotation,     $0.03  per  3.9  inches  of  circumference.* 
Standard  of  the  second  rotation,  0.06  per  3.9  inches  of  circumference. 
Standard  of  the  third  rotation,     0.09  per  3.9  inches  of  circumference. 

*  These  figures  are  for  circumferences  made  3.3  feet  above  the  ground. 


STATE  AND  COMMUNAL  TIMBER  SALE  441 

HIGH   FOREST   FELLING   AREAS 

Saplings  20  inches  in  circumference  —  $0.03  per  3.9  inches  of  circumference.* 

Trees  24-  43  inches  in  circumference  —  0.06  per  3.9  inches  of  circumference. 
Trees  47-  75  inches  in  circumference  —  0.08  per  3.9  inches  of  circumference. 
Trees  79-114  inches  in  circumference  —  0.09  per  3.9  inches  of  circumference. 
Trees    118  inches  in  circumference  and  over,  0.11  per  3.9  inches  of  circumference. 

*  These  figures  are  for  circumferences  made  3.3  feet  above  the  ground. 

When  reserves  are  damaged  the  same  procedure  shall  be  followed  as  for  reserves 
overturned  or  knocked  down,  if  the  local  agent  decides  that  they  cannot  thrive  if  left 
standing.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent  beheves  that  the 
damaged  reserves  may  conveniently  be  left  standing  the  purchaser  will  pay  the  amount 
of  damage  caused  the  reserve  in  accordance  with  the  estimate  which  shall  be  made  by 
the  aforesaid  agent. 

A  record  of  these  estimates  and  charges  shall  be  prepared,  which  shall  be  signed  by 
the  contractor  or  his  agent,  and  addressed  to  the  conservator,  who,  after  having  checked 
and  approved  it,  will  see  to  the  collection  of  the  amounts  due.  This  certificate  is 
exempt  from  stamp  rights  and  registry.     (Art.  80  of  the  law  of  May  15,  1818.) 

Notwithstanding  all  replacements  or  payments  made  by  the  purchaser  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  this  article,  the  reserves  overturned,  knocked  down,  or  damaged, 
will  continue  to  belong  to  the  owner  of  the  forest. 

Art.  36.  —  After  violation  of  the  clauses  and  conditions  of  the  sale,  relative  to  the 
method  of  feUing  and  cleaning  of  the  cutting  areas,  shall  be  punished  in  conformity 
with  Art.  37  of  the  Forest  Code. 

Art.  37.  —  The  purchaser  can  estabhsh  within  the  cutting  area,  huts,  charcoal  pits, 
or  pitch  and  tar  pits,  temporary  lime  kilns,  and  yards  for  the  sawing  and  sale  of  wood 
provided  the  request  is  made  to  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent  who  will  designate 
in  writing  the  areas  to  be  occupied  and  these  where  the  leaves,  moss,  stones,  cinders, 
and  necessary  grass  be  removed.  These  products  will  be  granted  free,  but  the  holes 
resulting  from  their  removal  must  be  immediately  filled  and  leveled. 

Art.  38.  —  The  purchasers  will  have  the  right  to  install  portable  sawmills  in  their 
felling  areas,  for  the  manufacture  of  the  wood,  on  areas  designated  by  the  local  Waters 
and  Forests  agent.  They  must  cover  the  furnace  smokestacks  with  a  metallic  screen, 
fine  enough  to  prevent  any  cinders  from  coming  out,  and  must  take  every  precaution 
which  is  prescribed  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  agent.  They  are  besides  bound  to 
conform  to  the  relating  laws  and  regulations.  They  will  in  any  event  be  held  responsible 
for  damages  which  may  result  from  the  use  of  these  machines. 

Art.  39.  —  If  it  is  recognized  that  the  purchasers  cannot  find  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  withes  among  the  products  which  they  have  purchased,  and  provided  the  stand 
allows  it,  they  can  be  granted  free  on  the  authorization  of  the  local  Waters  and  Forests 
agent  in  charge.  They  will  be  cut  on  places  designated  by  the  local  agent  or  his  repre- 
sentative by  workmen  agreed  upon  by  him,  and  cannot  be  removed  until  after  having 
been  counted  by  the  aforesaid  agent  or  his  delegate. 

PART  IV.  —  LOGGING 

Art.  40.  —  The  hauling  shall  take  place  along  roads  designated  in  the  sales  report  or 
sales  circular.  Nevertheless  on  the  purchaser's  request  the  conservator  may,  while  the 
logging  is  in  progress,  designate  other  logging  roads  or  authorize  the  establishment  of 
new  ones.  Merely  by  his  request  the  purchaser  will  be  bound  to  pay  the  indemnity 
or  to  complete  the  work  at  his  own  expense,  unless  he  gives  up  the  privilege. 

Art.  41.  —  Unless  otherwise  stipulated  it  is  forbidden:  (a)  To  skid  timber  on  wagon 


442  APPENDIX 

roads;  (b)  to  slide  or  roll  wood  down  the  slopes;  (c)  to  graze  work  or  pack  animals  or 
allow  them  to  pasture  in  the  forests  and  even  to  lead  them  unmuzzled  into  felling  areas 
stocked  with  seedlings  or  young  growth.  Logs  or  squared  timbers  cannot  be  skidded 
on  the  surface  of  felling  areas  except  under  unusual  circumstances,  which  the  local 
Waters  and  Forests  agent  will  decide  upon. 

Art.  1^2.  —  When  the  purchaser  wishes  to  dispense  with  the  removal  of  small  branches 
and  other  logging  debris,  he  must  burn  them  on  areas  which  will  be  designated  by  the 
local  Waters  and  Forests  agent  or  his  representative  unless  the  sales  circular  contains 
an  explicit  authorization  to  scatter  them  on  the  felling  area. 

He  must  take  every  necessary  precaution  that  this  (brush)  burning  does  not  damage 
either  the  new  growth  or  reserved  trees,  and  he  will  be  held  responsible  for  any  damage 
which  may  result  even  when  carried  out  in  the  presence  of  and  under  the  supervision 
of  Waters  and  Forests  officers  and  employees. 

Art.  43.  —  The  sawdust  and  bark  from  manufactured  wood  will  be  removed,  spread 
on  forest  roads,  or  burned  under  the  conditions  specified  in  the  preceding  article. 

Art.  44-  —  Unless  the  special  sales  clauses  specify  other  periods,  the  logging  must 
be  completed  within  one  year  dating  from  April  15  following  the  auction. 

Art.  45.  —  The  provisions  of  Art.  28,  relative  to  feUing  delays,  are  (also)  appHcable 
to  logging  delays. 

Art.  46.  —  The  provisions  of  Art.  35  are  applicable  to  the  reserves  which,  despite 
the  observance  of  the  rules  governing  the  removal  of  the  wood,  shall  be  overturned  or 
damaged  by  logging. 

Art.  4T-  —  The  purchasers  on  Federal  sales  must  pay  to  the  communes  the  special 
subsidies,  to  which  they  must  be  entitled,  under  Art.  14  of  the  law  of  May  21,  1836, 
and  under  Art.  11  of  the  law  of  August  20,  1881,  for  extraordinary  (exceptional)  damage 
caused  by  hauling  sales  products  on  roads,  classed  as  parish  or  rural. 

Art.  48.  —  Unless  waived  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  officer  in  charge  the  purchasers 
must,  three  days  before  the  date  fixed  for  the  check  (of  the  sales  area) :  Surround  with 
a  conspicuous  band  all  standing  trees  in  the  felling  areas  where  reserved  trees  have  been 
marked;  place  visible  stakes  near  the  stumps  of  trees  felled  in  the  felling  areas  where 
the  trees  were  marked  for  cutting.  They  will  see  to  it  that  these  stakes  are  protected 
up  to  the  date  for  the  check.  If  the  purchasers  fail  to  fulfil  the  above  requirements, 
it  can  be  done  at  their  expense  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  Art.  41  of  the 
Forest  Code. 

PART   v.  — CHECK   (OF  SALES  AREA) 

Art.  49.  — •  Under  penalty  of  the  law  the  purchasers  must  show  the  imprint  of  the 
Federal  marking  hatchet  on  all  wood  and  trees  reserved,  and  in  the  felling  areas  marked 
for  cutting,  on  the  stumps  of  trees  cut,  at  the  time  the  felling  area  is  checked  over. 

Art.  50.  —  In  the  felling  areas,  where  the  trees  were  marked  for  cutting,  and  when  the 
stumps  are  removed  in  logging,  the  root  bearing  the  imprint  of  the  marking  hatchet 
must  remain  intact  in  the  ground. 

Art.  51 .  — The  purchaser  who  wishes  to  obtain,  after  the  stump  check,  the  certificate 
mentioned  in  paragraph  4  of  Art.  8,  must  present  to  the  Waters  and  Forests  agent  in 
charge  receipts  showing  that  he  has  made  the  payments  required  under  Arts.  59  and  61. 

He  must  besides  prove  payment  for  the  products  sold  on  the  unit  of  product  basis 
when  his  felling  area  requires  it. 

PART  VI.  —  ACCESSORY  SALE   ON   THE   UNIT   BASIS 

Art.  52.  —  When  the  sale  contract  binds  the  purchaser  to  make  within  the  boundary 
of  his  felhng  area,  in  addition  to  the  main  logging,  accessory  fellings  with  the  obligation 


STATE  AND  COMMUNAL  TIMBER  SALE  443 

of  taking  the  products  of  these  operations  at  a  fixed  price,  the  purchaser  must  complete 
this  logging  within  the  period  fixed  by  the  special  sales  clauses  or  as  shall  be  indicated 
by  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent. 

Art.  53.  —  The  purchasers  cannot,  under  the  penalties  given  in  Arts.  33  and  34  of 
the  Forest  Code,  fell  or  cord  wood  other  than  that  which  has  been  designated  by  the 
local  agent  or  his  representative. 

Art.  5Jj..  —  He  must  manufactiu'e  the  wood  into  material  corresponding  to  the  specifi- 
cations established  in  making  the  (unit)  price  and  must  pile  this  material  by  classes. 

Art.  55.  —  The  scaling  of  the  products  will  first  be  made  in  a  prehminary  report  which 
will  be  checked  jointly  by  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent  and  the  piu-chaser  and 
approved  by  the  conservator. 

Art.  56.  —  The  purchaser  cannot  remove  the  wood,  or  dispose  of  it,  until  he  has 
obtained  a  permit,  which  will  be  delivered  to  him  by  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent 
in  charge,  after  the  approval  of  the  inventory  by  the  conservator. 

In  case  this  rule  is  violated  the  purchaser  must  pay  as  damages  double  the  value  of 
the  products  unduly  removed,  besides  the  cost  of  stamping  and  registering  the  record  of 
proof,  and  without  prejudicing  the  punitive  fines  which  may  be  levied.  If  the  amount 
and  grade  of  the  wood  removed  have  not  been  estabUshed,  the  value  then  shall  be  fixed 
by  the  officiating  conservator. 

Art.  57.  —  The  purchasers  of  national  fellings  shall  pay  at  the  depository  of  the  federal 
collector:  (a)  For  an  extension  of  three  months  the  total  amount  inventoried;  (6)  for 
an  extension  of  10  days  1  franc,  60  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  inventoried  (not  yet 
logged),  the  proportional  registry  charges,  and,  if  there  are  any,  the  proportional  surety 
charges. 

The  purchasers  of  communal  or  pubhc  institution  felhng  areas  shall  pay  for  extensions 
the  amounts  indicated  above :  (a)  At  the  depository  of  the  collector  for  the  commune  or 
public  institution,  the  total  amount  inventoried;  {h)  at  the  depository  of  the  registry 
collector,  the  proportional  registry  charges,  and,  if  there  are  any,  the  proportional  surety 
charges. 

The  extension  shall  run  from  the  date  of  the  approval  of  the  inventory  by  the  con- 
servator. 

Art.  58.  —  All  the  conditions  of  the  present  circular  which  are  not  modified  by  the 
provisions  of  this  section  are  applicable  to  the  accessory  sales  which  form  a  part  of  it. 

PART  VII. —LABOR   AND   MATERIAL 

Art.  59.  —  The  pm-chasers  must  deduct  the  amoimt  of  wood  given  in  the  sale  circular 
from  the  material  felled  and  fm-nish  it  to  the  Waters  and  Forests  employees,  communes, 
pubhc  institutions,  and  right  holders.  The  employees'  wood  and,  unless  otherwise 
stipulated,  that  due  the  communes,  pubhc  institutions,  and  right  holders,  must  be  of 
good  merchantable  quality  and  put  up  in  accordance  with  local  usage.  It  must  be  ready 
for  receipt  on  the  cutting  area  by  the  dates  given  in  the  sales  circular  and  handed  to  the 
places  designated  in  the  advertisement  within  15  days  counting  from  the  time  it  is  re- 
ceived. The  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent's  report  accompanied  by  the  acquittance 
of  the  receivers  wffL  suffice  as  a  release  for  the  purchasers. 

Art.  60.  —  In  fellings  comprising  a  sale  on  the  imit  basis,  when  the  wood  to  be  de- 
livered, in  accordance  with  the  preceding  article,  cannot  be  wholly  secured  from  the 
material  sold  on  this  basis,  they  can  complete  it  from  an  additional  sale  on  the  unit 
basis,  but  the  wood  thus  levied  wiU  be  included  when  the  material  is  scaled,  and  will  be 
paid  for  by  the  purchaser. 

Art.  61.  —  The  labor  and  materials  levied  on  the  feUing  areas  shall  be  completed  up 
to  the  values  given  in  the  sales  circular,  under  the  direction  of  the  local  Waters  and  For- 


444  APPENDIX 

ests  officer  in  charge  by  contractors  and  workmen  agreed  upon  and  when  he  chooses. 
The  purchasers  will  pay  the  contractors  and  laborers  on  sight  of  the  certificates  which 
will  be  issued  by  this  agent,  and  which,  duly  receipted  by  the  assignees,  will  form  a 
release.  The  payment  must  be  made  by  the  purchaser  within  15  days  counting  from  the 
deUvery  of  the  reported  receipt  of  the  labor  and  materials. 

Art.  62.  —  Nevertheless,  so  far  as  communal  felling  areas  are  concerned,  the  sales 
circulars  can  require  the  immediate  payment  for  all  material  and  labor  at  the  depository 
of  the  communal  collector,  and  the  receipts  for  these  payments  must  then  be  presented 
to  the  Waters  and  Forests  officer  in  charge  along  with  the  papers  enumerated  in  Art.  18. 
The  municipal  collector  will  pay  the  assignees  directly  upon  sight  of  any  order  issued  by 
the  mayor  upon  the  production  of  a  receipt  showing  the  material  or  labor  has  been 
received,  signed  by  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent,  and  countersigned  by  the  officer 
in  charge. 

Art.  63.  —  The  purchasers  are  also  obliged:  (a)  To  dig,  level,  replant  or  sow  areas 
occupied  by  their  huts  or  workshops;  (6)  to  repair  the  lanes  or  ditches  crossing  or  bound- 
ing the  feUing  areas;  (c)  to  reestablish  boundary  pillars,  enclosures,  posts,  walls,  fences, 
etc.,  damaged  or  destroyed  because  of  logging  or  hauling  wood. 

Art.  6%.  —  If  the  purchasers  fail  to  live  up  to  the  obligations  enumerated  in  Arts.  59, 
61,  and  63  of  Part  VII  it  will  be  done  at  their  cost  under  the  direction  of  the  Waters  and 
Forests  Service,  in  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  Art.  41  of  the  Forest  Code. 

PART  VIII.  —  MISCELLANEOUS  PROVISIONS 

Art.  65.  —  The  sales  agent  which  the  purchaser  may  have,  in  conformity  with  Art. 
31  of  the  Forest  Code,  cannot  be  the  kinsman  or  related  by  marriage  to  the  guard  of 
the  beat,  nor  to  the  local  agents.  He  must  be  agreed  upon  by  the  Waters  and  Forests 
officer  in  charge  and  sworn  before  the  justice  of  the  peace. 

Art.  66.  —  The  purchasers  must:  (a)  Refrain  from  working  laborers,  lumberjacks, 
and  teamsters  Sundays  or  holidays ;  this  rule  may  be  waived  in  virtue  of  an  authorization 
given  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  officer  in  charge.  (6)  Not  employ  foreign  workmen 
except  in  the  proportion  which  shall  be  fixed  by  the  special  sales  clauses. 

Each  (original)  purchaser  must  besides  when  working  Federal  forests,  place  or  cause 
to  be  placed  under  the  regime  of  the  law  of  April  9,  1898,  all  lumberjacks  working  in 
the  felling  areas  either  when  they  are  doing  the  logging  themselves,  or  when  it  is  being 
done  through  contractors  or  when  the  felling  areas  may  have  been  resold  before  ex- 
ploitation began. 

When  repeated  violations  of  the  provisions  of  this  article  may  have  been  proven 
against  any  purchaser,  the  Waters  and  Forests  director  general  may  decree  his  temporary 
or  permanent  exclusion  from  the  auctions  of  felling  areas  of  State  wood,  without  prejudic- 
ing suits  which  may  be  brought  against  him. 

Art.  67.  —  The  purchasers  as  well  as  their  foremen,  employees,  lumberjacks,  work- 
men, and  teamsters  cannot  let  their  dogs  run  loose  in  the  forests.  Dogs  guarding  huts, 
workshops,  or  yards  must  always  be  tied  or  shut  up. 

Art.  68.  — ■  The  purchaser  will  conform,  besides,  to  the  special  provisions  of  the  Forest 
Code  and  to  the  ordinance  of  August  1,  1827,  which  concerns  him. 

Art.  69.  —  Every  violation  of  the  conditions  of  the  sale,  for  which  an  exemption  is 
not  given  by  the  present  "circular"  or  the  Forest  Code,  will  require  the  payment  of  10 
francs  by  right  of  civil  damage,  besides  the  stamp  costs  and  the  cost  of  registering  the 
brief  of  proof,  without  prejudicing  civil  punitive  suits  which  may  be  entered. 

Approved  May  29,  1909,  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


STATE  AND   COMMUNAL  TIMBER  SALE  445 

SALE  OF  FELLING  AREAS  ON  THE  STUMP  BY  UNIT  OF  PRODUCT 

CONTRACT  CLAUSES 

Part  1.  —  Auction.  — 

Art.  1. —  Sales  by  unit  of  product  take  place  under  the  clauses  and  conditions  of  the 
general  sales  circular,  except  as  modified  by  the  provisions  which  follow. 

Art.  2.  —  The  sale  includes,  without  guarantee  as  to  area,  number  of  trees  or  amount, 
aU  the  timber  designated  in  the  felling  area  at  any  time  during  exploitation  by  Waters 
and  Forests  officers  and  employees,  on  condition  that  the  purchaser  fells  it  and  works 
it  up  and  pays  the  price  based  on  the  valuation  survey  approved  by  the  Waters  and 
Forests  conservator,  in  accordance  with  the  rate  established  by  the  auction  record. 

Art.  3.  —  The  ownership  of  the  wood  will  be  conveyed  to  the  purchaser  from  the  date 
of  approval  by  the  conservator  of  the  valuation  survey.  Commencing  with  this  date, 
the  wood  counted  will  be  at  the  risk  and  danger  of  the  purchaser,  without  prejudicing 
the  right  of  reservation  in  case  of  bankruptcy  or  of  delayed  payment  and  of  the  right  of 
claiming  by  means  of  seizure  in  case  of  removal  or  resale. 

Art.  4-  —  The  auction  will  take  place  either  by  decreasing  or  raising  the  prices.  It 
will  be  on  all  the  various  units  of  product  of  which  the  basis  and  method  of  appraisal 
shall  be  indicated  in  the  advertisement. 

The  lowering  or  raising  of  the  prices  will  be  regulated  at  so  much  per  cent  in  accord- 
ance with  the  basis  or  method  of  appraisal.     Fractions  in  hundreds  will  not  be  permitted. 

Art.  5.  —  The  auction  by  lowering  the  price  will  take  place  in  the  following  manner: 
The  figure  announced  by  the  crier  will  be  successively  lowered,  in  accordance  with  a 
tariff  established  in  advance  and  advertised  in  the  auction  room,  until  someone  an- 
nounces the  words:  "  I  take  it."  If  several  people  are  bidders  simultaneously,  the  felling 
area  is  drawn  by  lot,  at  least  unless  one  of  them  does  not  bid  a  higher  price;  the  competi- 
tion is  then  open  between  them  as  indicated  in  the  following  article. 

Art.  6.  —  The  auction  by  raising  the  price  will  be  decided  after  the  extinction  of  three 
tapers  lighted  in  succession.  If  the  duration  of  the  last  of  the  three  tapers  outlasts 
the  increases  in  price,  the  auction  will  not  be  judged  until  after  the  extinction  of  a  final 
fire  without  increase  in  price. 

Art.  7.  —  In  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  the  first  paragraph  of  Art.  8  of  the 
general  sales  circular,  the  purchaser  will  be  bound  to  furnish  security  and  a  surety. 

These  securities  will  be  received  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  federal  collector  in 
the  case  of  felling  areas  of  federal  wood,  and  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  mayors  and 
municipal  collectors,  administrators,  and  public  institution  collectors  for  the  felhng 
areas  of  communal  and  public  institution  wood. 

In  case  of  the  insolvency  of  securities,  proven  by  bankruptcy  or  otherwise,  all  the 
amounts  due  shall  become  immediately  demandable,  unless  the  purchaser  produces  a 
new  security  acceptable  by  the  collector  interested.     (Code  Civil,  Art.  2020.) 

Part  II.  —  Exploitation.  — 

Art.  8.  —  The  cutting  permit  will  be  delivered  to  the  purchaser  by  the  local  Waters 
and  Forests  officer  in  charge,  on  presentation  of  the  certificate  showing  he  has  furnished 
his  securities. 

Art.  9.  —  Under  penalties  carried  by  Arts.  33  and  34  of  the  Civil  Code,  the  purchaser 
cannot  fell  trees  other  than  those  which  shall  have  been  designated  by  the  local  agent 
or  his  representatives. 

Art.  10.  —  All  the  wood,  which  shall  be  considered  suitable  for  building  timber  or  in- 
dustrial manufacture  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  officers,  shall  be  left  in  the  log  and  can- 
not be  cut  off  below  the  point  where  the  local  agent  or  his  representative  shall  have 
placed  his  hammer  mark  for  regulating  the  cutting  into  logs. 


446  APPENDIX 

The  advertisement  will  show  the  minimum  sizes  for  this  wood,  if  there  are  any. 

Art.  11.  —  Wood  which  has  not  been  classed  as  fit  for  building  timber  or  manufacture 
by  the  Waters  and  Forests  agents  shall  be  worked  into  minor  construction  material 
(small  logs,  split  wood,  poles,  mine  props,  etc.)  or  into  firewood  (fuel,  charcoal,  fagots, 
fagot  bundles,  etc.)  so  that  the  commodities  manufactured  can  enter  the  classes  given  in 
the  sales  circular  used  for  the  estabhshment  of  the  price. 

Art.  12.  —  The  minor  construction  material  will  be  left  separate  in  the  log,  or  laid  out 
in  Hues  of  ten  each,  or  piled  between  stakes  according  as  they  are  regularly  placed  by 
the  purchaser  in  a  class  sold  by  the  cubic  meter,  by  the  piece,  or  by  the  stere. 

Art.  13.  — ■  Unless  otherwise  stipulated  in  the  special  sales  clauses,  the  firewood  and 
charcoal  will  be  stacked  according  to  local  usage.  The  piles  must  always  contain  even 
steres  unless  there  is  insufficient  material. 

Art.  llf-  —  The  fagots,  bundles  of  fagots,  etc.,  will  be  stacked  in  piles  of  10,  20,  or  25 
or  multiples  thereof. 

Art.  15.  —  When  the  bark  is  sold  separately  it  will  be  bound  in  bundles;  it  will  then 
be  stacked  as  fagots  or  bundles  of  fagots. 

Art.  16.  —  The  roots  and  chips  from  chopping  will  be  stacked  in  round  piles. 

Art.  17.  —  All  the  piles  will  be  made  according  to  the  commodity  class  and  in  each 
class  by  lengths. 

Art.  18.  —  If  during  the  logging  the  purchaser  desires  to  make  a  class  of  commodity 
other  than  those  recited  in  the  sales  circular,  he  will  make  the  request  in  writing  of  the 
conservator,  who  will  fix  the  bases  of  price  for  the  new  product  units  and  will  give 
notice  to  the  aforesaid  purchaser  in  writing. 

In  case  this  rule  is  broken  the  price  of  the  new  commodity  classes  will  be  fixed  officially 
by  the  conservator,  without  prejudicing  the  application  of  Art.  69  of  the  general 
circular. 

Art.  19.  —  At  any  time  during  logging  the  agents  can  check  the  wood  to  make  sure 
of  its  quantity  and  class ;  the  piles  which  shall  have  been  broken  will  be  at  once  restacked 
by  the  purchaser. 

Art.  20. — ^  The  purchaser  will  convert  and  arrange  for  inclusion  in  the  scaling:  (a) 
The  wood  resulting  from  windfall,  windbreak,  and  from  surveying  lines,  situated  within 
the  felling  area.  However,  he  will  not  be  held  to  this  obligation  if  the  value  of  the 
aforesaid  wood  exceeds  by  10  per  cent  the  total  amount  of  the  felling  area.  (6)  The 
wood  from  lopping  if  there  is  any. 

Art.  21.  —  As  the  conversion  proceeds,  wood  of  all  kind,  except  the  trees  in  the  log, 
will  be  (if  there  is  any)  collected  at  the  areas  indicated  by  the  special  sales  clauses.  In 
any  case  it  will  be  arranged  for  scaling  as  directed  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  agents  or 
their  representatives. 

Art.  22.  — •  The  purchasers  can  have  the  special  clauses  waived  for  the  conversion  of 
branches  having  at  the  large  end  a  maximum  circumference,  determined  according  to 
local  usages  and  indicated  in  the  advertisement,  on  condition  that  they  conform  to  the 
prescriptions  of  the  aforesaid  clauses  governing  the  destination  for  these  products. 

Art.  23.  —  The  time  for  felling  and  converting  (including  the  grouping,  piling,  or 
stacking)  will  be  established  by  the  special  sales  clauses. 

Art.  24-  —  The  withes  for  the  fagot  bundles,  fagots  and  bark,  resulting  from  the  sale, 
will  be  given  to  the  purchaser  free  of  charge,  who  will  gather  them  at  his  expense  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  local  guard  in  the  places  designated  by  the  range  officer.  If 
the  Waters  and  Forests  agents  judge  that  this  removal  cannot  take  place,  or  that  it 
should  be  limited  to  certain  species,  mention  will  be  made  in  the  sales  circular. 

Art.  25.  —  Before  the  permit  for  removal  is  given  the  workmen  cannot  help  them- 
selves, for  their  own  use,  to  anything  except  brambles,  parasitic  plants,  or  remnants 
designated  by  the  local  guard.     The  removal  of  this  wood  and  the  use  of  any  other  kind 


STATE  AND  COMMUNAL  TIMBER  SALE  447 

of  product  will  be  treated  as  trespass,  and  prosecuted  in  conformity  with  the  provisions 
of  the  Forest  Code. 

Part  III.  —  Scaling.  - 

Art.  26.  —  As  soon  as  the  felling  area  shall  have  been  made  ready  for  receival  under 
the  conditions  above  determined,  a  scale  report  will  be  drawn  up  and  checked  with  the 
purchaser,  who  will  be  duly  notified.  The  report  will  be  signed  by  the  officers  and  em- 
ployees present  and  by  the  purchaser  or  his  representative;  if  he  does  not  want  to  sign 
or  if  he  is  absent  this  will  be  noted.  This  certificate  will  be  submitted  for  the  approval 
of  the  conservator.  Thus  approved  it  will  govern  the  amount  due  from  the  purchaser. 
Partial  scaling  can  be  authorized  by  the  conservator  under  exceptional  circumstances  of 
which  he  will  be  the  sole  judge  and  under  the  official  conditions  of  poHcy  which  he  shall 
determine. 

Art.  27.  —  Eight  days  before  the  date  fixed  for  the  scahng  by  the  local  Waters  and 
Forests  officer  the  purchaser  must  furnish  this  agent  an  inventory  of  the  products  to 
scale. 

Art.  28.  —  The  wood  classed  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  agents  as  building  material 
and  for  manufacture  shall  be  cubed  as  cylinders  having  a  height  equal  to  the  length  of 
the  log  and  a  base  equal  to  the  circumference  (or  diameter  of  the  circumference)  or  aver- 
age diameter  at  the  middle  of  the  log.  The  allowances  on  the  length,  circumference,  and 
diameter  shall  conform  to  the  methods  of  measurement  and  volumetric  tables  used 
locally  and  indicated  in  the  advertisement.  Circumferences  and  diameters  will  be 
measured  outside  the  bark  for  broadleaves  and  inside  the  bark  for  conifers.  When  the 
butt  (culee)  of  the  tree  is  not  cut  (level  with  the  grass)  the  point  to  measure  the  length 
(of  the  butt  log)  from  will  include  two-thirds  the  stump  height. 

Art.  29.  —  The  minor  construction  wood  kept  in  the  log,  as  stated  in  Art.  12,  shall  be 
scaled  as  wood  for  building  or  manufacture. 

Art.  30.  —  All  the  other  products  shall  be  counted  in  the  class  to  which  they  naturally 
belong  according  to  method  of  conversion,  grouping,  and  pihng. 

Art.  31.  —  The  stacks  of  wood  piled  between  stacks  shall  be  treated  as  rectangular 
prisms  having  the  same  length  as  the  wood,  and  the  width  and  height  of  the  pile. 

Art.  32.  —  The  minor  construction  material  designed  for  the  mines  can  be  partially 
peeled  according  to  custom  without  any  increase  in  value  on  account  of  the  loss  in 
volume. 

^  Part  IV.  —  Removal  of  the  Wood.  — 

Art.  33.  —  The  purchaser  cannot  remove  any  wood  until  he  has  obtained  a  permit 
which  will  be  delivered  to  him  by  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  officer  in  charge,  after 
the  approval  of  the  scale  report  by  the  conservator.  In  case  of  violation  the  purchaser 
will  be  bound  to  pay  as  damages  twice  the  value  of  the  wood  removed,  in  accordance 
with  the  price  fixed  by  the  auction  record.  If  the  amount  and  quahty  of  this  wood  can- 
not be  regularly  proven,  its  value  will  be  fixed  officially  by  the  conservator.  The  re- 
moval of  the  wood  before  the  approval  of  the  scale  report  by  the  conservator  will 
besides  involve  the  application  of  Art.  888  of  the  Penal  Code. 

Art.  34-  —  Unless  otherwise  stipulated  in  the  special  sales  clauses,  the  removal  must 
be  completed  within  a  period  of  one  year  counting  from  April  15  following  the  sale. 

Part  V.  —  Price  of  Sale.'—  Cost  of  Auction.  —  Registry  and  Stamp  Rights.  — 
Art.  35.  —  The  purchasers  of  felling  areas  of  Federal  wood  will  pay  at  the  Federal 
collector's  depositories:  (a)  Within  a  term  fixed  by  the  special  clauses,  which  cannot 
exceed  six  months,  the  main  price  of  the  sale  regulated  by  the  scale  report  duly  ap- 
proved; (fe)  within  a  period  of  10  days,  1  franc,  60  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  the  sale 
so  far  as  the  fixed  stamp  rights  and  registry  of  the  certificates  relating  to  the  sale  as  for 


448 


APPENDIX 


all  other  costs,  and  the  proportional  rights  of  registry  and  of  surety  on  the  amount  of  the 
sale  increased  by  the  tax  of  1  franc,  60  per  cent.  (Decision  of  the  Minister  of  Finance, 
April  7,  1883.) 

The  fixed  right  of  the  surety  certificate  will  be  paid  besides  within  the  same  period 
after  the  first  scahng.  The  terms  will  run  from  the  date  of  the  approval  by  the  conserva- 
tor of  the  scale  report. 

Art.  36.  —  The  purchasers  of  felling  areas  of  communal  and  public  institution  wood 
will  pay  within  the  terms  indicated  in  the  foregoing  article,  (a)  At  the  communal  col- 
lector's depository  or  that  of  the  public  institution  owner,  the  principal  price  regulated 
by  the  scale  report  duly  approved.  (6)  At  the  registry  collector's  depository,  the  fixed 
stamp  rights  and  for  the  registry  of  the  deeds  relating  to  the  sale  and  for  the  surety 
certificate,  the  proportional  rights  of  registry  and  surety  on  the  total  sale,  and,  if  there 
are  any,  also  the  fixed  stamp  rights  and  registry  of  the  deeds  before  or  after  the  sale, 
that  is  to  say,  for  the  marking  standards  report  and  survey  notes. 

Art.  37.  —  The  total  of  the  charges  of  all  kinds,  for  work  or  materials  to  be  furnished 
by  the  purchaser,  and  whose  valuation  in  money  is  given  in  the  advertisement,  will  be 
deducted  as  a  whole  from  the  total  of  the  sale  on  the  scale  report;  the  amount  remaining 
will  form  the  chief  price  of  the  sale. 

In  case  of  partial  scaling  this  deduction  will  be  made  from  the  first  scale  report. 

June  18,  1903. 


APPENDIX   H 
FRENCH  FOREST  LITERATURE  (1870-1912) 

(a)   FORESTRY  PROPER,  ETC. 


Title 
Etude  sur  la  production  du  chene  et  son  eniploi  en  France 
Etude  sur  la  carbonisation  des  bois  (systeme  Dromart) 
Etude  sur  les  forets  du  Risoux 
Cri  d'alarme  sur  les  hais  d'industrie,  de  Chauffage  et  le  char- 

bon  de  terre 
Mise  en  Valeur  des  sols  pauvres  au  moyen  de  la  culture  de 

Resineux 
Le  Mont  —  Boron 
Les  bois  employes  dans  I'industrie 
De  I'influence  des  forets  sur  le  climat 
Etudes  sur  ramenagement  des  forets 
Service  forestier  de  I'Algerie  (Rapport) 
Notice  sur  les  bois  de  la  Nouvelle-Caledonie 
Notes  sur  le  role   economique  des  associations   pastorales 

(Pyrenees) 
Histoire  du  chene  dans  I'antiquite  et  dans  la  nature 
Histoire  de  la  foret  de  Fontainebleau 
Petit  manuel  du  garde  particulier  des  bois  et  forets 
La  greffe  a  la  portee  des  classes  populaires 
Manuel  de  sylviculture 

Enquete  sur  les  incendies  dans  les  landes  de  Gascogne 
Des  rapports  entre  les  racines  et  les  branches  des  arbres 
Ecorcement  des  bois  par  la  chaleur 
Carbonisation  des  bois  en  vases  clos 
Exposition    collective    des    produits    d'economie    rurale    et 

forestiere  du  royaume  de  Boheme 
Observations  sommaires    sur  le    progres    rural    (region   des 

Pyrenees) 
Experiences  foresti^res  1871-1874 
La  sylviculture  au  Conseil  g^'  d'Auxerre  (Reboisement) 


Author 

Place 

Date 

Bagneris 

Paris 

1870 

Desnoyers  Roux 

Fontainebleau 

1870 

Gurnaud 

Besanfon 

1870 

Boutroux 

Gien 

1870 

FiUon 

Paris 

1870 

Guiot 

Nice        • 

1871 

Noerdlinger 

Paris 

1872 

Rousseau 

Carcassonne 

1872 

Tassy 

Paris 

1872 

Tassy 

Paris 

1872 

Sebert 

Paris 

1872 

Calvert 

Tarbes 

1872 

Coutace 

Paris 

1873 

Domet 

Paris 

1873 

Dommanget 

Paris 

1873 

Fandrin 

Marseille 

1873 

Bagneris 

Nancy 

1873 

Fare 

Paris 

1873 

Regimbeau 

Nimes 

1873 

du  Roscoat 

Paris 

1873 

Vincent 

Paris 

1873 

de  Dombrowski 

Prague 

1873 

Calvet 

Pau 

1873 

Le  Chauff 

Moulins 

1874 

de  Kirwan 

Auxerre 

1874 

FRENCH  FOREST  LITERATURE 


449 


Title 
Traits  sur  lea  arbres  resineux 

L'amenagement  des  forets  (2^^  Edit.) 
Calepin  d'amenag''  de  la  foret  donian'6  des  Reelas 
Les  forets  a  I'Exposition  de  Vienne  1873 
Notice  forestiere  sur  les  landes  de  Gascogne 

Notes  sur  les  associations  pastorales  dans  les  Pyrenees 

Les  bois  indigenes  et  etrangers 

Dictionnaire  des  forets  (2^  tirage) 

Le  reboisement  et  le  regazonnement  des  Alpes  (2*^  Edit.) 

Des  arbres  resineux  et  de  leur  utilite  particuliere  pour  le 

boisement  des  frickes 
L' Administration  des  forets  au  concours  regional  de  Troyes 

Les  forets  et  les  paturages  du  Comte  de  Nice 

Les  forets  du  Charollais  sous  les  dues  de  Bourgogne 

Souvenir  d'une  excursion  forestiere  dans  I'inspection  de  Loris 

Nouvelle  methode  d 'exploitation  des  futaies 

Le  deboisement  et  le  reboisement   dans   les   Alpes    (Mon- 

tagne  d'Aurouse) 
Foret  domaniale  de  Chinon,  Repeuplements  (de  1846-1875) 
Considerations    et    recherches    sur    I'elagage    des    essences 

forestieres 
Memoire  sur  la  carbonisation  des  bois  en  foret 
Examen  des  noveaux  appareils  pour  I'ecorcement  des  bois 

sous  Taction  de  la  chaleur 
De  Tecorcage  du  chene-les  ecorces  h.  tan 
Les  torrents  des  Alpes  et  le  paturage  (2^  Edit.) 
Herbier  des  fermes  plants  provenants  de  la  pepinicre  d'Arpa- 

jon  (Caubal) 
Le  reboisement  dans  I'Ardeche 
Rapport  sur  I'ecorgage  a  la  vapeur  presente  au  Congres  des 

tanneurs 
Les  forets  communales  en  1877 
De  I'assechement  du  sol  par  les  essences  forestieres 
Du  deboisement  des  campagnes  dans  les  rapports  avec  dis- 

parition  des  oiseaux' utiles  a  I'agriculture 
Considerations  generales  sur  I'amenag''  des  bois 
Calepin  d'amenag*  de  la  foret  communale  Urbacke 
Compte  de  la  gruerie  des  baillages  d'Autun  et  de  Mont  Cenis 

pour  I'annee  1419 
Determination   du   revenu   annuel    des    forets   taillis   sous 

futaie 
Manuel  de  I'economie  alpestre  (trad,  de  I'allemand) 
Melanges  forestiers  (Expos,  universelle  de  1878) 
La  foret 

Manuel  de  sylviculture  (2d  Edit.) 
Note  sur  deux  procedes  pour  activer  le  developpement  des 

racines  laterales  du  chene  en  pepiniere 
Rapport  sur  le  reboisement  des  terrains  en  pente  de  Tarron- 

dissement  de  Chaumont 
Outils  pour  semis  et  plantations 
Notice  sur  I'elagage  des  arbres 
Ecimage  des  fennes  peupliers  de  la  valle  I'Ourcq 
Notice  sur  le  debit  et  les  emplois  du  chene  romre  et  du  chene 

pedoneule 
Notice  sur  les  divers  emplois  du  hgtre 

Notice  sur  le  debit  et  les  emplois  du  sapin  de  I'epicea  et  du 

meleze 
Notice  sur  le  debit  et  les  emplois  des  principales  essences  de 

Pins 


Author 

Place 

Date 

Bouguinat 

Chalons 
S.  Saone 

1874 

Puton 

Paris 

1874 

Crouvizier 

Epinal 

1874 

Mathieu 

Paris 

1874 

Croizette- 

Clermont 

1874 

Desnoyers 

Calvet 

Paris 

1874 

Dupont 

Paris 

1875 

Rousset 

Paris 

1875 

Mathieu 

Paris 

1875 

Renault 

Mirecourt 

1875 

Croizette- 

Troyes 

1875 

Desnoyers 

Guiot 

Paris 

1875 

Picard 

Autun 

1876 

Le  Grix 

Paris 

1876 

Vaulot 

Langres 

1876 

Cardot 

Paris 

1876 

Thomas 

Paris 

1876 

Martimet 

Paris 

1876 

Dromart 

Paris 

1876 

Tissot 

Paris 

1876 

Perrault 

Paris 

1876 

Marchand 

Paris 

1876 

Blackere 

Arpajon 

1877 

Blackere 

Paris 

1877 

Negociants 

Tours 

1877 

tanneurs 

Jacquot 

Pithiviers 

1877 

Burger 

Paris 

1877 

Burger 

Paris 

1877 

Houba 

Arlon 

1877 

Crouvizier 

Epinal 

1877 

Picard 

Autun 

1877 

Paris 


Schatzmann 

Lausanne 

1877 

Divers 

Paris 

1878 

Muller 

Paris 

1878 

Bagneris 

Nancy 

1878 

Leveret 

Paris 

1878 

Arbeltier  de 

Chaumont 

1878 

les  Boullage 

Proure 

Dieppe 

1878 

Martinet 

Paris 

1878 

Burger 

Meaun 

1878 

Gallat  et  Cast 

Paris 

1878 

Croizette- 

Paris 

1878 

Desnoyers 

Gallot 

Paris 

1878 

Croizette- 

Paris 

1878 

Desnoyers 

450 


APPENDIX 


Title 
Notice  sur  les  etais  de  mines  en  France 
Notice  sur  I'industrie  du  Sabotage  dans  le  depart*  de  la 

Lozere 
Notice  sur  le  debit  des  bois  de  fen,  lux  mode  vente  et  les 

procedes  de  carbonisation  employes  en  France 
Recherces  experimentales  sur  les  ecorces  k  tan  du  chene 

Yeuse 
Notice  sur  I'industrie  des  ecorces  k  tan 
Notice  sur  I'emploi  du  bois  dans  la  fabrication  de  la  pate  h 

papier 
Notice  sur  le  gemmage  du  Pin  maritime 

Notice  sur  le  controle  et  les  comptabilite  relatif  a  les  gestion 

des  forets 
Meterologie  comparee  agricole  et  forestiere 
Notice  sur  les  dunes  de  la  Coubre 

Cours  d'amenagement  des  forets 

Du  partage  des  affectations  en  un  meme  nombre  de  divi- 
sions dans  les  amenagements  de  futaie 

Cahier  d'amenag*.  —  Methode  par  contenance  expose  sur 
la  foret  des  Eperons 

Un  peril  d'eau  I'Algerie  —  le  deboisement 

Catalogue  des  produits  et  exploitations  foresfes  de  la 
Hongrie  (Exposition  universelle  de  1878) 

Catalogue  des  collections  exposees  par  le  service  des  forets 
de  I'Algerie  a  I'Exposition  de  1878 

Catalogue  des  collections  exposees  par  I'Administration 
dee  forets 

Notice  sur  le  debit  et  les  emplois  du  chataignier  des  erables, 
du  frene,  etc. 

Le  paturage  sur  les  terrains  gazonnes  et  boises 

L'art  forestier  franpais  a  I'Exposition  de  1878 

L'art  forestier  a  I'Exposition  de  1878 

La  culture  des  osiers 

Essai  pratique  du  reboisement  des  montagnes 

Le  chene-liege  en  Algerie 

Amenagem*  des  forets-Estimation 

Calepin  d'amenag*  de  la  foret  doman'e  de  Montagne 

Statistique  forestiere  (texte  et  atlas) 

Bibliographic  de  I'Exposition  forestiere  de  1878 
Determination  du  revenu  des  futaies  jardinees 
Amenagement  des  forets  —  Estimation  en  fonds  et  Superficie 
Restauration  des  forets  et  paturages   du   sud  de  la  province 

d'Algerie 
Traite  sur  les  differents  Cubages  des  bois  en  grume 
Proces-verbal  d'amenag*  de  la  foret  doman'^  de  Darney  — 

Martinvelle 
Rapport  sur  le  materiel  et  les  procedes  des  industries  agri- 

cules  et  forestieres 
Une  exposition  forestiere  improvisee  en  Auvergne 
Restauration  des  forets  et  des  paturages  du  sud  de  I'Algerie 
Vingt  annees  d'economie  alpestre  Suisse 
Traite  pratique  de  la  culture  des  Pins  k  grandes  dimen- 
sions (3d  Edit.) 
Le  traitement  des  bois  en  France  a  I'usage  des  particuliers 
Traite  de  sylviculture  pratique  en  Sologne 
Conference  sur  le  reboisem*'  des  terrains  Vagues 
Drainage  des  forets 

Essai  des  engrais  chimiques  sur  la  vegetation  forestiere 
Culture  du  chene-li^ge  —  (Rapport) 


Author 
Thelu 
Grosjean 

Larzilliere 


Place 
Paris 
Paris 

Paris 


Exposit.  univer-  Alger 

selle 
Exposit.  univer-    Paris 


Date 

1878 
1878 

1878 


de  Kirwan 
Jolivet 

Paris 
Paris 

1878 
1878 

Croizette- 

Desnoyers 
Boppe 

Paris 
Paris 

1878 
1878 

Mathieu 
Vasselot  de 

Regne 
Broilliard 
•de  Schwartz 

Nancy 
Paris 

Nancy 
Paris 

1878 
1878 

1878 
1878 

Gurnaud 

Paris 

1878 

de  Metz-Noblat 
Guiot 

Paris 
Paris 

1878 
1878 

1878 
1878 


Bruant, 

Paris 

1878 

Lazilliere 

Rousset 

Nice 

1878 

de  Kirwan 

Brusselles 

1879 

Bouquet  de 

Paris 

1879 

la  Grye 

Coaz 

Berne 

1879 

Tanoriou 

Beaune 

1879 

Zamey 

Alger 

1879 

Fallotte 

Carcassonne 

1879 

Colnenne 

Epinal 

1879 

Adminison  des 

Paris 

1879 

forets 

de  Kirwan 

St.  Quentin 

1879 

Puton 

Paris 

1879 

Tallotte 

Carcassonne 

1879 

Reynard 

Alger 

1880 

Zemee 

Angers 

18S(' 

Bocquentin 

Mirceant 

1880 

Durand-Claye 

Paris 

1880 

de  Kirwan 

Bruxelles 

1880 

Reynard 

Alger 

18S0 

Schwartzmann 

Lausanne 

1880 

Delamarre 

Paris 

1881 

Broilliard 

Nancy 

1881 

Girard 

Romorantin 

1881 

Muel 

Epinal 

1881 

Houba 

Besangon 

1881 

Muel 

Epinal 

1881 

Chasin 

Paris 

1881 

Title 
De  I'influence  des  forets  sur  le  climat  et  I'origine  des  sources 
Projet  d'amenag^  des  bois  de  Rochefort 
Foret  commu'6  de  St.  Martin  Lautasque.  —  Projet  de  reglemt 

d'exploitation 
Calepin  d'amenagt  de  la  for6t  Commu'^  de  Gemaingoutte 
A  travers  la  Grande  —  Bretagne 

L'Exposition  foresti^re  au  concours  regional  d'Amiens 
Une  exposition  foreetiere  en  Tourraine 
Calepin  d'amenag*  de  la  foret  du  Valse  Senones 
Etude  sur  I'economie  pastorale  des  H'^^-Alpes 
Culture  et  exploitation  des  Arbres 
Essais  de  reboist^  dans  la   Montagne   Noire 

Note  sur  le  sartage  dans  Tarrond^  de  Rocroi 

Traite    pratique   du   boisement   et    reboisement    des   mon- 

tagnes,  landes,  etc. 
Essai  sur  les  lepeuplements  artificiels  et  la  restauration  des 

vides  et  clairieres  des  forets 
Rapport  sur  me  nouveau  precede  de  culture  du  Chene-liege 
Petit  manuel  forestier 

Manuel  d'economie  forestiere  (Notions  d'amenagement) 
De  I'influence  des  forfits  sur  les  pluies,  I'alimentation  des 

sources 
Memoire  sur  I'amenag*  de  la  Commune  de  Syam 
Calepin  d'amenag*  de  la  foret  Commu'^  de  Fraize 
Etude  sur  les  causes  du  deboisement  en  Algerie  et  les  moyens 

d'y  remedier 
L'impot     foncier    des     forets  —  determination    du    revenu 

imposable 
Note  sur  I'estimation  des  saillis  en  cruissance 
Vade-mecum  du  forestier 
Des  plantations  qui  bordent  les  Loudes 
Expose  des  faits  general   relatifs  a  la  production  forestiere 

sous  le  climat  de  la  France 
Notions  de  sylviculture  enseignees  k  I'Ecole  normale  desVosges 
Cours  elementaire  de  la  culture  des  bois  (6®  Ed.) 

Creation  de  peuplements  artificiels  et  boisement  des  ter- 
rains nus 

Reboisement  et  amenagement  des  eaux  dans  I'Aude 

L'art  de  planter  (Arond.  de  I'allemand) 

Etude  sur  les  vices  du  bois 

La  question  des  reboisements  et  le  role  des  Eucalyptus  en 
Algerie 

Calepin  d'amenag*  de  la  foret  de  Raon  I'Etape 

Catalogue  des  collections  exposees  k  rExposit<"i  internat'e 
d'Amsterdam  en  1883.     Service  des  forets  de  I'Algerie 

Les  forets 

Bois  et  Forets 

Philosophie  sur  la  sylviculture 

Sur  la  regeneration  naturelle  des  futaies 

Etude  sur  I'experimentation  forestiere  en  Allemagne  et  en 
Autriche 

Manuel  du  cultivateur  de  Pins  en  Sologne 

Achat,  analyse  et  preparation  des  graines  resineuses  em- 
ployees par  I'Administration  des  forets 

Les  repeupl's  artificiels  dans  les  forets  d'Arques  et  d'Eaux 

Considerations  sur  la  production  et  le  traitement  des  plantes 
sur  la  creation  et  I'entretien  des  forets 

Recherches  experimentales  sur  la  dessiccation  artificielle 
des  bois 

Notes  sur  les  boisements  artificiels  des  Vosges.  Acclima- 
tation  du  chene  rouge  d'Amerique 


RATURE 

451 

Author 

Place 

Date 

Maistre 

Montpellier 

1881 

Houba 

Liege 

1881 

Burel 

Nice 

1881 

Crouvizier 

Epinal 

1881 

Boppe 

Nancy 

1881 

Vion 

Amiens 

1881 

Martines 

Paris 

1881 

Crouvizier 
Briot 

Epinal 
Paris 

1881 
1881 

Rousset 

Valence 

1882 

Cormouls- 

Mazamet 

1882 

Hautes 

Cornebois 

Paris 

1882 

Levavasseur 

Talaise 

1882 

Chasin 

Paris 

Vaulot 

Langres 

Galmiche 

Grenoble 

Dicky 

Itrasbourg 

Gurnaud 

Besangon 

Gurnaud 

Epinal 

Chitier 

Miliana 

Devarenne 

Andelot 

Caquet 

Paris 

Houba 

Berne 

Boppe 

Nancy 

Muel 

Nancy 

Lorentz  et 

Paris 

Parade 

Boppe 

Nancy 

Cautegril 

Nancy 

de  ManteuEfel 

Paris 

Marchal 

Paris 

Naudin 

Paris 

Crouvizier 

Epinal 

Crouvizier 

Alger 

Lesbazeilles 

Paris 

Robinson 

Paris 

Guinier 

Toulouse 

Guinier 

Paris 

Rensset  et 

Paris 

Bartet 

Cannon 

Orleans 

Thil. 

Paris 

Prouve 

Paris 

Parisel 

Bruxelles 

Marcus 

Metz 

Gazin 

Besancon 

452 


APPENDIX 


Title 
De  ramenagement  des  futaies 
La  sylviculture  frangaise 
Calepin  d'amenag*  de  la  foret  de  Danipaire 
ProcSs-verbal  d'amenagt  de  la  foret  domaniale  de  Haye 
Notes  sur  la  statistique  forestiere  de  I'ouest  de  la  France 
Catalogue  raisonne   des   collections   exposees   au   Concours 

regional  de  Dole  1884 
Questions  alpestres 

Les  droits  de  bandite  dans  le  Comte  de  Nice 
Vade  mecum  forestier 
Guide  du  forestier  —  Elements  de  sylviculture  (8^  Ed.) 

Le  furetage'en  Chalais 

Notice  sur  la  pepiniere  de  Royat 

Notice  sur  les  reboisements  du  Puy-de-D6me 

Programme  general  du  reboisement  du  gouvern*  general  de 

I'AIgerie 
Du  reboisement  des  proprietes  particulieres 
Etude  sur  le  resinage 

La  methode  frangaise  et  la  question  forestiere 
Etude  sur  les  taillis  composes 
La  methode  du  controle  de  Gurnaud 
3°,   Memoire  sur   I'amenag*   des   bois   de   la   commune   de 

Syam 
Notice  sur  la  carte  forestiere  de  la  region  de  Nancy 
Statistique  forestiere  du  dep*-  de  I'Allier 
Considerations  generales  sur  les  forets  I'AIgerie 
Concours  regional  de  Nancy  —  Catalogue  de  I'Exposition 

forestiere 
Convention  Internationale  de  reboisement 
A  propos  des  defrichements  et  inondations 
Foret  domaniale  de  Haye  —  Proces-verbal  de  revision  de 

la  possibilite  au  debut  de  1885 
Les  forets  de  la  France 
Les  forets  lorraines  jusqu»  en  1789 
La  sylviculture  a  I'Ecole  primaire 
Etude  sur  les  plantations 
Les  reboisements  par  I'acacia 
La  restauration  des  montagnes 

Guide  pratique  du  rebois*  a  I'usage  des  particuliers 
Reboisements  et  repeuplements 
Situation  au  31   decembre   1886  des  trav*  de  reboisement 

des  environs  de  Barcelonnette 
Etudes  calorimetricjues  sur  la  combustion  de  bois 
Notice  sur  I'emploi  de  la  sciure  de  bois  et  I'usage  de  la 

tourbe  comme  litere  dans  les  ecuries 
La  sylviculture  frangaise  et  la  methode  de  Controle  (Re- 

ponse  a  M.  Grand  jean) 
Les  plans  d'exploitation  de  courte  duree 
Missions  f  orestieres  en  Grande  Bretagne,  Autriche  et  Baviere 
Les  produits  forestiers  a  I'Exposition  de  Budapest  1885 
L'Exposition  internat'e  de  1884  a  Edinbourg  (Forets) 
Estimations  concernant  la  propriete  forestiere 
Les  forets  de  I'Abbaye  de  Citeaux 
Les  pares  forestiers 

Notes  sur  les  orangeries  et  les  irrigations  de  Blida 
La  foret  a  travers  le  monde 
Extraits  du  rapport  sur  le  reboisement  de  la  cote  de  Malze- 

ville  pres  Nancy 
Le   proprietaire   planteur.     Manuel   pratique   des  reboise- 
ments 
Du  boisement  des  sols  pauvres 
Cours  de  Technologie  forestiere  (Nouv.  Edit.) 


Author 

Place 

Date 

Brenot 

Arlon 

1884 

Gurnaud 

Paris 

1884 

Crouvizier 

Epinal 

1884 

Bagneris 

Nancy 

1884 

Noel 

Paris 

1884 

Direction  des 

Dole 

1884 

forets 

Briot 

Paris 

1884 

Guiot 

Nice 

1884 

Caquet 

Paris 

1885 

Bouquet  de  la 

Paris 

1885 

Grye 

Puton 

Nancy 

1885 

Bertrand 

Moulins 

1885 

Bertrand 

Moulins 

1885 

Tirman  et 

Alger 

1885 

Mathieu 

Moureton 

Paris 

1885 

Blanc 

Paris 

1885 

Gurnaud 

Besanfon 

1885 

Burel 

Paris 

1885 

Grandjean 

Paris 

1885 

Gurnaud 

Besangon 

1885 

Henry 

Nancy 

1885 

de  Guiny 

Moulins 

1885 

de  Guiny 

Alger 

1885 

Direction  des 

Nancy 

1885 

forets 

Burger 

Meaux 

1885 

Pissot 

Paris 

1885 

Bartet 

Nancy                1885-86 

Depelchm 

Tours 

1886 

Guyot 

Nancy 

1886 

Caquet 

Nevers 

1886 

Bert 

Alger 

1886 

Caquet 

Nevers 

1886 

Benardeau 

Paris 

1886 

Rousseau 

Carcassonne 

1886 

de  Kirwan 

Bruxelles 

1886 

Service  du 

Barcelonnette 

1886 

reboisement 

Petit 

Lyon 

1886 

Jolivet 

Vitry  le  Fran? ois 

1886 

Gurnaud 

Besangon 

1886 

Gurnaud 

Besangon 

1886 

Boppe  et  Reuss 

Paris 

1886 

Boppe 

Paris 

1886 

Reuss 

Paris 

1886 

Puton 

Paris 

1886 

Picard 

Autun 

1887 

Caquet 

Nevers 

1887 

Joly 

Paris 

1887 

Caquet 

Nevers 

1887 

Munich  et 

Nancy 

1887 

Bremeau 

Cannon 

Orleans 

1887 

Pruvost 

Troyes 

1887 

Boppe 

Paris 

1887 

FRENCH  FOREST  LITERATURE 


453 


Title 
Resistance  des  bois  k  la  flexion  et  k  la  complexion 
Des  formations  du  bois  rouge  et  du  bois  gras  dans  le  sapin 

et  I'epicea 
Les  Landes  de  Gaacogne 
L'art  forestier  et  le  controle 
Economic  forestiere  —  Principes  generaux  —  le  jardinage  — 

Estimation 
Variations  et  equilibre  de  I'accroiss*  en  foret 
De  I'exploitabilite  de  la  possibilite  et  de  leurs  differents 

modes 
L'amenagement  des  forSts  (V.  Edit.) 
Les  forets  de  la  Meuse  et  leurs  produits 
A  travers  la  Tunisie 

Le  Tarif  des  douanes  et  les  produits  forestiers 
Exposition  internat'®  de  Toulouse  (Forgts  catalogue) 

La  culture  forestiere  dans  la  region  du  Chablais 

Etat  des  forets  de  la  France  —  Travaux  a  faire  —  Mesures 

a  prendre 
Le  Sapin  des  Vosges  —  Etude  d 'estimation 
Statistique  forestiere  de  Meurthe-et-Moselle 
Etude  sur  la  constitution  normale  des  futais  jardinees 
Recherches  sur  la  production  ligneuse  pendant  la  phase  des 

coupes  de  regeneration  St.  Memoire 
De  I'influence  des  eclaircies  sur  I'accroissement  diametral 

des  aspins 
La  restauration  des  montagnes 
Destruction  de  la  larve  du  hanneton  par  le  pal  et  la  Ceuzine 

Des  emplois  chimiques  du  bois  dans  les  arts  et  I'industrie 
L'Industrie  de  la  carbonisation  des  bois  en  France  et  la 

denaturation  des  alcools 
Traite  d'economie  forestiere 
La  dune  littorale 
Cours  d'amenagement  professe  k  I'Ecole  forestiere  (1885- 

1886)  2  cahiers 
Les  forets  de  Tarrond*  d'Embrun 
La  sylviculture  dans  les  Vosges 
Buffon  et  la  foret  communale  de  Montbard 
Les   Alpes-Maritimes  —  Considerations    au    point    de   vue 

forestier  pastoral  et  agricole 
Concours  regional  d'Autun  —  Esposito°  forestiere 
De  la  situation  des  forets  d'essences  melangees  dans  d'ie  de 

la  Reunion 
Influence  des  eclaircies  (p""  st  2d  Memoires) 
Traite  de  sylviculture 
Considerations  diverses  k  propos  de  taillis 
Premiere  etude  sur  les  peuplements  reguliers  Sapin 
Recherches  sur  le  traitement  des  sapinieres  vosgiennes 
Etude  sur  la  place  de  production  No  2  foret  domaniale  de 

Haye  (St.  Memoire) 
Causerie  sur  les  bois  de  la  Guyane 
Diagrammes  et  calculs  d'accroissement 
Influence  de  la  foret  et  la  consistance  des  peuplements 
Influence  du  deboisem*  au  point  de  vue  de  Taction  torren- 

tielle  dans  la  Ht^-Ariege 
Economic  resumee  de  la  foret 
Proces-verbal  de  revision  de  la  possibihte  et  de  I'amenag^ 

St.  Seire  —  St.  Jean  —  Fontaine  p^e  periode  1887 
Atlas  forestier  de  la  France  par  departements 

Statistique  forestiere  du  depart*  du  Cautal 
Les  forets  de  I'Algerie 


Author 
Sergent 
Mer 


Place 
Paris 
Paris 


Date 
1887 
1887 


Chambreleut  Paris 

Gurnaud  Besangon 

Vaulot  Paris 


Gurnaud 

Paris 

de  Kirwan 

Bruxelles 

Tassy 

Paris 

Larzilliere 

St.  Mihiel 

Baraban 

Paris 

Puton 

Nancy 

Ministere  de 

Foixe 

I'agriculture 

Gazin 

Paris 

Tassy 

Paris 

Puton 

Epinal 

Huffel 

Nancy 

Burel 

Paris 

Bartet 

Nancy 

de  Courson 

Paris 

Croisette- 

Paris 

Desnoyers 

Petit 

Lyon 

Petit 

Lyon 

Puton 

Paris 

Grandjean 

Poitiers 

Reuss 

Nancy 

Gouget 

Paris 

Claudot 

Epinal 

Perdrizet 

Dijon 

Boye 

Lille 

Adon  des  forets      Autun 
Goizet  St.  Denis 


Bartet 

Nancy 

Boppe 

Paris 

Suckaux 

Paris 

Bartet 

Paris 

Mer 

Paris 

Bartet 

Nancy 

Dupre 

Melun 

Bartet 

Nancy 

Ebermayer 

Nancy 

Vautrin 

Foixe 

Vaulat 

Paris 

Bartet 

Nancy 

Benardeau  et 

Paris 

Cuny 

Gebhart 

Aurillae 

Combee 

Alger 

454 


APPENDIX 


Title 
Statistique  des  forets  de  la  province  d'Oran  (Algerie) 
Lea  forets  du  depart*  de  I'Yonne 
Statistique  forestiere  du  depart*-  du  Loiret 
Notice  sur  les  forets  de  la  Tunisie 
Le  Var  —  Considerations  au  point  de  vue  forestier 
Quelques  considerations  sur  les  forets  vosgiennes 
Mission  forestiere  en  Roumanie 

Exposition   universelle  —  Algerie,  —  Catalogue  des  collec- 
tions de  bois  exposees 
Le  Pavilion  forestier  au  Trocadero.    Exposition  universelle 

de  1889 
L'inventaire  des  massifs  forestiers  (trad*  de  Fallemand) 
Traite  forestier  pratique 
L'art  de  planter  avec  succes  et  economie 
Les  boisements  productifs  en  toute  situation 
Guide  pratique  du  reboisement 
Moyen  d'activer  rallongenient  des  jeunes  sapins 
Trente  jours  &  la  Reunion. —  Notes  et  impressions  forestieres 
Guide  theorique  et  pratique  de  cubage  des  bois 
Compte  Rendu  des  observations  meteorologiques  concern- 
ant  les  onze  annees  1878-1888 
Les  dunes  de  Belgique 

Les  dunes  mourantes  d'Ain  Sebue  (Algerie) 
Mise  en  valeur  des  terres  incultes  du  massif  central  de  la 

France 
La  methode  du  controle  k  I'Exposition  de  1889 
Note  sur  une  nouvelle  methode  forestiere  dite  du  controle 

de  Gurnaud 
L'amenagt    des    forets    communales    et    du    cantonnement 

forestier  de  Montbard 
Notice  forestiere  sur  le  depart*  de  I'Aude 
Le   bois  de  Saone  et  Loire 
Les  forfits  de  la  Roumanie 
Congres  international  forestier  de  Vienne 
Les  Forets 
Notice  sur  les  plantations  de  bois  resineux  dans  la  foret  de 

Culonusay  (Jura) 
De  I'influence  exercee  par  I'epoque  de  I'abatage  sur  la  pro- 
duction et  le  developpement  des  rejets  de  souehes 
Exposition  universelle  de  1889  —  Materiel  et  procedes  des 

exploitations  rurales  &  forestieres 
Notice  historique  sur  la  foret  Commun'^  d'Epinal 
Une  excursion  forestiere  dans  I'Est 
Les  hauts  plateaux  oranais 
Les  forets  et  le  commerce  des  bois  en  France 
Un  reboisement  dans  les  Indes  anglaises 
Les  forets  du  Japon 
Forestiers  et  Bftcherons 
A  travers  le  Japon 

Les  forets  et  le  commerce  des  bois  en  France 
Traite  d'economie  forestiere.     Amenagment 
Decadence  de  la  propriete  boisee  et  souffrances  des  popula- 
tions forestieres 
Sur  les  causes  de  variation  de  la  densite  des  bois 
Note  sur  I'accroissement  et  le  rendement  en  matiere  et  en  ar- 
gent d'une  parcelle  peuplee  de  bois  resineux 
Recherches  sur  le  convert  des  arbres  de  tallies  sous  futaie 
Traitement  des  bois  tallies 

Sur    quelques    experiences     effectuees    k    la    pepiniere    des 

Bellefontaines 
De  I'influence  des  sols  boises  sur  les  climats 
Notice  sur  les  inondations  de  1888  a  1891  et  sur  le  deboise- 

ment  dans  le  Roussillon 


Author 
Mathieu 
Picard 
Domet 
Lefebore 
Boye 
Gazin 
Huffel 
Goizet 

de  Kirwan 

Fankanser 
Gurnaud 
Bouquinat 
Fillon 


Mer 

Girod-Genet 
Frockst 
Bartet 

Baraban 

Riston 

Gebhart 

Gurnaud 
de  Blonay 


Place 
Alger 
Auxerre 
Orleans 
Tunis 
Lille 
Epinal 
Nancy 
Alger 

Bruxelles 

Neufchatel 

Paris 

Laignes 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Alger 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 
Paris 

Paris 
Lausanne 

Troyes 


Rousseau 

Carcassonne 

Gaudet 

Paris 

Huffel 

Paris 

Boppe 

Paris 

de  Venel 

Paris 

Gurnaud 

Paris 

Bartet 

Nancy 

Divers 

Paris 

Claudot 

Epinal 

Cannon 

Paris 

Mathieu 

Alger 

Melard 

Paris 

Ussele 

Paris 

de  Kirwan 

Bruxelles 

Heiner 

ChatellcB 

Ussete 

Paris 

Melard 

Paris 

Puton 

Paris 

Boneard 

Paris 

Mer 

Paris 

Mongenst 

Grenoble 

Bartet 

Paris 

Bertrand 

Clermont- 

Ferrand 

Bartet 

Nancy 

Loze 

Toulouse 

de  Boixo 

Perpignay 

FRENCH  FOREST  LITERATURE 


455 


Title 
Influence  des  forfits  sur  la  production  de  la  plaine 
Histoire  de  la  foret  d'Orleans 
Guide  du  forestier  (9^  Edit.) 

La  Sapiniere  ideale 

Les  forets  de  chene  vert 

Etude  sur  la  place  de  production  N"  1.     (Foret  de  Cham-, 

penoux) 
Breviaire  du  ligueur 
Etude  sur  la  sylviculture 
Notes  sur  la  duree  des  traverses  en  bois  (Comply  des  chem. 

de  fer.     P.  L.  M.) 
Le  chene-liege,  sa  culture,  son  exploitation 
Plantations  resineuses  de  la  Champagne 
Nature  et  utilisation  des  produits  forestiers  des  Pyrenees-Or- 

ientales 
Les  arbres  et  les  peuplenients  forestiers 
La  foret  et  la  disette  du  fourrage 
Du  calcul  de  la  possibilite  dans  les  futaies  jardinees 
Une  question  de  niethode 

La  question  forestiere  algerienne  devant  le  Senat 
Le  Haut-Perche  et  des  forets  domaniales 
Note  sur  les  forets  et  le  rebois'^  dans  les  Pyrenees-Orienl^s 
Le  chene  liege,  Sa  culture.  Son  exploitation 
3^  Memoire  sur  I'influence  des  eclaircies 
Le  traitement  des  bois  en  France 
Deboisement  et  rebois^  dans  les  Basses-Pyrenees 
Etude  economique  sur  le  rebois*  des  montagnes 
Semer  et  planter  (2^  Edit.) 

Les  forets  &  le  reboisem*  dans  les  Pyrenees-Orient'^ 
L'extinction    des     torrents     en     France     par    le     reboise- 

ment 
La  methode  du  controle,  son  application  a  une  partie  de  la 

foret  de  Champenoux  (p''  p'^) 
Estimations  et  exploitabilitts  forestieres 
InsufBsance  de  la  production  du  chene  en  France 
Les  forets  des  Pyrenees 

Statistique  des  forets  soumises  au  regime  forestier 
Quelques  conseils  aux  sylviculteurs  du  Chablais 
Petit  manuel  du  proprietaire  sylviculteur 
Chenes-lieges  —  Notice  sur  les  forets  de  I'Algerie 
Les  forets  de  Cedre 

Les  forets  et  le  rebois*  dans  les  Pyrenees-Orient'^ 
Union  landaise  des  proprietaires  et  fabricants  de  produits 

resineux 
Exposition  internat'®  de  Chicago  —  Commissariat  Special  de 

I'Agriculture 
L'art  d'etre  proprietaire  de  bois 
Culture  intensive  des  forets 

Recherches  sur  la  production  ligneuse  pendant  la  phase  des 
coupes  de  regeneration  (Foret  domaniale  de  Haye) 
(place  d'expces  no  1) 

Du  prix  du  bois  resineux  dans  le  Doules 

Influence  des  forets  sur  le  climat 

Le  double  du  Perigord 

L'Algerie  et  la  commission  senatoriale 

De  la  depreciation  des  bois  de  feu 

Le  commerce  des  bois  en  Europe 

Traite  des  plantations  d'alignement  et  d'ornement 

Traitement  de  I'epicea  dans  les  Alpes 

Les  taillis  sous  futaie  des  Vosges 


Author 

Place 

Date 

Jeannel 

Nice 

1892 

Domet 

Orleans 

1892 

Bouquet 

Paris 

1893 

de  la  Grye 

Schaeffer 

Besancon 

1893 

de  Larminat 

Troyes 

1893 

Claudot 

Paris 

1893 

Trolard  Alger 

de  I'Estrange  Chateaumont 

Conard  Paris 


Lamey 

Paris 

1893 

de  Faillasson 

Sens 

1893 

Calas 

Perpignan 

1893 

HufTel 

Nancy 

1893 

Grandeau 

Paris 

1893 

de  Liocourt 

Nancy 

1893 

Biolley 

Besangon 

1893 

Trolard 

Alger 

1893 

de  Tregomain 

Nancy 

1893 

de  Boixo 

Perpignan 

1893 

Lamez 

Paris 

1893 

Claudot 

Paris 

1894 

Broilliard 

Paris 

1894 

Benevent 

Pau 

1894 

Demontzey 

Lyon 

1894 

Cannon 

Paris 

1894 

de  Boixo 

Paris 

1894 

Demontzey 

Paris 

1894 

Besan?on 


Bizot  de  Jontenz 

Gray 

1894 

Melard 

Bruxelles 

1894 

de  Gorsse 

Paris 

1894 

de  Gorsse 

Paris 

1894 

Schaeffer 

Annecy 

1894 

Sarce 

Le  Mans 

1894 

Charlemagne 

Alger 

1894 

Level 

Alger 

1894 

de  Boixo 

Paris 

1894 

Puton 

Mont  de- 

1894 

Marsay 

Leze,  Tetet 

Paris 

1894 

Ringelmann 

de  Kirwan 

Bruxelles 

1895 

Scarsez  de 

Bruxelles 

1895 

Locqueneuille 

Claudot 

Paris 

1895 

Brenot 

Besancon 

1895 

Huffel 

Besancon 

1895 

Gurnaud 

Besangon 

1895 

Mathieu 

Paris 

1895 

Claudot 

Poitiers 

1895 

Matkey 

Poitiers 

1895 

Charguerand 

Paris 

1896 

Guinier 

St.  Jean  de 
Maurienne 

1896 

Watier 

Paris 

1896 

456 


APPENDIX 


Title 
Rapport  de  la  Commission  chargee  de  faire  des  experiences 

sur  la  resistance  des  bois  resineux 
Exploitation  technique  des  forets 
Exploitation  conimerciale  des  levis 
Influence  des  forets  sur  les  chutes  de  grele 
Influence  des  forets  sur  I'humidite  du  sol 
Les  retenues  d'eau  et  le  reboisement  dans  le  bassin  de  la 

Durance 
Les  arbres  geants  du  Portugal 
Projet  d'amenagement  et  de  mise  en  valeur  des  forets  de 

Chenes-liSge 
Notice  sommaire  sur  les  forets  de  gastes  S*®  Eulalie  mimi- 

zan  H. 
La  foret  de  la  Grande  Chartreuse 
Notes  sur  le  developpement  et  la  gestion  des  forets  Com- 

munales  dans  le  depart*  du  Card  1800-1895 
Statistique  forestiere  de  I'arrond*  de  Pontarlier 
Le  foret  des  Ardennes 

Description  forestiere  du  royaume  de  Prusse 
L'evolution  forestiere  dans  le  Canton  de  Neufchatel  (Suisse) 


Author 
Thiery  et 

Pebibcollot 
Vanutbergke 
Vanutbergke 
Claudot 
de  Kirwan 
Demontzey 

Gebhart 
Lafond 


Margin 
Rouis 


Place 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Nancy 

Paris 

Aix 

Blois 


Grenoble 
Avignon 


Cardot  Besangon 

Meyrae  Charleville 

Huffel  Paris 

Service  forestier  Neuchi,tel 


1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 


1896 
1896 
1896 
1896 


Description  economique  et  commercials  des  forets  de  I'Etat 

hongrois  (2^  Edit.) 
Etudes  sur  I'economie  alpestre 
Etude  d'archeologie  forestiere 
Du  reboisement  et  de  la  fertilisation  des  forets 
Contre  les  incendies  des  forets  en  Algerie 
De  I'elagage  des  arbres  forestiers 
Les  merrains  et  la  fabrication  des  tourmeaux 
Influence  des  forets  sur  les  eaux  souterraines 
Les  Landes  et  les  dunes  de  Gascogne 
Etudes  sur  la  cote  et  les  dunes  du  Medoc 
Methode  nouvelle  d'exploitation  forestiere 
Sapinieres 

Etudes  sur  les  forets  resineuses  de  la  Champagne 
Etat  des  forets  resineuses  du  Roups 
Les  forets  du  Canada 
For§ts,  chasse  et  peche  (Exposit.  de  Bruxelles) 

Forets,  chasse  et  peche  —  Exposit.  intern'^  de  Bruxelles 

Notes  pour  la  vente  et  I'achat  des  forets 

L'art  de  greffer 

La  surveillance  des  forets  (10^  Edit.) 

Les  vegetaux  producteurs  de  Caoutchouc  a  Madagascar 
Sur  I'abatage  des  bois  en  Sologne 

Notice  sur  le  quarrimetre 

Les  fordts  et  les  eaux  souterraines  dans  les  regions  des  plaines 

Les  vieux  arbres  de  la  Normandie 

Etude  sur  I'amenagement  des  bois  de  chene  dans  le  canton 

de  Genfive 
Etude  sur  les  landes  de  Gascogne 
Etude  sommaire  des  taillis  sous  futaie  dans  le  bassin  de  la 

Saone 
La  foret  des  brocheres  a  la  ville  d'Auxonne 
Des  funestes  effets  du  deboisement  dans  les  Pyrenees 
Les  meilleures  plantes  fourrageres  alpestres 
Plantation  et  culture  des  sols  contre  les  inondations 
Notes  forestieres  —  Cubage,  estimation,  etc. 
Utilite  de  I'introduction  du  Sapin  et  de  I'epicea  dans  les 

saillis  mediocres  du  Jura 


de  Bedo 

Briot 

Weyd 

Thezard 

Marchand 

Crakay 

Mouillefert 

Ototzky 

Grandjean 

Buffaut 

de  Blonay 

de  Liscourt 

Lafond 

Brenot 

Melard 

Ministere     de 

1 'agriculture 
Leze,  Tetet 

Ringelmann 
Galmiche 
Ch.  Baltet 
Bouquet  de  la 

Grue 
Girod-Genet 
Croizette- 

Desnoyers 
Demorlaine 
Henry 
de  Kerville 
Borel 

Dromart 
Mathey 

Picard 

Guenot 

Briot 

Vadas 

Devarenne 

Rumacher 


Budapest 

Paris 

Poitiers 

Compiegne 

Dijon 

Bruxelles 

Paris 

Nancy 

Paris 

Servigny 

Gray 

Gray 

Reims 

Besanfon 

Paris 

Bruxelles 

Bruxelles 

Besangon 

Troyes 

Paris 


Fontainebleau 

Compeigne 
Nancy 
Paris 
Geneve 

Charleville 
Besangon 

Dijon 

Paris 

Chambery 

Troyes 

Chaumont 

Besangon 


1896 


1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 
1897 


1897 
1897 
1897 


1899 
1899 


FRENCH  FOREST   LITERATURE 


Title 
Coupes     d'amelioration     coupes     intermediaires     dans     les 

futaies  et  les  taillis 
De  I'utilite  des  reboisements  dans  le  midi  de  I'Europe  et  en 

Algeria 
Influence  de  I'espacement  des  plantes  sur  la  vegetation  de 

quelques  essences  resineuses 
Regeneration  par  plantation  des  coupes  de  futaie 
Les  forets  a  Madagascar 

Nouveau  moyen  de  preserver  les  bois  de  la  vermoulure 
Mise  en  valeur  des  sols  pauvres  par  le  reboisem^ 
De  la  possibilite  par  contenance  superficielle  substituee  k 

la  possibilite  par  volume  dans  les  forets  traitees  en  futaie 
Les  forets  de  I'Aube 

La  question  des  forets  en  Afrique 
Societe  moscovite  d'economie  forestiere 

Histoire  de  la  societe  forestiere  nationale  hongroise 


Rapport  sur  les  bois  du  Canton  de  Geneve 

Le  regime  pastoral 

Congres  international  de  sylviculture 

Forets,  chasse,  Peche  (Exposit.  de  1900) 

La  prochaine  disette  des  bois  d'oeuvre  dans  I'univers 

Les  arbres  de  la  Suisse 

Du  progres  en  Sylviculture  et  dans  I'utilisation  des  pro- 

duits  forestiers 
La  defense  des  forets  contre    I'incendie   (dunes  et    landes 

de  Gascogne) 
La  processionnaire  du  Pin 
Un  reboisement  a  bon  marche 
Influence  desavantageuse  produite  sur  I'avenir  des  peuple- 

ments  principalement  sur  ceux  de  I'epicea 
De    quelques    essences     exotiques    interessantes     pour     les 

reboisements 
Les  essences  et  les  travaux  de  boisem*  (Ariege  et  H^^-Gar- 

onne) 
Les  essences  et  les  travaux  de  boisem*  (Ariege  et  Ht®-Gar- 

onne) 
Etude    sur     les     fractures     des     bois    dans    les    essais    de 

resistance 
Senilisation  rapide  des  bois  et  des  matieres  fibreuses  par 

I'electricite 
Gemmage  du  Pin  maritime  (Landes  et  Gascogne) 
Gommes,  resines  d'origine  exotique 
Observations  de  phenomenes   consecutifs   k  la  plantation 

de  coniferes 
Fixation  des  dunes 

Fixation  des  dunes  (Charente  et  Vendee) 
Notes  sur  les  dunes  de  Gascogne 
Forgt   domaniale  de   Blois.     Proces-verbal   d'amenagement 

Insuffisance  de  la  production  des  bois  d'ceuvre  dans  le  monde 

Notice  sommaire  sur  la  foret  de  Fontainebleau 

Les  forets  de  I'Algerie 

Nomenclature  des  echantillons  de  bois  de  la  Cochin  chine  du 

Tonkin  a  I'Exposition  universelle  de  1900 
Notice  sommaire  sur  les  forets  domaniales  du  department 

des  Vosges 
La  production  agricole  et  forestiere  dans  les  colonies  fran- 

gaises 


Author 
Guinier 


Place 
Annecy 


457 

Date 


Maistre  Clermont 

Jolyet  Paris 


Irouve 

Paris 

1899 

Girod-Genet 

Alger 

1899 

Mer 

Paris 

1899 

Henry 

Nancy 

1899 

de  Kirwan 

Bruxelles 

1899 

Arbeltier  de  la 

Troyes 

1899 

Boullage 

Wachi 

Tunis 

1899 

Ministere     de 

Moscow 

1899 

I'agriculture 

Ministere      hon 

-  Budapest 

1899 

grois  de  I'agri 

culture 

Borel 

Geneve 

1899 

Guyot 

Poitiers 

1899 

Teissier 

Paris 

1900 

de  Kirwan 

Paris 

1900 

de  Kirwan 

Paris 

1900 

Inspection      fed 

-  Berne 

1900 

erale 

Claudot 

Epinal 

1900 

Delassasseigne 

Paris 

1900 

Calas 

Paris 

1900 

Henry 

Paris 

1900 

Reuss 

Vienne 

1900 

Henry 

Nancy 

1900 

Watier 

Paris 

1900 

Banby 

Paris 

1900 

Chil 

Paris 

1900 

Montpellier 

Paris 

1900 

Violette 

Paris 

1900 

de  Cordenioy 

Paris 

1900 

Servier 

Paris 

1900 

Demorlaine 

Paris 

1900 

Lafond 

Paris 

1900 

Bert 

Paris 

1900 

Croizette- 

Blois 

1900 

Desnoyers 

Melard 

Paris 

1900 

Reuss 

Paris 

1900 

Lefebre 

Alger 

1900 

Boude 

Alger 

1900 

Mongenot 

Paris 

1900 

Lecomte 

Paris 

1900 

458 


APPENDIX 


(Trad- 


Title 
Description  generale  de  la  foret  de  Krasnostauskala. 

uit  du  Russe) 
Les  forets  domaniales  en  Autriche 

Notice  sur  les  forets  de  la  Roumanie 

Les  forets  de  la  Russie  (trad,  du  Russe) 


Le    developpement    de    la    sylviculture    en    Bosnie-Herze- 

govine 
Catalogue  des  objets  exposes  par  la  direction  des  forets 

de  Russie  a  I'Exposition  univereUe  de  1900 
Catalogue    special,    Forets    de    la    Hongrie    k    I'Exposition 

univerelle  de  1900 
Congres  international  de  Sylviculture.     C.  Rendu. 
Catalogue   des   collections   exposees   par   radminisf"*   des 

eaux  et  forets  (Exposition  de  1900) 
Catalogue  raisonne,  section  forestiere  russe 
Les  ameliorations  pastorales  dans  I'Ariege,   la   Haute-Gar- 

onne 
Les  fruiteres  de  la  H^^  Garonne 
Des  paturages  de  montagne 
Le  paturage  en  foret 
Traite  pratique  de  sylviculture 
Traite  de  Sylviculture  (Gayer,  traducteur) 
Traitement  du  Sapin 
Traitement  des  Sapinieres 
Introduction  dans  les  cultures  forestieres  d 'essences  etrangeres 

a  la  region 
Essais  de  reboisement  en  Meurthe  et  Moselle 
Introduction  des  resineux  dans  les  taillis 
Restauration  des  peuplements  d'epiceas  ayant  souffert  d'un 

etat  trop  serre 
Le  domaine  forestier  colonial  de  la  France  sa  decadence 
Le  bois 

Le  champignon  des  maisons  en  Lorraine 
Des  divers   moyens   propres   k  preserver  de   I'attaque  des 

insectes  les  ecorces  et  les  bois 
Observations   sur    les   arbres   a    caoutchouc    dans   le   zone 

amazonienne 
L'lndustrie  des  resines 
Le  Liege 
Influence   de   I'eclaircie    des    cepees   sur    le    rendement    en 

matiere  et  argent  dans  le  traitement  des  taillis 
Sur  le  role  de  la  foret  dans  la  circulation  de  I'eau  a  la  sur- 
face des  continents 
De  I'influence  des  forets  sur  le  regime  des  eaux 
Observations  meteorologiques  1867-1899 

Calepin  d'amenag*  de  la  foret  des  Hospices  de  Nancy 

Du  reglement  des  exploitations  dans  une  petite  sapiniere 

Excursion  forestiere  en  Morvan 

La  foret  d'Oloron-S^e  Marie 

Les  forets  et  le  regime  forestier  en  Provence 

Rapport  sur  la  3^  reunion  de  I'association  Internationale  des 

stations  de  recherches  forestieres  a  Zurich 
Le  defrichement  et  la  culture  des  terrains  en  pente 
Quelques  notions  forestieres  a  I'usage  des  ecoles 
Petit   manuel   a   I'usage   des   socifites    scolaires   pastorales, 

forestieres  de  Franche-Comte 
L'Idee  forestiere  sur  le  versant  septentrional  des  Pyrenees 

Le  Traitement  des  sapinieres  base  sur  la  notion  d'espace- 
ment  des  tiges 


Place 
St.  Petersbourg 


Author 
Jachnoff 

Ministere     de 
I'agriculture 

Service  des 
forets 

Ministere     de 
I'agriculture 

Petraschek 


Ministere     de         Paris 

I'agriculture 
Gouvt.  Kongrois   Budapest 


Daubree 
Vaney 

Jachnoff 
Campardon 


Paris 
Paris 


St.  Petersbourg 
Paris 


Bruisson  Paris 

Cardot  Paris 

Matkey  Besangon 
Boppe  et  Jolyet     Paris 

de  Bocarme  Bruges 

Huffel  Paris 

Mer  Paris 

Jolyet  Paris 


Claude 
Garzin 
Mer 

Girod-Genet 
Frochot 
Henry 
Mer 

Huber 


Paris 

Besanpon 

Paris 

Paris 
Paris 
Nancy 
Paris 

Paris 


Henry 


Date 
1900 

1900 

1900 

1900 

1900 

1900 

1900 

1900 
1900 

1900 
1900 

1900 
1900 
1900 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1901 

1901 
1901 
1901 

1901 
1901 
1901 
1901 

1901 


Rabate 

Paris 

1901 

Martignat 

Paris 

1901 

Mer 

Paris 

1901 

Guinier 

Besangon 

1901 

de  Drouin  et 

Paris 

1901 

de  Bouville 

Bazaille 

Epinal 

1901 

Broilliard 

Besangon 

1901 

Roy 

Nevers 

1901 

Duchesne 

Oloron 

1901 

Allard 

Paris 

1901 

Huffel 

Paris 

1901 

Rousset 

Paris 

1901 

Rabutte 

Vouziers 

1902 

Cardot 

Besanfon 

1902 

Fabre 

Bagneres  de 
Bigorre 

1902 

Gazin 

Paris 

1902 

FRENCH  FOREST  LITERATURE 


459 


Title 

La  regeneration  naturelle  des  coupes  de  futaie 

La  mise  en  valeur  des  terres  communales  incultes 

Amelioration  a  introduire  dans  le  traitement  des  taillis 

Le  bois,  le  li§ge 

Etude  sur  la  penetrabilite  des  arbres  forestiers  par  les 
projectiles  des  amies  k  feu 

La  lutte  contre  le  champignon  des  maisons 

Sechage  rapide,  imputrescibilite  et  inflammabilite  des  bois 

Influence  de  la  couverture  morte  sur  I'humidite  du  sol  fores- 
tier 

Forets  et  navigabilite  en  Gascogne 

Les  forets  de  plaines  et  les  eaux  souterraines  (Experiences 
faites  dans  la  forSt  de  Moudon  1900-02) 

L'architecture  forestiere 

Rapport  sur  le  concours  forestier  entre  les  instituteurs 
organise  par  la  Soots  franc^^  des  Amis  des  Arbres 

La  sylviculture  k  I'Exposition  de  1900 

La  disparition  du  chene  et  I'introduction  des  resineux  dans 

les  taillis  sous  futaie  —  Le  Bouleau 
Principales  essences  forestieres 
La  methode  experimental  en  sylviculture 
Le  forestier  —  Experiences  et  Conseils 
Sylviculture 
Propagation  du  chene,  Sa  substitution  dans   les  futaies   de 

Mtre 
Les  plantes  h  caoutchouc  et  k  gutta 
Degats   causes    aux    forets    par    les    balles    des    fusils    de 

I'armee 
La  vrillette 

Incendies  des  forets  —  evaluation  des  dommages 
Les  arbres  et  les  bois 

La  richesse  forestiere,  son  declin,  son  relevement 
Forets  et  Industrie  des  bois 
Des   divers   moyens  propres   k  preserver   de   I'attaque  des 

insectes   les   ecorces   et  les  bois   par   resorption   de   leur 

reserve  amylacee 
La  liberte  du  travail  et  le  droit  de  propriete 

Prolongation  du  delai  de  vidange  et  d'exploitation 

Exploitation  et  amenagement  des  bois 

Causerie  forestiere 

Coupes  jardinatoires 

De  I'eclaircie  chez  les  particuliers 

Lianes  caoutchoutiferes  de  I'Etat  du  Congo 

L'arbre  (l''^^  Serie) 

La  houille  blanche  et  I'armature  vegetale  du  sol 

Gisements  de  houille  blanche  et  protection  du  sol 

Les  debuts  de  la  fixation  des  dunes 

Promenades,  pares  jardins  paysages 

L'amenagement  des  resineux  en  montagne 

De  la  possibilite  par  contenance  dans  les  sapinieres 

Foret  domaniale  des  Elieux  —  3^  Serie  Revision  de  I'Amen- 

agement 
Les  taillis  de  I'inspection  de  Dijon  —  Sud 
A  Madagascar,  Aper^u  sur  les  forets  et  leurs  produits 
Commission  d'etudes  forestieres  —  Compte  rendu 

La  greve  des  bftcherons  de  la  Nievre  k  la  chambre 


Author 

Place 

Date 

Prouve 

Poitiers 

1902 

Cardot 

Poitiers 

1902 

Mer 

Paris 

1902 

d'Hubert 

Paris 

1902 

Demorlaine 

Paris 

1902 

Henry 

Nancy 

1902 

Dumesny 

Paris 

1902 

Henry 

Nancy 

1902 

Fabre 

Bordeaux 

1902 

Henry 

Nancy 

1902 

de  Liocourt 

Nancy 

1902 

Cardot 

Orleans 

1902 

Bouquet  de  la 

Paris 

1902 

Grye 

Rosemont 

Paris 

1902 

Mouillefert 

Paris 

1903 

Mer 

Paris 

1903 

Morange 

Geneve 

1903 

Fron 

Paris 

1903 

Prouve 

Paris 

1903 

Jumelle 

Paris 

1903 

Georges 

Paris 

1903 

de  Fonvert 

Paris 

1903 

Jacquot 

Paris 

1903 

de  Kirwan 

Nancy 

1903 

Carimintrand 

Paris 

1903 

Flahault 

Paris 

1903 

Mer 

Paris 

1903 

Journal  de  la 

Nevers 

1903 

Ni6vre 

Journal  de  la 

Nevers 

1903 

Ni#vre 

Mouillefert 

Paris 

1904 

Desjobert 

Besangon 

1904 

Schaeffer 

Besangon 

1904 

Broilliard 

Bruxelles 

1904 

de  Vildemann 

Bruxelles 

1904 

Reynard 

Clermont- 
Terrand 

1904 

Fabre 

Bagneres  de 
Bigorre 

1904 

Fabre 

Paris 

1904 

Buffaut 

Bordeaux 

1904 

Guinier 

Auncey 

1904 

d'Alverny 

Besancon 

1904 

Broilliard 

Besangon 

1904 

Cuif 

Nancy 

1904 

Galmiche 

Besancon 

1904 

Girod-Genet 

Paris 

1904 

Gouvt  General 

Alger 

1904 

d  I'Algerie 

Journal  de  la 

Nevers 

1904 

Nievre 

460 


APPENDIX 


Title  Author 

Les  incendies  pastoraux  et  les  associations  dites  "  forestieres"  Fabre 

dans  les  Pyrenees-Orient'^^ 

Economie  forestiere  Huffel 

L'idee  forestiere  dans  Thistoirie  Teissier 

Projet  d'association  forestiere  de  Liscourt 

Lettre  a  un  proprietaire  de  futaie  jardinee  Galmiche 

Influence  des  eclaircies  dans  les  peuplements  reguliers  de  Cuif 

sapin 

Les  friches  de  la  Rte-Mame  Cardot 

Les  essences  forestieres  du  Soudan  propres  a  la  construction  Constancia 

Le  bois  Beauverie 

Le  regime  des  cours  d'eau  du  depart*  de  I'Aveyron  et  la  Buffault 

question  du  reboisement 

La  vegetation  spontanee  et  la  salubrite  des  eaux  Fabre 

Coup  d'oeil  d'ensemble  sur  les  forets  coloniales  de  la  France  Girod-Genet 

Prix  des  bois  dans  le  Maine  en  1904  Roulleau 

La  question  forestiere  en  Soudan  Jolyet 

La  question  forestiere  en  Algerie  Demontes 

Notice  sur  les  forets  de  la  Kroumirie  (Tunisie)  Desgreaux 

La  richesse  forestiere  du  Canada  confedere  Leymarie 

La  question  forestiere  en  Espagne  Cavaillcs 

Les  friches  de  la  Ht^-Marne,  leur  mis  een  valeur  par  des  Cardot 

travaux  forestiers 

Nos  arbres  Correvon 

Restauration  d'une  sapiniere  Broilliard 

Mathematiques  et  Nature  Broilliard 

Aide  a  la  gestion  des  bois  particuliers  Desjobert 

Les  insectes  dans  les  forets  resineuses  des  Vosges  de  Gail 

Essai  sur  le  paturage  dans  les  bois  Desjobert 

Les  reboisements  facultatifs  dans  la  region  sous-pyrenienne  Bauby 

Le  reboisement  des  terres  en  friche  dans  I'arrondissement  Parde 

de  Neufchateau 

Analyse  et  controle  des  semences  forestieres  Fron 

Les   garrigues   communales   des   environs   de   Carcassonne  Rouis 

et  de  Narbonne 

Etude   sur    la    question    du    reboisement    dans    le    Sud-est  de  Boixo 

Pyreneen 

De  I'elagage  des  sapins  et  epiceas  Mer 

Guide  pratique  du  fonctionnaire  se  rendant  en  Indo-Chine  Lambert 

La  question  forestiere  en  France  Parde 

La  deforestation  —  Peril  mondial  Duffart 

Memoire  relatif  k  un  projet  de  loi  sur  les  forets  d'utilite  Reynard 

publique 

Deboisement  et  decadence  Regnault 

La  Dordogne  deboisee  Broilliard 

Les  forets  et  les  pluies  Henry 

Gironde  et  Pyrenees  Broilliard 

La  marche  envahissante  des  dunes  de  Gascogne  avant  leur  Buffant 

fixation 

La  foret  de  Laroque  des  Alberes  Buffault 

Rendement  des  forfits  domaniales  de  pin  maritime  dans  les  de  Lapasse 

dunes  landaises 

Soumission  volontaire  au  regime  forestier  Broilliard 

Exposition  coloniale  de  Marseille  —  Catalogue  des  collec-  Gouvern*  G^' 

tions  du  Service  forestier  algerien  de  I'Algerie 

Repertoire  des  arbres,  arbustes,  etc.,  composant  la  collection  Gouvern*  G^' 

d'ensemble  des  ressources  forestieres  de  Madagascar  —  de  I'Algerie 

k  I'Exposit.  Coloniale  de  Marseille 

Projet  d'association  forestiere  (2^  article)  de  Liscour': 

Traite  d'exploitation  commerciale  des  bois  Mathey 

Sylviculture  (diverses  questions)  de  Kirwan 

Manuel  de  sylviculture  a  I'usage  des  instituteurs  Cardot 

Forets,  paturages,  pres-bois  Fron 


Place 
Besancon 

Paris 

Paris 

BesanQon 

Besan^on 

Paris 

Paris 
Paris 
Paris 
Rodey 

Paris 

Nice 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Tunis 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Besangon 

Besangon 

Besangon 

Besanfon 

Besangon 

Bordeaux 


Besancon 
Carcassonne 

Toulouse 

Besangon 

Paris 

Poitiers 

Paris 

Besanpon 

Paris 

Bergerao 

Bergerac 

Bordeaux 

Paris 

Bordeaux 
Poitiers 

Besangon 
Alger 


Besangon 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 

Paris 


Date 
1904 

1904-07 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 

1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 

1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 


1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 


1906 
1906 

1906 

1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 


1906 
1906 
1906 


1906 
1906 


1906 
1906-08 
1907 
1907 
1907 


FRENCH  FOREST  LITERATURE 


461 


forets  en  cas  d'ir 


Title 
Aide  memoire  du  forestier  —  Sylviculture 
Quelques  mots  relatifs  k  I'assurance  de 

cendie 
Du  reboisement  dans  Tarrond*  de  Mirecourt 
Le  reboisement  et  les  conditions  economiques  en  montagne 
L'obstacle  au  reboisement 
Deboisement  et  reboisement 
Le  reboisement  dans  la  region  des  Cevennes 
La  question  de  I'elagage 

Les  resources  agricoles  et  forestieres  des  colonies  francaises 
Preservation  des  bois  contre  la  pourriture  par  le  sol,   les 

champignons  les  insectes 
L'Industrie  de  la  resine  en  Sologne 
La  culture  des  arbres  et  les  idees  des  anciens  sur  le  role 

des  forets 
La  restauration  des  montagnes  et  la  navigation  interieure 
Action  de  la  foret  sur  le  sol  et  le  regime  des  eaux 
Embellissons  nos  bois 

Vingt-cinq  annees  dans  le  service  des  amenagements 
Foret  domaniale  d'Amance  —  Revision  de  I'Amenagement 
Amenagement  et  amelioration  des  forets  particuiiers 
Evolution  des   methodes  d'amenag*  appliquees  en   France 

aux  forets  d'essences  feuillues 
■  Conferences  forestieres  1^  Forets  et  friches  particuli^res  — 

2°  —  amenagement 
La  ville  d'Oloron  et  sa  Foret  du  Eager 
La  defense  des  montagnes 
Les  richesses  forestieres  de 


L'Australie,  ses  ressources  forestieres 

Exposition  internat'^  de  St.  Louis  —  Rapports  des  groupes 

112,  113,  lU.     Forets 
Nouvelles  etudes  sur  I'economie  alpestre 
L'utilite  de  I'amenag*  des  montagnes,  etc. 
3^  Congres  de  I'amenagt  des  montagnes  tenu  k  Bordeaux  les 

19-20-21  Juillet  1907 
Etude  sur  la  condition  forestiere  de  I'Orleanais 
Etude  sur  les  deux  places  de  production  des  forets  domaniales 

de  Haye  et  d'Amance 
Accroissement  d'un  massif  jardine 
Conservation  des  taillis  en  futaie 


Livre  vert  du  syndicat  forestier  de  France 

Le  reboisement  par  I'initiative  privee 

De  I'znpot  foncier  applique  aux  forets 

La  foret,  son  role  dans  la  nature  et  la  societe 

Manuel  de  I'eau 

Le  deboisement  et  les  inondations 

Le  probleme  de  I'infiuence  de  la  foret  sur  I'inondation 

Les  plantations  de  pins  dans  la  Champagne  crayeuse 

Des  essences  pour  les  reboisements 

Forets  particulieres 

La  Sologne  en  1850  —  Souvenirs 

Le  Haut-Beaujolais 

La  deforestation  de  la  France 

Livre  vert  du  syndicat  forestier  de  France  (Notice) 

La  feuille  au  le  revenu  foncier 

Le  revenu  imposable  aux  forets 

L'evaluation  du  revenu  imposable  aux  forets 

Le  revenu  imposable  aux  forets 

A  propos  des  ameliorations  pastorales 

Le  probleme  pastoral  et  forestier 


Author 
Demorlaine 
Decoppet 

de  Rozieres 

Bauby 

Buffault 

de  Kirwan 

Buffault 

Mer 

Jumelle 

Henry 

de  Larnage 
Buffault 

Fabre 

Fron 

Broilliard 

Brenot 

Cuif 

Viardin 

Huffel 

de  Liocourt  et 

Viardin 
Buffault 
Descombes 
Direct  de  I'agri- 

culture 
Buffault 
Hugo 

Briot 

Descombes 

Descombes 

de  Maulde 
Cuif 

Schaeffer 
Societe  Foresf^ 

de  Franche- 

Comte 
de  Rozieres 
Descombes 
Schaeffer 
Jacquot 
Reclus 
Teissier 
Teissier 
Lapic 
Broilliard 
Deffert 
Martin 
Hulin 
de  Sailly 
de  Liocourt 
Broilliard 
Roulleau 
Arnoult 
Jacquot 
Seurre 
Descombes 


Place 
Besangon 
Besangon 

Mirecourt 

Bordeaux 

Bordeaux 

Paris 

Rodey 

Besan?on 

Marseille 

Nancy 

Orleans 
Rodey 

Dijon 

Paris 

Bruxelles 

Morteau 

Nancy 

Neufchateau 

Neufchateau 

Neufchateau 

Toulouse 
Bordeaux 
Bordeaux 

Bourges 
Paris 

Paris 

Bordeaux 

Bordeaux 

Orleans 
Poitiers 


Besangon 


Paris 

Bordeaux 

Besanfon 

Besangon 

Paris 

Lyon 

Poitiers 

Reims 

Besangon 

Paris 

Paris 

Besangon 

Besangon 

Paris 

Besangon 

Besangon 

Paris 

Besangon 

Besangon 

Bordeaux 


Date 
1907 
1907 

1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 

1907 
1907 

1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 
1907 

1907 

1907 
1907 
1907 

1907 
1907 

1907 
1907 
1907 


1908 
1908 
1908 


462 


APPENDIX 


Title 

Guide  pour  la  creation  de  Socles  foresees  Scolaires 

Futaie  reguliere  d'ages  gradues  et  jardinage  cultural  controle 

Le  martelage  an  debut  de  I'ere  Merovingienne 

La  Conservation  en  futaies  des  forets  traitees  en  taillis  sous 
futaie 

Du  traitement  des  bois  feuilles 

Du  traitement  des  bois  feuilles 

Considerations  sur  le  traitement  des  forets  en  taillis  ou 
futaie 

Les  immeubles  forestiers  et  les  C'^s  d'assurances 

Essai  en  grand  du  Carbolineum  avenarius 

Preservation  des  bois  par  des  precedes  simples 

Le  gemmage  du  Pin  noir  dans  le  N-E  de  la  France 

Influence  du  couvert  de  la  foret  sur  la  temperature  du  Sol 

Amenagement  d'une  foret  coloniale 

Les  eaux  et  forets  en  Lorraine  au  XVIII^  Siecle 

Choses  forestieres  coloniales  frangaises 

Les  bois  et  les  forets  du  Perigord 

Les  atteintes  legislatives  a  la  propriete  foresti^re  —  La  coupe 
rase  et  la  loi  des  cinq  possibilites 

Compte-rendu  des  excursions  faites  a  I'occasion  du  Congres 
de  Nancy,  dans  les  forets  d'Amance,  de  Haye,  des  Elieux 

Association  centrale  pour  I'amenagt  des  montagnes 

La  V^  etape  de  I'association  pour  ramenagemen*  des  mon- 
tagnes 

De  1 'exploitation  des  futaies 

A  propos  du  Pin  sylvestre  —  Valeur  des  graines  et  plantes 


Author 
Descombes 
Ducamp 
Huffel 
Huffel 

Vaulot 
Algan 
Gurnaud 

Descombes 

Henry 

Henry 

Cuif 

Cuif 

Jolyet 

Boye 

Ducamp 

Buffault 

Roulleau 

Cuif 


Le  choix  des  semences  en  culture  forestiere 

Guide  pour  la  creation  de  societes  forestieres  scolaires 

PuUulation  du  lapin  en  Allemagne  Invasion  du  Taret  dans  le 

port  de  Marseille 
Statuts  du  syndicat  forestier  d'Eure  &  Loire 
Guide  pratique  pour  les  proprietaires  de  bois 

(b)  FOREST  LAW 

Des  forets  et  le  projet  de  code  rural 

Dictionnaire  General  des  Forets 

Cours  d'appel  de  Nancy  —  Conclusions  pour  M.  M.  Mohr  et 

Haas,  contre  M.  Haldy 
Cours  d'appel  de  Nancy  — Conclusions  pour  M.  Haldy,  contre 

M.  M.  Mohr  et  Haas  (6  Nov.  1873) 
Lachasse  et  la  louveterie 

Note  presentee  au  CriCunal  de  Mirecourt  pour  Memvire 
au  Consel  de  Prefecture<l  T'«  et  Vilaine 

La  Section  des  Chanoines  de  Dombasle,  contre  La  Com- 
mune du  dit 

Questions  de  droit  forestier 

Dictionnaire  General  des  forets 

Nouveau  code  du  Chasseur 

Lettre  a  M^e  Lallement  (affaire  de  I'ancienne  prerote 
d'Hugier) 

De  I'Administration  et  de  la  Jouissance  des  forets  com- 
munales 

Manuel  de  legislation  forestiere 

De  la  prescription  de  la  peine  en  matiere  de  delits  forestiers 

Etude  sur  le  projet  de  loi  sur  la  restauration  des  montagnes 

Code  de  la  Chasse  et  de  la  louveterie 

Contre  les  Comma's  de  Laimpont  et  de  S''  Peran 


Conclusions  motivees  pour  Monseig.  le  Due  d'Aumale  con- 
tre la  Commune  de  Rigniowez  (Ardennes) 


Place 
Bordeaux 
Besangon 
Poitiers 
Besangon 

Besangon 
Besangon 
Paris 

Bordeaux 

Nancy 

Besangon 

Besangon 

Nancy 

Paris 

Paris 

Besangon 

Bordeaux 

Le  Mans 

Besangon 


1909 
1909 


1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 

1909 


Descombes 

Bordeaux 

1909 

Descombes 

Bordeaux 

1909 

Broilliard 

Bruxelles 

1910 

Hickel 

Paris 

1910 

Guinier 

Nancy 

1910 

de  Boixo 

Bordeaux 

1910 

Henry 

Nancy 

1910 

Mathey 

Chartres 

1910 

Roulleau 

Paris 

1910 

Puton 

Paris 

1870 

Rousset 

Nice 

1871-72 

Hisserant 

Nancy 

1873 

Lombard 

Nancy 

1873 

Petitbien 

Nancy 

1874 

1874 

Puton 

Nancy 

1875 

Puton 

Paris 

1875 

Rousset 

Paris 

1875 

Yiel 

Paris 

1875 

Meaume 

Nancy 

1876 

Puton 

Paris 

1876 

Puton 

Paris 

1876 

Tassy 

Paris 

1877 

Leblond 

Paris 

1878 

Thibaud, 

Nantes 

1878 

Nicoliere  et 

Puton 

Meaume 

Nancy 

1880 

FRENCH  FOREST  LITERATURE 


463 


Title 
Contrainte  pour  Corps  en  matiere  forestiere 
Le  droit  penal  forestier 

Du  jugement  des  infractions  en  matiere  forestiere 
La  Chasse 

Loi  du  Harril  1882 — Restauration  et  Conservation  terrains 

en  montagne 
Commentaire  de  la  loi  du  Harril  1882  sur  la  Conservation 

des  terrains  en  montagnes 
Le  regime  forestier  applique  au  bois  des  communes  et  etab- 

lissements  publics 
Code  de  legislation  forestiere 
Etude  sur  la  revision  du  code  forestier 
Code  Forestier  (codes  annotes) 
La  Question  des  forets  en  Algerie 

Du  droit  de  Chasse  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  propriete 
Notice  sur  le  projet  de  perimetre  de  I'Arc  Superieur 
Essai  de  Commentaire  Pratique  de  la  loi  du  4  Avril  1882, 

Conservation  et  Restauration  des  terrains  en  montagne 
Projet  de  loi  sur  le  code  forestier 
Les  cours  d'eau  —  Hydrologie,  legislation 
Projet  de  loi  sur  la  chasse 
Des  delits  et  des  peines  en  matiere  forestiere  au  moyen-age 

dans  le  Duche  de  Bourgogne 
Essai  sur  le  regime  des  Canaux 
La  reforme  du  code  forestier 

Code  des  cours  d'eau  non  flottables  ni  navigables 
De  I'usufruit  des  prets  en  droit  romain  et  frangais 
Manuel  judiciaire  de  la  chasse 
La  reforme  du  code  forestier 

Du  poutage  de  I'affouage  dans  les  bois  communaux 
Loi  sur  la  peche  fiuviale 
Code  Nouveau  de  la  peche  fiuviale 
Les  confiscations  des  forets   d'emigres   dans   les   Droit   de 

peche  des  proprietaires  d'etangs 
Departements  de  Vaucluse,  du  Gard  et  de  I'Ardfiche 
Cours  de  droit  forestier  enseigne  a  I'Ecole  Secondaire  des 

Barres 
Etude  sur  I'application  de  la  loi  du  4  Avril  1882 
Du  droit  de  chasse  et  du  droit  de  chasser  le  gibier 
Usagers  de  Dabo 
Principes  de  legislation  forestiere 

Loi  du  19  Avril  1901  sur  I'afJouage  communal 
Conservation  des  forets  et  des  Paturages  dans  les  Pyrenees — 

Le  regime  pastoral 
L'espoir  des  cours  d'eaux  non  navigables  ni  flottables 
La  Pfiche  dans  les  cours  d'eaux 

Code  de  legislation  forestiere  (2^  Edit.) 
Commentaire  de  la  Loi  forestiere  Algerienne 
Une  question  de  droit  d'usage  en  foret 
Etude  historique  sur  la  propriete  des  dunes  de  Gasoogne 
Deux  Questions  forestieres — La  nationalisation  du  sol  for- 
estier —  les  forets  de  protection 
Le  projet  du  code  forestier  de  I'an  IV 
Legislation  et  reglementation  de  la  peche  fiuviale 
Observations  sur  la  necessite  de  reformer  nos  lois  forestieres 
Guide  du  forestier  —  Surveillance  des  forets  (11^  Edit.) 

Nouveau  regime  forestier  resultant  des  lois  du  18  juillet  et 

31  decre  1906 
Aide  memoire  du  forestier  —  Sciences  juridiques 


Author 

Place 

Date 

Guyot  et  Puton 

Paris 

1880 

des  Chenes 

Paris 

1882 

Meaume 

Paris 

1882 

Girandeau  et 

Paris 

1882 

Lelievre 

Tassy 

Paris 

1883 

Bouquet  de 

Paris 

1883 

la  Grue 

Puton 

Paris 

1883 

Doumenjou 

Paris 

1883 

Palloz 

Paris 

1884 

Wachi 

Oran 

1885 

Barthelemy 

Nancy 

1885 

Chapelain 

Chambery 

1886 

des  Chenes 

Paris 

1886 

Viette 

Paris 

1888 

Lechalas 

Paris 

1890 

Clave 

Paris 

1891 

Picard 

Autun 

1891 

Carpentier 

Paris 

1892 

Prudhomme 

Paris 

1892 

Boule 

Paris 

1893 

Chancerel 

Paris 

1893 

Dumont 

Paris 

1894 

Guyot 

Nancy 

1894 

Germain 

Salins 

1895 

Bertrand 

Paris 

1896 

Martin 

Paris 

1897 

Rouis 

Autun 

1898 

Parde 

Les  Barres 

1900 

Moujin 

Poitiers 

1901 

Barthelemy 

Nancy 

1901 

Pfister 

Metz 

1901 

Michel  et 

Paris 

1901 

Lelong 

Germain 

Paris 

1901 

Guyot 

Toulouse 

1904 

Tisserand 

Paris 

1904 

Del  Pere  de 

Toulouse 

1904 

Cardaillac 

Puton  et  Guyot 

Paris 

1904 

Guyot 

Paris 

1904 

de  Kirwan 

Paris 

1905 

Buffault 

Bordeaux 

1905 

Guyot 

Besangon 

1905 

Weyd 

Poitiers 

1905 

Mersey 

Paris 

1906 

Buffault 

Toulouse 

1906 

Bouquet  de  la 

Paris 

1906 

Grue 

Guibourg 

Paris 

1907 

Deroye 


Besancon 


464 


APPENDIX 


Title  Author 

La  soumission  volontaire  au  regime  forestier  Desjobert 

Sur  les  soumissions  facultatives  au  regime  forestier  de  Kirwan 

Code  forestier  suivi  des  lois  sur  la  peche  la  chasse  et  le  Palloz 

code  rural 

Notes  sur  les  propositions  des  lois  liberales  pour  le  reboise-  Descombes 

ment 

La  regime  administratif  et  juridique  de  la  peche  fiuviale  Raux 


Place 
Besangon 
Besanfon 
Paris 


(c)   FOREST  EDUCATION 

Programme  de  I'enseigement,  de  I'Ecole  forestiere 

Programme  des  etudes  d'amenag^'  defutaies  d  faire  par  les 
elSves  de  I'Ecole  forestiere  dans  la  foret  des  St.  Gobain- 
Coucy 

Programmes  de  I'enseignement 

Ordre  General  pour  I'execution  du  reglement  de  police  et  de 
discipline  du  15  Nov.  1876;  (I'Ecole  Nat^e  des  Eaux  et 
Forets) 

Reglements  et  programmes  d'enseignenuent  de  I'Ecole  forest- 
iere 

La  sylviculture  4  I'Ecole  primaire 

Ecole  pratique  des  Barres,*-Programmes  et  conditions  d'ad- 
missions  pour  les  proposes  k  I'Ecole  secondaire 

Notices  sur  I'Ecole  forestiere  et  la  station  de  Recherches 

Reglements  de  I'Ecole  forestiere  (12  Octob.  1889)  Personnel- 
Administration  —  Surveillance 

Arret  du  Ministre  de  I'Agriculture  concernant  I'Ecole  forest- 
iere —  Personnelle 

Ordre  general  —  Organisation  de  I'Enseignement 

Notice  sur  I'installation  de  I'Ecole  foresf^  de  Nancy 

L'Enseignement  forestier  en  France  (Ecole  de  Nancy) 
■  L'Ecole  forestiere  de  Nancy 

Ecole  des  Barres-Regime,  Discipline,  etc. 

Rapport  sur  la  visite  des  collections  et  du  fardin  de  I'Ecole 
nat'es  des  Eaux  et  Forets 

Arretes  et  reglements  concernant  I'Ecole  N^®  des  Eaux  et 
Forets 

Arretes  et  reglements  de  I'Ecole  N'^ 


Ecole  forestiere 

Paris 

1876 

Boppe 

Nancy 

1876 

Ecole  forestiere 

Paris 

1876-82 

Puton 

Nancy 

1883 

Direction      des 

Paris 

1887 

forets 

Caquet 

Nevers 

1887 

Ministere       de 

Paris 

1888 

I'agriculture 

Ministere       de 

Paris 

1889 

I'agriculture 

Direction     des 

Paris 

1890 

forets 

Ecole  Forestiere 

Paris 

1893 

Boppe 

Nancy 

1894 

Guyot 

Nancy 

1896 

Guyot 

Nancy 

1898 

Nesmy 

Paris 

1904 

Direction  G'e 

Paris 

1904 

Guimer 

Paris 

1909 

Ministere       de 

Paris 

1910 

I'agriculture 

Ecole  Forestiere 

Paris 

1910 

(d)   ENGINEERING   (REBOISEMENT) 


Les  torrents  des  Alpes  et  le  paturage 
Etude  sur  les  torrents  des  Ht''^-Alpe8 
Les  torrents,  leurs  lois,  leurs 


Notes  sur  I'extinction  des  torrents 

Etude  d'un  Systeme  general  de  defense  contre  les  torrents 

Les  torrents  des  Alpes  et  le  paturage  (2d  Edit.) 

Notice  sur  les  cartes,  dessins,  niodeles,  etc.  relatifs  aux 
travaux  de  reboisement  dans  le  bassin  de  la  Durance 

Etude  sur  les  travaux  de  reboisement  et  gazonnement  des 
montagnes 

Monographies  de  travaux  executes  dans  les  Alpes,  les  Cev- 
ennes,  et  les  Pyrenees 

Le  reboisement  des  Alpes 

Traite  pratique  du  rebois*,  et  du  gazonnement  des  mon- 
tagnes (2°  Edit.) 

Etude  sur  la  construction  des  barrages 

De  I'amenagement  des  Eaux  en  Suisse 


Marchand 

Arbois 

1872 

Surell 

Paris 

1872 

Costa  de 

Paris 

1874 

Bastellica 

Tassy 

Toulouse 

1874 

Breton 

Paris 

1875 

Marchand 

Paris 

1876 

Demontzey 

Paris 

1878 

Demontzey 

Paris 

1878 

Administration 

Paris 

1878 

des  forets 

Clave 

Paris 

1881 

Demontzey 

Paris 

1882 

Vaultrin 

Paris 

1884 

de  Salis 

Berne 

1884 

Reglement  et  conditions  d'admission. 


FRENCH  FOREST  LITERATURE 


465 


Title 
Etude  sur   la  restauration   et    la   conservation   des   mon- 

tagnes  dans  le  Dept.  de  I'lsere 
Note  sur  les  Bareges  curvilignes 
Perimetre  de  restauration  de  I'Ulage 

Reveil  instantane  d'un  torrent  eteint.-Le  Signer  (AriSge) 
La  Restauration  des  terrains  en  montagne  au  Pavilion  des 

forets 
Le  reboisement  des  montagnes  et  I'extinction  des  torrents 
Restauration  des  montagnes 
Note  sur  la  catastrophe  de  St.  Gervais 
Questions  forestieres  et  de  defenses  contre  les  inondations, 

etc. 
La  correction  des  torrents  en  Suisse 

Etude  sur  Grenoble— Les  reboiseinents  et  les  transformations 
L'Extinction  des  torrents  en  France 
Rapport  d'une  mission  en  Suisse  (Torrents) 

Travaux  de  Correction  —  Torrent  du  Riculet  H*^  Pyrenees 
Eboulements,  glissements,  barrages 
Les  torrents  et  les  paysages  torrentiels 
Consolidation  des  berges  par  I'erivation  d'un  torrent 
Travaux  des  defenses  contre  les  avalanches  dans  la  vallee 

de  Bareges 
Correction  des  mines  de  Pellafol  (Is^re) 
Les  torrents  glaciaires 

Les  terrains  et  les  paysages  torrentiels  (Pyrenees) 
Restauration   et   conservation   des    terrains   en    montagne. 

C.  Reude  Sommaire  des  trav.     (1860-1900) 
Notice  historique  sur  G.  G.  inondations  dans  la  Savoie 
La  vallee  de  Bareges  et  le  Reboisement 
La  correction  des  torrents  en  Savoie 
Les  debacles  glaciaires 
Les  effets  de  I'erosion 
Une  excursion  dans  la  vallee  du  Veneon  (Isere) 


Author 

Place 

Date 

Charlemagne 

Grenoble 

1887 

Thiery 

Paris 

1888 

Carriere 

Barcelonnette 

1888 

Vaultrin 

Toixe 

1889 

Demontzey 

Paris 

1889 

Demontzey 

Paris 

1891 

Thiery 

Paris 

1891 

Demontzey 

Paris 

1892 

Nicollet 

Grenoble 

1892 

de  Salis 

Berne 

1892 

Heurteloupe 

Grenoble 

1892 

Demontzey 

Paris 

1894 

Thiery  et 

Paris 

1896 

Petiscollot 

Pellon 

Paris 

1900 

Kuss 

Paris 

1900 

Champsaur 

Paris 

1900 

Moujin 

Paris 

1900 

Campagne 

Paris 

1900 

Bernard 

Paris 

1900 

Kuss 

Paris 

1900 

de  Gorsse 

Paris 

1900 

Ministere      de 

Paris 

1900 

I'agriculture 

Durandard 

Paris 

1900 

Campagne 

Pau 

1902 

Mougin 

Besancon 

1904 

Rabot 

Paris 

1905 

Pinner 

Marseille 

1908 

Hulin 

Besancon 

1908 

(e)  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

De  I'utilite  d'une  reorganisation  de  I'Administration  des 

forets 
La  question  des  forets  devant  I'assemblee  Nationale  (Lettre 

&  M.  M.  les  Deputes) 
Reponse  au  rapport  de  M.   Fare  contre  la  translation  de 

I'Administration  des  forets  au  Ministere  de  I'Agriculture 
Reorganisation  du  Service  forestier,  reformes  de  la  loi  du 

9  Juin  1853  sur  les  pensions  civiles 
Douaniers,  forestiers,  etc.,  organisation  en  armes 
Essai  sur  la  reorganisation  du  Service  forestier  en  France 
Etude  sur  la  reorganisation  de  TAdministration  foresti^re 
Les  reformes  forestieres 

Etude  sur  la  reorganisation  de  I'Administration  des  forets 

Etudes  forestieres 

Annexe  d  I'etude  sur  la  reorganisation  de  I'Administration 

des  forets 
Reorganisation  du  Service  forestier  (4  facs.) 
Le  Corps  des  forestiers  et  le  projet  de  M.   M.  Tassy  et 

Lorentz 
De  vis  d'une  maison  de  Garde  (Type  No.  1) 

Reorganisation  du  Service  forestier  (M.  de  Mahyer  Meline) 
Notes  sur  le  recrutement  du  corps  forestier 
La  gestion  de  forets  au  Ministere  des  Finances 
Le  Dernier  Directeur  General  de  forets 


Mer 

Provins 

1871 

Turot 

Bars  aube 

1872 

Turot 

Bars  aube 

1873 

Wisst 

Paris 

1875 

Caise 

Paris 

1875 

Caise 

Paris 

1875 

Meaume 

Paris 

1878 

Bouquet  de 

Troyes 

1878 

la  Grue 

Bertin 

Lille 

1878 

Bertin 

Lille 

1879 

Bertin 

Lille 

1879 

Tassy 

Paris 

1879-80 

Deupion 

CharleviUe 

1882 

Administration 

Paris 

1882 

Forestier 

Tassy 

Paris 

1884 

Meline 

Paris 

1884 

de  Venel 

Paris 

1884 

de  Venel 

Paris 

1884 

466 


APPENDIX 


Title 
M.  Viette  et  le  budget  des  forets  au  1885 
Quelques  considerations  sur  I'organisation  de  I'Administra- 

tion  des  forets 
Rapport  sur  les  modifications  introduites  dans  I'Adminis- 

tration  forestiere 
Une  page  d'histoire  forestiere 

L'Oeuvre  de  M.  Viette  au  ministere  de  I'Agriculture 
Discussion  du  budget  de  1891 — discours  prononce  par  M. 

le  Comte  de  Youffroy  d'Abbans 
Le  Service  forestier  dans  le  Dept.  d'Oran  (Aglerie) 
Calendrier  forestier  (Tabl.  des  pieces  a  fournir) 
Dictionnaire  Gal  des  forets  (2^  Edit.) 

Guide  du  chasseur  forestier  a  I'usage  des  agents  et  preposes 
Historique  administratif  du  Cant'  de  Cirey-s-Vezouze 
Les  anoiennes  circulaires  de  I'Administon  des  eaux  et  forets 
Tournee  de  Vente  d'un  Grand  Maitre  des  eaux  et  forets 
Etat  des  Services  des  Eleves  de  I'Ecole  forestiere  (1825  k 

1888) 
Les  sceaux  des  forestiers  au  Moyenage 
Societe   de  Secours   mutuels   des    preposes    forestiers    du 

Doubs 
Les  gardes  communaux-domanialisation 
Memoire  sur  les  reformes  a  spero  dans  le  Service  Forestier 
Notice  historique  sur  le  recrutenient  de  I'Administration  des 

forets  et  sur  I'enseig'''',  forestier  en  France 


Author 
Taillis 
Taillis 

Welche 


Place 
Paris 
Paris 

Poitiers 


Date 

1885 


Suchaux 

Vesoul 

1888 

Suchaux 

Vesoul 

1889 

de  Youffroy 

Paris 

1891 

d'Abbans 

Mathieu 

Alger 

1892 

Demaret 

Alger 

1892 

Rousset  et 

Digne 

1894 

Bauer 

Bauer 

Paris 

1894 

Weyd 

Nancy 

1899 

Weyd 

Poitiers 

1904 

Desjobert 

Besancon 

1905 

Weyd 

Poitiers 

1905 

Roman 

Paris 

1906 

Roman 

Besangon 

1907 

Chambeau 

Pau 

1907 

Volmerange 

Commercy 

1896 

Guyot 

Nancy 

1898 

(f)   MISCELLANEOUS 

La  Republique  orientale  de  I'Uraguay  a  I'Exposition  de 
Vienne 

Republique  de  Salvador  —  Notice  historique  et  statistique. 
(Exposit.  Universelle,  1878) 

Republique  de  Salvador  —  Catalogue  des  objets  exposes  a 
I'Exposition  universelle  1878 

Notice  sur  les  objets  exposes  de  la  Republique  de  Guatemala 

Catalogue  de  la  collection  exposee  par  la  Chine  a  I'Exposi- 
tion universelle 

Catalogue  de  la  section  anglais 

Queensland  Australie  —  Guide  de  la  Colonie 

Le  Japon  a  I'Exposition 

Catalogue  des  produits  des  colonies  frangaises 

Catalogue  ofEeiel  —  Liste  des  recompenses 

Catalogue  d'echantillons  de   bois  du  jardin   botanique  de 

St.    Petersbourg    envoyes   a   I'Exposition    universelle   de 

1878 
Notices  sur  les  modeles,  desseins,  etc.,  relatifs  aux  Travaux 

des  Ponts  et  Chaussees  et  Mines 
Exposition   universelle    de    1889  —  Comites   d'admission  — 

Membres  du  Jury  —  Recompenses 
Les    Expositions  de   I'Etat    au   Champ    de    Mars  et    aux 

Invalides 
L'Exposition  universelle  de  1889 
Conferences  de  I'Exposition  universelle  de  1889 


VaiUant 

Montevideo 

1873 

Vaillant 

Paris 

1878 

Guzman 

Paris 

1878 

Boucard 

Paris 

1878 

Boucard 

Shanghai 

1878 

Exposit.  Univelle 

Louvre 

1878 

de  1878 

Id. 

Louvre 

1878 

Id. 

Paris 

1878 

Id. 

Paris 

1878 

Id. 

Paris 

1878 

de  Loverdo 

Paris 

1879 

Ministere  des  Paris 

Trav*  Publics 
Id.  Paris 


de  Parville 


Paris 


Catalogue  de  la  section  frangaise  a  I'Exposition  de  Vienne  - 


de  Parville  Paris 

Ministeres  des        Paris 

Commerces,  de 

I'lndustrie,  etc. 
de  Loverdo  Vienne 


Rapport  general  —  Rapport  du  Jury  (Exposition  universelle 

de  1889)  27  volumes 
Exposition   Univer^He   de    1889  —  Produits   de   la    chasse, 

peche,  etc. 


Picard 


Paris 


FRENCH  FOREST   LITERATURE 


467 


Title 
Exposition  Universelle  —  Groupe  de  rEconomie  sociale 
Exposition  Univer^elle  Agriculture,  viticulture,  pisciculture, 

horticulture 
L'horticulture  frangaise  ^  Chicago  et  aux  Etats-Unis 
Vi^  Congres  internat^'  d'Agriculture 

Congres  internat^'l  de  I'Enseignement  agricole 
Congres  internaf^'  de  Sylviculture  (C.  rendu  sommaire) 
Exposition  univ^''^  de  1900  — ■  Senegal  et  Soudan 
Exposition  univ^"®  de  1900  —  Notice  sur  le  Congo  frangais 
Exposition    univ^''^    de     1900  —  Notice    sur    la     Nouvelle 

Caledonie 
Exposition    univ^^'^   de    1900  —  Les   etablisst^  frangais    de 

I'Etude 
Exposition  univ^"®  de  1900  —  St.  Pierre  et  Miquelon 
Exposition  univ^"e  de  1900  —  La  Reunion 
Exposition  uniyeUe  de  1900  —  La  Cote  d'lvoire 
Exposition  univ''"^  jg  1900  —  La  Cote  des  Somalis 
Exposition  uniyeUe  de  1900  —  La  Guinee  frangaise 
Exposition  uniyeUe  de  1900  —  La  Guadeloupe  et  dependances 
Exposition  uniye'Ie  de  1900  —  I'lndo-Chine 
Exposition  nouy^''^  de  1900  —  Etabliss^s  f rangais  de  I'Oceanie 
Exposition  uniyel'e  de  1900  —  Notice  sur  la  Guyane 
Exposition  uniyelle  de  1900  —  La  Martinique 
Exposition   uniy^He  de  1900  —  Notice  sur  Mayotte  et  les 

Comores 
Exposition  univ^He  de  1900  —  Madagascar 
Exposition  uniyel'e  de  1900  —  Le  Dahomey 
Congres  internat^'  de  viticulture  (C.  Rendu) 

Actes  de  Congres  international  de  botanique 

Congres  international  d'Horticulture 

Compte-rendu  du  Congres  international  de  1' Alimenta- 
tion du  betail  (Juin  1900) 

II°ie  Congres  apicole  (Pces  Verle^  des  Seances) 

Congres  interna^''  de  surveillance  &  de  securite  en  matiSre 
d'appareils  h  vapeur 

Exposition  universelle  de  1900  —  Congres  international  de 
Sylviculture  (compte-rendu^ 

Apercee  sommaire  des  objets  exposes  par  I'Administration 
generale  des  apanages  imperiaux  de  Russie  k  I'Exposition 
universelle  de  1900 

Les  produits  du  sol  des  Colonies  frangaises  A  I'Exposition 

Pan-Americaine  de  Buffalo 
L'Alimentation   en    eaux    et   I'assainissement   des   villes   £l 

I'exposition  universelle  de  1900 
I^r   Congres    du   Sud-Ovvest    navigable    tenu    k   Bordeaux 

12-14  Juin  1902  (C.-rendu  des  travaux) 
IV^  Congres  internat^'  de  Chimie  applique 
Congres  international  de  I'Alpinisme 

Rapports  divers  —  (Exposition  universelle  de  1900)  66  vol- 
umes 
Le  second  congres  du  Sud-Quest  navigable  tenu  a  Toulouse 

en  1903 
Exposition  universelle  de  1900  —  Rapport  General  adminis- 

tratif  et  technique  9  volumes  —  Preliminaires  —  Plan  de- 

finitif 
Palais  et  edifices  —  Admission  Catalogues  —  Recompenses 

Congres  —  Concours,  Services  divers,  etc. 
Conoours    internationaux    d'Exercices    physiques    et    des 

sports 
Le  Bilau  d'un  SiScle  (Exposit.  Universelle) 


Author 

Place 

Date 

Say,  Lavallee 

Paris 

1892 

Ministeres 

Paris 

1892 

divers 

de  Vilmorin 

Paris 

1894 

Ministere      de 

Paris 

1900 

I'agriculture 

de  Lagorse 

Paris 

1900 

Daubree 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit.  Uniyelle 

Paris 

1900 

Guillemot 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit  Uniyelle 

Paris 

1900 

Guy 


Caperon 

Paris 

1900 

Garsault 

Paris 

1900 

Mills 

Paris 

1900 

Vigneras 

Paris 

1900 

Famechon 

Paris 

1900 

Guesde 

Paris 

1900 

Nocolas 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit.  Uniyelle 

Paris 

1900 

Bassieres 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit.  Uniyelle 

Paris 

1900 

Vienne 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit.  Uni 

yelle 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit.  Uni 

yelle 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit.  de 

Paris 

1900 

1900 

Perrot 

Paris 

1900 

Bergmann 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit.  Uniyelle 

Paris 

1900 

Caillas 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit.  Uni 

yelle 

Paris 

1900 

Exposit.  Uni 

yclle 

Paris 

1900 

Administration 

Paris 

1900 

Generale  d 

.es 

apanages  im- 

periaux 

Mederlin 

Paris 

1901 

Imbeaux 

Paris 

1902 

Moissan 

Paris 

1902 

Moissan 

Paris 

1902 

Moissan 

Clermont  (Oise)     1902 

Picard 

Paris 

1902-07 

Moissan 

Poitiers 

1903 

Exposit.  Uniyelle 

Paris 

1903 

Picard 

Paris 

1903 

Exposit.  Uniyelle 

Paris 

1903 

Picard 

Paris 

1903-07 

468 


APPENDIX 


Title 
Juest  navigable  tenu 


Bergerac  du  6 


Le  ye  Congr^s  du  S. 

au  9  Juillet  1906 
Premier  et  2^  Congres  de  ramenagement  des  montagnes 

(Compte-rendu  190.5-06) 
Premier  Congres  international  du  froid 


Author  Place 

Exposit.  Univ^''^  Bergerae 

Exposit.  Univ^''^    Bordeaux, 

Pau 
de  Loverdo  Paris 


Date 
1906 


(g)  BOTANICAL  AND   SILVICAL 

Herbier  forestier  de  la  France 

Pin  Sylvestre 

Notes  sur  le  pin  Cembro 

Manuel  de  botanique  forestiere 

Etude  des  differents  sols  du  depart*  de  la  Gironde 

Les  cendres  des  essences  principales  de  la  foret  de  la  Haye 

Notes  sur  le  sorbus  latifolia 

L'Eucalyptus  et  les  applications  industrielles 

Flore  forestiere  (3^  Edit.) 

Remarques  sur  deux  Varietes  d'epicea 

Catalogue  des  vegetaux  ligneux  indigenes  et  exotiques  ex- 

istant  sur  le  domaine  des  Barres 
Le  ChSne  vert  ou  le  chene  yeuse  dans  le  Gard 
L'Eucalyptus,  sa  culture 
Les  essences  forestieres  du  Japon 
Memoire  sur  les  eucalyptus  introduits  dans  la  region  Medi- 

terraneenne 
Les  bois  industriels,  indigenes  et  exotiques 
Notes  sur  les  Eucalyptus  geants  de  I'Australie 
Observations  sur  la  nionographie  des  Pins  sylvestres 
Les  reboisements  par  I'Acacia 
Notes  sur  les  arbres  geants  du  Portugal 
Etude  sur  le  pin  pinier 

Les  chenes  de  I'Amerique  Septen'c  en  Belgique 
La  vegetation  des  Gausses 
Les  Hybrides  du  Quercus  suber 
Causerie  sur  les  bois  de  la  Guyane 
Arboretum  de  I'Ecole  d'Agriculture  de  Grignon 
Le  Pin  maritime  des  Landes  et  de  Gascogne 
Le  Sapin  de  Douglas 

Revue  des  travaux  de  botanique  forestiere 
Le  pin  a  Suere 
Recherches  sur  la  decomposition  des  matieres  organiques 

Traite  des  arbres  et  des  arbrisseaux 

Illustrations  des  chenes  de  I'Europe  et  d'Orient 

Arboretum  National  des  Barres 

Nature  et  utilisation  des  produits  forestiers  des  Pyrenees- 
Orientales 

Sur  les  formes  accidentales  du  pinus  laricio 

Sols  forestiers  et  sols  agricoles 

Le  Chene  de  Juin 

Les  Sapins  sans  branches  de  Chaumont 

Poids  et  composition  de  la  converture  morte  des  forets,  etc. 

Du  reboisement  et  de  la  fertilisation  des  forets 

Flore  forestiere  (4^  Edit.) 

Remarques  sur  le  Juniperus  Thuriferea  et  especes  voisines 
du  bassin  de  la  Mediterranee 

Nomenclature  des  principales  essences  forestieres  de  la  Co- 
chin Chine 


De  GayfEer 

Paris 

1868-73 

de  Morogues 

Orleans 

1873 

Tassy 

Digne 

1873 

Flicke 

Nancy 

1873 

Baudrimont 

Bordeaux 

1874 

Henry 

Paris 

1876 

Godron 

Montpellier 

1876 

Martin 

Paris 

1877 

Mathieu 

Nancy 

1877 

Brenot 

Paris 

1878 

Adon  des  forets 

Paris 

1878 

Begimbeau 

N1m.es 

1879 

Pelagand 

Lyon 

1880 

Dupont 

Paris 

1880 

Naudin 

Paris 

1883 

Grisard 

Paris 

1883 

Joly 

Paris 

1885 

de  Morogues 

Orleans 

1885 

Caquet 

Nevers 

1886 

Joly 

Paris 

1886 

Flicke 

Nancy 

1886 

Houba 

Hasselt 

1887 

Ivolas 

Montpellier 

1889 

Frabut 

Paris 

1889 

Dupre 

Melun 

1889 

Mouillefert 

Paris 

1889 

Dupre 

Melun 

1889 

Zeiller 

Paris 

1890 

Henry 

Paris 

1890 

Hickel 

Rennes 

1890 

WoUny  Trad 

Nancy 

1892 

Henry 

Mouillefert 

Paris 

1892-98 

Kotschy 

Vienne 

1892-98 

Parde 

Paris 

1892-98 

Galas 

Perpignan 

1893 

de  Vilmoriz 

Paris 

1894 

Huffel 

Nancy 

1894 

Gilardoni 

Nancy 

1895 

Moreillon 

Neufchatel 

1896 

Henry 

Nancy 

1896 

Thezard 

Compiegne 

1897 

Mathieu 

Paris 

1897 

de  Coincy 

Paris 

1898 

Saigon 


Le  Chene  de  Juin 

Le  Pin  Laricio  de  Salzmann 

Note  sur  le  Pirus  Cordata 

Le  chene  de  Juin  (notes  complimentaires) 


Jolyet  Nancy 

Galas  Perpignan 

Flicke  Paris 

Gilardoni  Nancy 


1900 
1900 


GERMAN   COMMENT   ON   FRENCH  FORESTRY 


469 


Title 

Arbres  forestiers  etrangers  (notes) 

Notes  sur  les  vegetaux  ligneux  exotiques 

Les  principaux  vegetaux  ligneux  exotiques  au  point  de  vue 
forestier 

La  decomposition  de  matieres  organiques  et  les  formes 
d'humus 

Notes  sur  les  hybrides  du  genre  "sorbus"  dans  le  Jura 
frangais 

Influence  de  la  converture  morte  sur  I'humidite  du  sol  for- 
estier 

L'Epicea  de  St.  Eustache 

Acclimatation  du  chene  rouge  aux  environs  de  Rouen 

Les  arbres  etrangers  du  Domaine  d'Harcourt 

Les  cypres  chauves  Condal  (Saone  et  Loire) 

fitude  sur  I'epicea  compare  au  Sapin 

Les  saules,  determination,  description,  etc. 

Lianes  caoutohoutiferes  de  I'Etat  du  Congo 

Descriptions  de  Sections  transversales  de  12  especes  des  bois 
indigenes  et  exotiques 

Classification  et  monographic  des  Saules  de  France  et  d'Eu- 
rope  (Texte  et  Atlas) 

Quelques  vieux  arbres  de  la  contree  (Aisne,  Marne,  Ar- 
dennes) 

Les  peupliers  au  point  de  vue  cultural  pratique 

Emploi  des  essences  forestieres  indigenes  et  exotiques  pour 
le  boisement  des  differents  sols 

Les  vieux  arbres  interessants  des  environs  d'Autun 

Les  arbres  du  pare  de  Baleine 

Remarques  sur  quelques  abies  mediterraneans 

Les  sols  forestiers 

Essai  de  Geologie  forestiere 

La  foret  aocumulatrice  d'azote 

Note  pour  servir  a  la  determination  des  Arbietinees 


Author 

Place 

Date 

de  Vilmoriz 

Paris 

1900 

Parde 

Paris 

1900 

Parde 

Besangon 

1900 

Wollny  Trad. 

Paris 

1901 

Henry 

Flicke 

Paris 

1901 

Henry 

Nancy 

1902 

Guinier 

Annecy 

1902 

Hickel 

Elbeuf 

1902 

Hickel 

Rennes 

1902 

Gillot 

Autun 

1903 

Guinier 

Besangon 

1903 

Guinier 

Anncey 

1904 

Vildermann 

Bruxelles 

1904 

Thil 

Paris 

1904 

Camus 

Paris 

1904-5 

Jadart 

Reims 

1904 

de  Kirwan 

Autun 

1904 

Parde 

Besangon 

1905 

Gillot 

Autun 

1907 

Parde 

Moulins 

1908 

Guinier 

Paris 

1908 

Henry 

Nancy 

1903 

Schaefifer 

Besangon 

1908 

Henry 

Besangon 

1908 

Hickel 

Paris 

1909 

APPENDIX  I 

GERMAN   COMMENT   ON  FRENCH  FORESTRY 

Dr.  Martin,  of  Tharandt,  with  a  party  of  German  foresters,  made  a  critical  study  of 
French  forest  conditions  in  1900  and  reported  upon  them  in  1906.  This  technical 
critique  and  appreciation  of  French  methods  is  of  unique  value  to  a  student  of  forestry 
in  France.  It  is,  therefore,  reproduced  as  a  reference,  to  represent  the  best  German 
views  on  French  methods.  The  1878  statistics,  now  out  of  date,  cited  by  Martin, 
have  been  omitted,  as  have  his  generahties  on  French  forest  trees. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  OAK  UNDER  THE  HIGH    FOREST  SYSTEM  i 

Occurrence  and  Growth.  —  In  order  that  we  might  obtain  an  idea  of  the  oak  high 
forest  we  were  shown  several  large  forests  in  the  catchment  area  of  the  Loire,  the  forests 
of  Belleme,  Berce,  and  Blois  which  serve  as  representative  examples  of  the  French 
system  of  oak  culture.  The  first-mentioned  ranges  (Reviere)  have  the  character  of  a 
pure  oak  forest  with  only  here  and  there  a  greater  or  lesser  intermixture  of  beech; 
while  in  the  forests  of  Blois  entire  stands  occur  which  have  been  converted  from  coppice 
with  standards  and  coppice  stands. 

1  Translated  for  the  writer  by  F.  W.  Haasis  in  1913. 


470  APPENDIX 

That  a  proper  value  may  be  placed  on  the  following  information,  which  may,  in 
part,  seem  remarkable  to  the  German  forest  owners,  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  remark 
that  in  the  forests  mentioned  we  perhaps  did  not  see  mean  conditions  as  would  appear 
in  an  average  of  the  whole  country.  By  far  the  best  conditions  ^  of  site  and  stand  of 
the  French  government  forests  are  there  represented.  If  we  would  avoid  an  utter 
misconception  we  must  be  careful  not  to  regard  foreign  conditions  too  favorably,  and 
not  to  undervalue  our  own  system  of  management.  Ranges  (Reviere)  with  good  condi- 
tions of  site  and  stand  are,  indeed,  as  a  rule,  the  best  adapted  to  studying  critically 
principles  of  management  and  their  application.  Parts  of  ranges  which,  as  far  as  the 
minor  resources  of  the  soil  and  stand  are  concerned,  are  to  be  managed  differently 
from  the  predominating  stands  were  also  found,  so  that  an  idea  can  be  gained  from 
these  of  other  conditions  where  the  poorer  stands  occur  in  greater  numbers. 

The  site  factors  of  the  forests  visited  are  very  favorable  for  the  oak.  The  soil  is  a 
deep  loamy  sand,  for  the  most  part  sufficiently  fresh.  From  analyses  conducted  in 
various  stands  of  the  Berce  forest  the  soil  contains  0.23  per  cent  nitrogen,  0.12  per  cent 
potash,  0.04  per  cent  lime,  0.045  per  cent  phosphorus.  In  the  pole  forests  and  mature 
stands  there  is  very  frequently  found  a  cover  of  holly  {Hex,  L.)  which,  in  connection  with 
the  beech  which  occurs  normally  as  an  understory,  improves  the  soil  and  prevents  the 
growth  of  other  cover.  The  elevation  above  the  sea  reaches  328  to  656  feet.  The 
topography  is  mainly  level  or  gently  sloping.  The  chmate,  in  accordance  with  the 
geographical  location  and  the  altitude,  is  mild  and  suitable  for  the  oak.  The  mean 
rainfall  is  given  as  27.6  inches.  The  greatest  part  occurs  in  summer  so  that  extreme 
drought  is  not  to  be  feared.  Late  and  early  frosts,  which  have  so  disastrous  an  in- 
fluence upon  the  height  growth  of  the  oak  and  the  character  of  its  wood,  occur  very 
infrequently.  All  these  circumstances  work  together  to  produce  favorable  conditions 
for  the  growth  of  the  oak.  Optimum  site  conditions  for  the  oak  are  here  presented. 
"Everything  concurs  to  render  the  chmate  humid  and  essentially  favorable  for  tree 
growth,"  says  Boppe,  referring  to  this  forest  region. 

Of  the  two  species  of  oak  the  sessile-flowered  is  of  the  more  common  occurrence  in 
the  forest  under  discussion.  Its  growth  and  form  are  very  good.  The  stands  are 
characterized  in  a  general  view  by  straight  form,  clear  bole,  and  high  (according  to 
our  estimate);  averages  65  feet  from  the  ground,  often  higher.  The  crowns  are  very 
narrow;  the  boles  have  a  form  like  that  of  our  softwoods  (Gymnosperms).  If  an  accu- 
rate representation  could  be  made  of  the  proportions  of  crown  and  stem  diameters  a 
result  would  be  attained  entirely  different  from  that  found  in  the  case  of  the  German 
oaks.  It  is  corollary  to  this  that  the  basal  area  per  hectare  is  very  high.  In  certain 
stands,  running  180  to  220  years  old,  which  were  examined  in  this  connection,  a  basal 
area  was  determined  of  474  to  485  square  feet  per  acre,  which  is  50  per  cent  greater 
than  given  for  corresponding  stands  on  first-quality  sites  in  the  new  German  yield 
tables. 3  The  number  of  trees  per  hectare  in  mature  stands  180  to  200  years  old  amounts 
to  about  200  (80  per  acre)  which  is  double  the  corresponding  count  in  the  tables  cited; 
the  mean  diameter  20  to  22  inches,  the  volume  of  a  trunk  125  to  160  cubic  feet.  The 
height  of  the  older  stands  is  mainly  between  100  and  120  feet,  individual  trees  being 
even  higher.  It  follows  from  this  that  the  volume,  also,  of  the  stands  must  be  very 
high.  Stands  of  more  than  11,430,  12,860,  and  14,290  cubic  feet  per  acre,  or  about 
67,500  feet  board  measure  per  acre,  with  50  cords  per  acre  in  addition,  such  as  can 
almost  never  occur  in  Germany  because  of  the  natural  conditions  of  growth,  are  here 
met  with  over  large,  continous  areas. 

2  Dr.  Martin  was  shown  exceptionally  favorable  conditions.  —  T.  S.  W.,  Jr. 

3  Schwappach,  Untersuchwngen  uber  die  Zuwachsleistungen  von  Eichen-Hochwald- 
bestanden  in  Preussen,  1905,  S.  56.  (Studies  on  the  growth  of  stands  of  oak  high  forest 
in  Prussia,  1905,  p.  56.) 


GERMAN  COMMENT   ON   FRENCH   FORESTRY  471 

The  root  habit  of  the  oak,  which  could  be  very  readily  and  very  thoroughly  studied 
on  fresh  blowdowns,  seemed  to  us  remarkably  superficial.  The  observations  which 
were  made  do  not  warrant  the  suggestion  of  an  adequate  explanation  for  this.  Owing 
to  the  shallow  root  system,  the  remarkable  height,  the  growth  in  fully  stocked,  dense, 
compact  stands,  the  oak  in  those  localities  is  more  resistant  to  atmospheric  influences, 
especially  to  wind,  than  is  the  case  under  other  circumstances.  A  storm  which  had 
occurred  the  winter  before  our  visit  had  wrought  heavy  destruction  in  the  compart- 
ments under  regeneration.  This  is  no  unusual  sight.  To  anticipate,  we  were  often 
to  see  the  same  thing  in  the  future.  The  conditions  here  found  are  similar  to  those 
presented  by  the  fir  in  the  Vosges.  The  causes  of  breakage  and  damage  by  storms 
are  far  more  often  to  be  found  in  the  conditions  of  growth  than  in  the  species.  Under 
the  conditions  described,  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  in  the  management  of  the  oak,  to 
employ  methods  which  elsewhere  are  considered  necessary  only  for  shallow-rooted 
species.  The  ultimate  strength  of  the  crown  and  the  distance  from  the  ground  of  a 
crown  which  begins  too  high  are  of  especial  significance  in  their  effects. 

Establishment  of  Stands.  ^  Natural  regeneration  is  the  general  practice  in  estab- 
hshing  oak  stands.  The  conditions  for  this  are  exceptionally  favorable.  The  soil, 
after  the  removal  of  the  encumbering  growth  of  beech  and  holly,  which  is  incumbent 
upon  the  buyer,  is  rich  in  humus,  loose,  and  well  adapted  to  the  germination  of  the 
acorn.  Yet  more  favorable  is  the  second  factor  which  is  necessary  for  natural  repro- 
duction, namely  seed  production.  Full  seed  crops  are  frequent,  at  intervals  of  about 
4  to  6  years,  with  extraordinarily  rich  production.  Between  these,  on  the  other  hand, 
half  crops  occur,  which,  however,  under  the  circumstances,  are  likewise  sufficient  for  a 
complete  seeding  up  of  the  reproduction  area.  Nowhere  can  the  influence  of  climate 
conditions  upon  the  possibility  of  reproduction  be  more  definitely  recognized  than  here. 
The  chief  advantage  of  the  full  mast  is  to  be  found  in  the  ease  of  supplementing  the 
preceding  seeding.  In  the  2  to  3  year  intervals  between  seed  years  the  mast  (following 
the  major  reproduction)  falls,  indeed,  upon  favorable  soil.  In  the  remaining  gaps  the 
young  growth  first  established  seeds  in  a  new  advance  growth  of  its  own.  Since  they 
are  but  little  different  in  age  and  seldom  suffer  from  frost,  the  trees  so  established 
close  with  the  reproduction  previously  established  to  form  a  uniform  stand,  while 
with  longer  intervals  between  two  mast  years  the  soil  becomes  overgrown  with  grass. 
The  seedlings  following  this  are  retarded  a  greater  and  greater  extent,  while  at  the  same 
time  they  suffer  continually  from  frost  and  suppression.  From  the  management 
standpoint  the  frequency  of  seed  years  and  the  favorable  climate  have  the  important 
effect  that  there  is  great  freedom  allowable  as  regards  the  time  and  manner  of  forming 
the  seeding  stage. 

Natural  reproduction  is  generally  effected  through  three  cuttings  in  a  manner  similar 
to  that  usual  in  Germany  under  G.  L.  Hartig's  system.  The  first  aims  to  bring  about 
seeding,  the  second  to  strengthen  the  young  growth  established,  the  third  the  isolation 
of  the  young  stand.  A  preparatory  cutting  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil  is  unnecessary. 
The  cutting  of  standards  {Hieb  aus  dem  Vollen),  which  has  given  such  good  results  in 
Hesse,  has  proved  satisfactory  in  France  also.  It  would  seem  that  a  preparatory 
cutting  would  be  of  value  only  for  stimulating  crown  development  and  for  effecting  a 
better  distribution  of  income.  This  object  is  better  attained,  however,  by  repeated, 
vigorous  thinnings  applied  at  the  proper  time,  which  would  in  addition  result  in  a 
lessening  of  the  long  rotation  period. 

The  first  of  the  cuttings  mentioned  (seed  cutting)  is  as  a  rule  made  when  a  mast 
has  occurred.  However,  this  first  cutting  furnishes  an  example  of  the  fact  that,  as 
we  have  seen,  under  the  favorable  conditions  prevailing,  it  is  not  necessary  to  confine 
operations  too  strictly  to  seed  years.     A  seed  cutting  had  been  made  in  a  part  of  the 


472  APPENDIX 

stand  the  year  before  our  visit  which  was  not  a  seed  year,  another  part  was  to  be  so 
treated  the  coming  year  which  gave  promise  of  a  rich  mast.  The  marking  was  of  that 
type  where  the  trees  which  are  to  be  left  standing  are  marked  at  breast  height  and 
at  the  base  with  a  marking  hammer.  This  had  been  done  some  time  before,  and  at 
the  time  of  our  visit  the  marking  had  been  completed.  Since  the  number  and  diameters 
of  the  trees  which  were  to  be  felled  were  recorded  in  printed  directions,  which  served 
as  a  basis  for  the  sale,  the  marking  and  measuring  had  to  be  done  very  accurately. 
Subsequent  variations  in  the  formation  of  the  seeding  stage,  such  as  sometimes  seem 
desirable,  are  not  permitted. 

In  making  the  seed  cutting  about  one-third  of  the  volume  of  the  stand  is  removed. 
In  good  200-year-old  stands  this  amounts  to  10,000  to  11,430  cubic  feet  per  acre.  The 
cuttings  following  this  one  are  yet  more  severe.  The  seed  cuttings  which  we  saw  had 
7,150  to  8,575  cubic  feet  per  acre  of  standing  timber.  In  mixed  stands  the  first  trees 
to  be  marked  for  cutting  are  the  beech  which  are  overtopping  the  oak  to  a  considerable 
extent  and  whose  reproduction  is  at  the  same  time  undesirable;  next  those  oaks  which 
have  poorly-formed,  one-sided,  faulty  crowns. 

As  contrasted  with  the  light-seeded  conifers  especial  value  is  placed  upon  uniform 
reproduction.  A  dense  reproduction  is  given  preference  over  a  uniform  crop  of  seed. 
Any  incidental  disadvantages  to  the  natural  advance  growth  are  not  considered.  Obser- 
vations made  on  the  light  requirements  of  young  oak  in  most  German  forest  regions 
prove  entirely  inapplicable  to  the  sites  under  consideration.  It  is  astonishing  to  what 
degree  they  are  able,  under  favorable  conditions,  to  endure  a  complete  cover  during 
the  seeding  stage.  Reproduction,  which  for  a  considerable  time  continues  to  thrive 
under  an  almost  complete  cover,  can  be  seen  in  stands  in  which  no  reproduction  cuttings 
have  been  made.  Later,  when  such  advance  growth  has  reached  a  height  of  3.3  feet 
the  thickly  crowded  young  stems  begin  to  die  off.  But  they  are  stiU  abundant  even 
after  that,  so  that  they  are  depended  upon  for  the  stocking  of  the  stand. 

The  second  cutting,  la  coupe  secondaire,  is  ordinarily  made  about  3  to  5  years  after 
the  seed  cutting.  The  young  growth  is  given  first  consideration  in  deciding  upon 
the  exact  time  for  this.  This  requires  as  vigorous  and  heavy  an  opening  up  as  the 
first  cutting  was  light.  After  that  attention  is  given  to  distributing  the  income.  There 
is  taken  out  at'this  cutting  about  half  the  volume  of  the  stand.  In  mixed  stands,  what- 
ever beech  are  still  present,  they  are  the  first  to  be  removed.  The  last  cutting,  la 
coupe  definitive  ("the  final  cutting"),  is  made  when  it  would  be  detrimental  to  the 
growth  to  leave  the  stand  any  longer. 

The  period  for  natural  reproduction  (on  such  soils)  is  10  years.  However,  when  it 
is  necessary  to  do  so,  reproduction  can  be  secured  in  an  even  shorter  time.  Great 
freedom  of  management  is  allowable  in  this  regard  because  of  the  favorable  conditions 
for  growth.  The  causes  which  under  other  conditions  indicate  a  delayed  reproduction 
cutting  are  here  absent.  Damage  from  late  and  early  frosts  is  not  to  be  feared;  and 
competition  with  weed  reproduction,  which  is  one  of  the  most  universal  and  important 
factors  considered  in  locating  cutting  operations,  can  be  endured  safely  by  the  oak  even 
from  an  age  of  3,  4,  or  5  years  and  up.  The  second  cutting  is  not  absolutely  essential; 
it  can  be  made  earlier  or  later,  or  entirely  omitted.  The  cuttings  afforded  abundant 
evidence  that  the  young  growth  shows  the  best  development  in  those  places  where  the 
stand  had  been  opened  up  quickly.  In  other  forest  regions  also  experience  indicates 
a  hastening  of  the  final  cut.  As  a  general  proposition  a  gradual  reduction  of  the  pro- 
tection afforded  by  the  stand  through  a  number  of  cuttings  (in  the  marking  of  which 
due  regard  is  given  to  the  development  of  the  seedling  oaks,  the  distribution  of  income, 
and  the  damage  caused  in  felling)  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  single  felling.  In  view  of  the 
damage  done  in  felling  and  bringing  out  the  heavy  logs,  a  longer  wait  than  10  years  is, 


GERMAN  COMMENT  ON   FRENCH  FORESTRY  473 

however,  not  to  be  recommended.  It  can  be  justified  only  by  circumstances  which  lie 
within  the  realm  of  practical  management  and  which  in  a  discussion  of  general  technical 
and  economic  principles  can  be  left  out  of  consideration. 

Under  the  favorable  conditions  of  site  in  the  forests  which  we  are  discussing  artificial 
regeneration  of  oak  stands  is  not  even  considered.  Cultural  operations  are  undertaken 
only  to  a  very  limited  extent.  Under  the  favorable  conditions  of  site  and  stand  found 
in  central  France  the  oak  behaves  just  as  the  beech  does  in  the  best  German  localities 
where  its  reproduction  likewise  occurs  to  a  sufficient  degree  without  artificial  aid. 
Wounding  the  ground  is  necessary  where  it  has  become  hardened  as  is  especially  hable 
on  the  edges  of  reproduction  (areas).  Replanting,  likewise,  is  only  occasionally  neces- 
sary. It  will,  however,  be  necessary  in  small  patches,  especially  where  loggers'  huts 
and  skid  yards  have  been  located.  For  that  purpose  2-year-old  nursery-grown  seed- 
lings are  used.  When  the  weak  stems  show  poor  growth  they  are  fastened  to  sticks. 
Under  certain  conditions  — •  but  as  far  as  we  saw,  not  very  frequently  —  the  beech 
also  is  used  for  the  artificial  completion  of  the  stand.  It  is  planted  as  2-year  seedlings. 
Such  plantings  are  the  rule  when  cuttings  of  old  oaks  are  made  in  pole  stands  such 
as  is  especially  necessary  in  stands  which  are  in  process  of  conversion  from  a  former 
coppice  with  standards  or  selection  stand.  Such  cuttings  can  be  very  profitable  finan- 
cially. In  one  oak  pole  forest  which  we  were  shown  there  were  cut  out  thirty-nine  old 
oaks  with  675  cubic  feet  which  gave  a  money  return  of  .$2,641.  The  marking  of  such 
a  cutting  is  faciUtated  by  the  general  custom  of  a  preliminary  marking  of  the  trees  to 
be  felled.  Everywhere  in  France  there  are  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  value  of 
the  oak  or  beech  of  the  same  age.  That  this  mixture  has  both  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge.  This  idea  is  definitely  substantiated 
by  the  French  forests.  Oaks  are  seen  which  continue  to  grow  faster  in  height  but 
which,  because  of  the  influence  exerted  upon  them  by  the  beech,  are  retarded  in  the 
lateral  development  of  their  crowns,  and  exhibit  a  much  weaker  growth  than  would 
be  the  case  otherwise.  On  the  other  hand  the  condition  of  mixed  stands  leaves  no 
room  for  doubt  that  the  beech,  in  moderate  mixture  exercises  a  very  favorable  in- 
fluence upon  the  condition  of  the  stand  as  a  whole.  The  boles  grow  very  clear  of  knots 
and  the  ground  is  rich  in  humus  and  free  of  weeds.  Under  the  conditions  described, 
therefore,  where  the  oak  is  readily  kept  in  the  lead  the  plan  of  even-aged  mixed  stands 
is  highly  to  be  recommended.  The  German  forest  officers  who  formed  part  of  our 
party  were  of  the  opinion  that  in  France,  where  the  conditions  for  the  oak  are  very 
favorable,  the  system  deserves  more  extensive  application. 

Of  other  planting  in  general,  the  completing  of  oak  stands  upon  poor  soil  with 
planted  or  seeded  pine  is  effected  in  a  manner  similar  to  that""  practiced  on  many 
German  operations.  Following  the  development  of  the  two  species  the  pine  either 
persists,  reduced  to  the  role  of  an  auxiliary  species  and  is  removed  early,  or  it  changes 
over  into  the  dominant  portion  of  the  forest. 

The  most  important  question  of  what  kind  of  a  comparison  can  be  made  between 
the  French  method  of  managing  oak  and  the  corresponding  practice  customary  in 
Germany  reduces  itself  to  a  question  of,  in  how  far,  relatively,  natural  reproduction, 
which  is  there  used  with  such  excellent  results,  can  find  application  under  German 
conditions.  In  France  natural  reproduction  is  usually  regarded  as  universal.  The 
handbook  of  the  Paris  E.xposition  begins  with  the  words:  "In  France  forest  silvics 
.  .  .  has  as  a  fundamental  principle  that  the  forest  ought  to  reproduce  itself  indefi- 
nitely through  its  natural  resources."  Artificial  estabhshing  of  stands  is  undertaken 
only  in  exceptional  cases,  notably  when  the  object  of  the  management  is  the  reforesta- 
tion of  mountains,  the  afforesting  of  waste  lands,  to  increase  the  timber  for  the  agri- 
culturist, the  afforestation  of  clearings,  the  introduction  of  species  which  do  not  occur 


474  APPENDIX 

in  the  stand,  "the  introduction  of  valuable  species  into  the  stands  whose  mixture  is 
unsatisfactory."  Hence,  the  French  forest  management  is  seen  to  be  in  that  position 
to  which  it  is  assigned  in  the  newer  German  literature,  especially  by  Borggreve.^ 

In  the  French  forests  which  we  visited,  natural  reproduction  was  doubtless  the 
best  method  of  establishing  the  stand.  It  demanded  a  minimum  expenditure  of  money; 
the  young  growth  grew  in  a  good  close  stand;  the  maintenance  of  that  species  best 
suited  to  the  site  is  assured.  Even  in  German  practice  natural  reproduction  has, 
under  corresponding  conditions,  been  looked  upon  as  by  far  the  preferable  method 
since  the  time  of  G.  L.  Hartig.  But  the  conditions  necessary  for  natural  reproduction 
of  the  oak  very  frequently  do  not  occur  in  Germany.  In  the  first  place  its  profitable 
application  is  impossible  because  of  the  fact  that  stands  do  not  occur  which  are  adapted 
to  the  establishing  of  seeding  compartments.  Near  young  stands  the  oak  occurs 
chiefly  as  isolated  veterans  in  pure  beech.  Stands  of  middle  age  suitable  for  repro- 
duction are  rare  in  most  of  the  larger  forest  regions.  These  are  mostly  beech  stands 
into  which  the  oak  has  been  artificially  introduced.  Next  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in 
Germany  the  chmatic  conditions  are  far  less  favorable  than  in  France,  where  optimum 
sites  are  found.  The  system  of  management  applicable,  therefore,  would  seem  to  be 
artificial  regeneration  of  the  stand  if  the  oak  is  to  be  grown  in  sufficient  quantities. 
As  having  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  status  of  the  question  under  consideration  there 
may  be  mentioned  the  excellent  stands  of  oak  reproduction  on  the  Oberforesterei  (forest) 
of  Eichelsdorf  which  were  described  before  the  Meeting  of  German  Foresters  in  Darm- 
stadt (1905)  by  Forstmeister  (Supervisor)  Trautivein,  who  has  for  many  years  been 
manager  of  that  forest.  Sowing  in  strips  not  too  far  apart  under  the  protection  of  the 
succeeding  beech-rnast  is  the  method  used  in  establishing  the  stands.  In  most  of  the 
other  southern  and  central  German  forest  regions  also,  especially  in  Spessart,  in  Nassau, 
etc.,  sowing  is  the  prevaiUng  method  of  reproduction.^  On  the  other  hand,  in  North 
Germany  natural  reproduction  can  hardly  be  considered  the  common  method.  Satis- 
factory reproduction  over  large  areas,  instead  of  merely  in  groups,  is  not  really  practi- 
cable because  of  the  scarcity  of  mast. 

The  foregoing  discussions  apply,  in  so  far  as  they  are  of  general  application,  to  other 
species  as  well  as  to  the  oak.  For  all,  natural  reproduction  is  to  be  recommended 
where  suitable  conditions  of  site  and  stand  occur,  and  where  it  is  desired  to  grow  the 
species  which  occurs  on  the  site.  With  all,  however,  a  greater  or  lesser  relation  exists 
to  the  existent  chemico-physical  and  ecological  conditions.  In  the  case  of  beech  G.  L. 
Hartig's  amount  of  reproduction  was  diminished  by  the  requirements  of  the  conver- 
sion of  the  beech  or  the  invasion  of  intolerant  species.  In  the  case  of  spruce  it  is  im- 
practicable on  many  sites  because  of  the  danger  from  storms  (windfall).  In  the  case 
of  pine  the  trials  which  have  been  made  of  natural  reproduction  have  been  very  unsatis- 
factory in  their  results.  Judging  by  our  observations,  it  seems  that,  contrary  to  the 
principles  set  forth  in  the  Handbook  of  the  Paris  Exposition  the  artificial  regeneration 
of  stands  under  French  management  is  increasing  ^  in  amount  and  importance.     It 

'^  Die  Forstreinertragslehre,  1878,  close  of  the  book  "Die  principaliter  —  man  ver- 
steherecht  —  als  Regel  verlaugte  naturliche  Verjungung  (which  chiefly  —  it  can  readily  be 
understood  —  as  a  rule  requires  natural  reproduction,"  etc.);  Die  Holzzucht,  2d  edition, 
p.  117,  Die  Naturbesamung  (Natural  seeding). 

*  Of  course,  where  suitable  conditions  of  stand  and  site  occur  (oak  seed  trees  abund- 
ant over  large  areas)  natural  reproduction  with  simple  artificial  aid  (Nachhilfe)  is  still 
a  very  satisfactory  method  of  establishing  oak.  It  is  therefore  practiced  by  preference 
and  with  good  results  by  forest  owners  with  broader  experience,  as  the  author  has  had 
opportunity  of  seeing  on  a  trip  made  some  months  ago  (August,  1906)  through  the 
Forstamt  (Forest  office)  of  Rohrbrunn  and  the  Oberforsterei  (forest)  of  Salmiinster. 

^  This  prediction  is  certainly  erroneous  now  that  labor  is  so  scarce  and  so  costly.  — 
T.  S.  W.,  Jr. 


GERMAN   COMMENT  ON   FRENCH  FORESTRY  475 

is  never  safe,  however,  to  formulate  universal  rules  for  the  establishing  of  stands  — 
on  the  contrary  account  must  always  be  taken  of  the  site  factors. 

Care  of  the  Stand,  and  Thinning.  —  In  France  due  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the 
retention  of  the  oak.  The  necessity  for  their  regular  and  continued  examination 
becomes  more  insistent  the  more  beech  takes  part  in  the  composition  of  the  stand. 
In  general,  this  is  true  to  a  greater  extent  in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  the 
country  than  in  the  southern  and  western.  In  mixed  stands  the  cleaning  axe  should 
be  applied  every  4  to  5  years.  The  disastrous  effects  of  too  long  an  interval  are  strongly 
emphasized  in  the  literature:  "In  fact  a  few  years  of  neglect  or  oversight  in  this  work, 
so  expensive  and  tiresome  to  the  force,  is  sufficient  for  irrevocably  losing  all  the  oak" 
(Boppe,  Sylviculture).  The  hornbeam  gives  little  trouble  in  mixture  with  the  oak 
because  of  its  slower  growth;  the  oak  is  always  the  faster  grower.  Wherever  this 
thrives,  however,  other  faster-growing  species  come  in,  namely,  birch  (Betula,  L.), 
aspen  {Populus,  L.),  alder  {Alnus,  Ehrb.),  round-leaved  willow  {Salix  caprea,  L.),  etc. 
At  first  valuable  as  nurse-trees  and  auxiliary  species  in  effecting  the  closing  of  the  stand, 
they  soon  become  harmful.  With  the  removal  of  softwoods  (Weichholzer)  poorly  grown 
oaks  are  likewise  disposed  of.  Because  of  the  dense  stands  and  the  favorable  site  factors 
there  is  less  of  this  work  necessary  here  than  in  many  German  forests  where  the  condi- 
tions for  the  growth  of  the  oak  as  compared  with  those  for  its  associates  are  less  favor- 
able. 

As  far  as  thinnings  are  concerned  we  are  not  aware  of  anything  which  would  indicate 
that  the  methods  are  in  any  way  different  from  those  at  present  practiced  in  most  of 
the  German  forest  regions.  The  eclair cie  par  le  haul  (thinning  in  the  upper  story), 
which  is  considered  typical  of  French  management,  was  seen  in  pure  stands  far  less 
than  had  been  anticipated.  As  in  Germany,  it  is  practiced  everywhere  in  mixed  stands. 
As  to  the  age  for  beginning  the  thinnings,  the  appearance  of  epicormic  branches  (branches 
gourmandes) ,  not  only  upon  the  suppressed  but  also  on  the  dominant  trees,  is  regarded 
as  an  indication  of  crowding  ("the  upper  story  is,  on  the  whole,  too  crowded"),  and 
therefore  enlargement  of  the  crown  space  of  standing  trees  which  are  too  much  sup- 
pressed is  indicated.  In  general  the  thinnings  are  repeated  less  frequently  than  is  con- 
sidered necessary  in  Germany.  In  the  juvenile  stage  it  is  considered  usual  to  return 
in  8  to  10  years  at  the  most;  later,  the  intervals  are  longer.  "Thinnings  are  repeated 
at  intervals  of  6  to  12  years  during  the  stages  from  sapling  (gaidis)  to  large  pole  {haul 
perchis),  that  is  from  12  to  20  years  of  age  up  to  the  size  of  standards.  ...  As 
far  as  we  have  been  able  to  determine  the  actual  practice  corresponds  to  these  theories 
in  the  literature  (Boppe).  In  the  forests  of  Belleme  and  Berce  which  we  visited 
the  working  plans  provided  for  two  thinnings  within  a  period  of  24  years.  This  plan 
was  strictly  carried  out.     Any  variation  requires  the  approval  of  the  conservator. 

The  grade  of  the  thinnings  made  in  the  forests  under  consideration  can,  in  general,  be 
designated  as  "moderate."  The  young  stands  of  oak  which  we  had  opportunity  of 
going  through  or  of  looking  at  were  denser  than  we  would  consider  desirable  for  the  oak. 
Later  on,  the  object  will  be  the  strengthening  of  the  trees  with  good  crown  development 
which  have  been  overlooked.  "The  thinnings  should  be  conducted  with  the  sole  object 
hardiment  (unhesitatingly)  of  favoring  those  trees  which  are  judged  to  be  the  best, 
gradually  giving  them  sufficient  room  for  a  free  crown  development.  They  begin  as 
soon  as  the  trees  to  be  preserved  have  been  definitely  decided  upon"  (Boppe).  In 
accordance  with  this  direction  in  French  silvicultural  literature  the  best  trees  in  the 
60-year  or  older  pole-wood  stands  shown  to  us,  which  were  to  be  favored  in  the  thinning, 
were  marked  by  white  streaks  of  paint  (Fdrbstriche).  Even  in  the  older  stands  the  cover 
is  not  to  be  appreciably  interrupted.  Therefore  the  increase  in  the  growing  space  most 
desirable  for  the  individual  tree  is  often  considerably  too  small.     ("Care  must  always 


476  APPENDIX 

be  taken  not  to  break  the  leaf  canopy.")  The  oaks  in  the  understory  should,  for  the 
most  part,  be  widely  spaced;  there  is  no  particular  need  of  keeping  them  in  the  stand 
either  for  their  sale  value  or  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil.  "The  oak  cannot  be  expected  to 
constitute  both  upper  and  lower  stories  at  the  same  time."  Just  that  much  more  pains 
is  taken  to  preserve  that  part  of  the  understory  which  is  suitable  for  soil  protection. 
The  retaining  of  such  species  wiU,  of  course,  be  considered  aU  the  more  necessary  the 
milder  the  climate  and  the  better  the  soil.  For  this  reason  it  has  been  emphatically 
directed  "to  take  particular  pains  to  leave  all  woody  undergrowth  (suppressed  trees, 
shrubs,  etc.)  which  is  capable  of  persisting  in  place  of  a  lower  story.  This  lower  story 
must  never  be  touched  in  making  cuttings."  Only  when  preparing  for  reproduction  is 
the  understory  to  be  removed. 

In  stands  where  beech  occurs  in  the  mixture  the  thinnings  retain  the  character  of 
cleanings  from  the  sapling  age  well  up  into  the  higher  pole-wood  and  standard  classes. 
("During  this  long  period  the  thinnings  must  always  take  the  form  of  liberation  cuttings 
if  the  successive  crowding  out  of  all  the  oaks  is  to  be  avoided.")  In  general,  however, 
the  raising  of  mixed  stands  of  beech  and  oak  of  approximately  the  same  age  presents  no 
difficulty  if  at  the  time  of  the  regeneration  the  faster  growth  of  the  oak  is  encouraged. 
Owing  to  the  chmatic  conditions  this  proposition  is  entirely  feasible.  In  the  northern 
part  of  the  country  the  conditions  are  different.  It  has  been  established  that  here  the 
beech  is  a  faster  grower  than  the  oak  at  all  ages.  For  such  stands,  therefore,  the  mixing 
of  the  two  species  by  distinct  groups,  is  directed.  ("These  difficulties  are  overcome  by 
practicing  regeneration  in  compartments  in  which  each  species,  maintained  in  a  pure 
stand  .  .  .  receives  proper  care  throughout  its  entire  life.")  In  France  an  inten- 
tional underwood,  through  which  the  needs  and  requirements  of  both  species  can  best 
be  met,  is  seldom  formed.  The  special  cases  mentioned  of  the  underplanting  of  open 
spaces  in  the  stand  are  not,  in  our  estimation,  to  be  looked  upon  as  examples  of  forming 
an  underwood.  This  also  is  denounced  in  the  hterature.  At  least  Boppe  refers  to  the 
Bavarian  (Spessart  and  the  Palatinate)  system  of  forming  an  underwood  as  a  local 
peculiarity. 

The  earlier  operations  of  thinnings  can  best  be  understood  from  the  present  condition 
of  neighboring  older  stands.  An  examination  of  these  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  in 
France  as  in  most  German  States  thinnings  have  not  been  conducted  in  strict  accordance 
with  the  needs  of  the  management.  The  formation  of  stands  as  described  above  — 
with  a  volume  of  11,430  to  14,290  cubic  feet  per  acre,  a  clear  length  of  65  feet  and  a 
diameter  of  20  inches  —  was  effected  by  moderate  thinnings. 

HIGH  FOREST   REGULATION  ^ 

As  admirably  as  the  management  of  the  French  State  and  administered  forests  is  ex- 
hibited in  everything  which  relates  to  the  technical  side  of  the  subject  (estabhshment  and 
care  of  stands,  thinnings,  felling  operations,  etc.)  the  conditions  of  the  forest  organiza- 
tion and  the  regulation  of  revenue  will  meet  with  but  little  favor  in  the  eyes  of  the  Ger- 
man visitor.  We  did  not,  on  the  present  trip,  see  any  operations  from  which  the  methods 
of  regulating  income  and  the  form  it  should  take  could  be  judged.  But  the  principles 
of  the  forest  regulation  were  so  evident  in  the  condition  of  the  stands  and  from  the 
economic  maps  that  we  could  get  an  idea  of  them  even  without  the  working  plans  of  the 
general  form  of  those  which  may  be  seen  for  the  State  forests.  The  most  important 
consideration  characteristic  of  the  French  forest  regulation  has  to  do  with  the  local  estab- 
lishment of  the  working  groups  and  the  choosing  of  the  places  where  cuttings  are  to  be 
made,  with  which  there  must  at  the  same  time  be  combined  an  establishment  of  the 
rotation  period. 

7  Forstwissenschaftliches  Centralblatt,  1908,  pp.  530-47. 


GERMAN   COMMENT  ON   FRENCH  FORESTRY  477 

Local  Establishment  of  Working  Groups.  —  The  French  State  and  State-admin- 
istered forests  are  divided  into  "series"  (working  groups).  These  are  adjacent  areas 
with  hke  markets  and  requirements  for  continued  management,  which  frequently  corre- 
spond to  Schutzbezirken  (triages)  (protection  forests).  They  are  somewhat  similar  to 
the  Prussian  Bloken.  "By  series  or  working  group  is  understood  a  portion  of  the  forest 
which  is  designated  to  be  placed  under  a  special  working  plan  ^  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  which  it  will  form  a  series  of  annual  cuttings."  There  is  a  further  division 
into  sections  which  correspond  somewhat  to  the  German  Beiriebsklassen  (working  units). 
"By  section  is  understood  a  portion  of  the  forest  which  is  distinguished  from  the  rest  of 
the  forest  (surplus)  by  the  method  of  management  (taillis,  futaie  reguliere,  futaie  jardinee, 
etc.,  coppice,  even-aged  high  forest,  selection  high  forest,  etc.)."  The  working  units 
are  subdivided  into  "affectations"  which  are  the  same  as  our  Periodenfldchen  (periodic 
blocks).  In  the  forest  of  Belleme  which  we  visited  there  had  been  established  eight 
periodic  blocks  of  25  years. 

In  locating  the  working  units  the  French  aim  has  been,  as  far  as  practicable,  to  so 
place  the  affectations  that  they  will  form  an  uninterrupted  whole,  and  not  be  separated 
from  one  another  by  bodies  of  other  periodic  blocks.  The  idea  of  consolidating  the  areas 
of  periodic  blocks  has  been  developed  in  France  probably  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  any 
other  country.  That  there  are  efforts  to  effect  this  is  indicated  by  L.  Tassy,  conservateur 
de  forets  (conservator  of  forests).  It  is  very  characteristic  of  the  French  system  of 
management,  and  we  will  therefore  translate  verbatim.  The  location  of  age-classes  and 
felling  series  is  given  by  Tassy  »  as  follows : 

"1.   From  the  viewpoint  of  the  progress  of  the  cuttings  in  that  periodic  block. 

"2.   From  the  viewpoint  of  the  relative  position  of  the  periodic  blocks. 

"While  the  progress  of  the  cuttings  in  each  periodic  block  should  be  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  cutting  series,  it  is  at  the  same  time  desirable  that  the  felling  areas 
have  a  regular  form  so  that  they  shall  present  the  narrower  side  to  the  most  violent 
winds,  so  that  they  may  be  traversed  and  bounded  by  rides  but  especially  that  they  may 
form  separate  and  distinct  blocks.  I  especially  recommend  that  a  periodic  block" never 
be  broken  up  unless  there  are  very  especial  reasons  (motifs  majeurs)  for  it.  The  continuity 
(contaquite)  of  the  several  compartments  constituting  a  periodic  block  is  expedient,  not 
alone  for  the  orderly  regulation  of  cutting  series,  but  also  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
economic  results  of  the  working  plan." 

The  regulation  of  the  French  State  forests  is  conducted  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciples here  set  down.  The  periodic  blocks  are  systematically  grouped  on  the  maps  and 
in  the  field.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  it  is  frequently  utterly  impossible  to  adhere 
strictly  to  the  system  of  such  continuous  periodic  block  without  a  great  sacrifice  of  growth 
and  a  decided  variation  from  the  time  of  maturity.  To  avoid  serious  loss  in  this  latter 
regard  the  management  often  seems  to  leave  unused  younger  stands  within  the  periodic 
block  in  the  several  periodic  blocks.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  stands  of  a  later 
periodic  block  will,  under  certain  conditions,  be  brought  to  reproduction.  In  the 
high  oak  forests  which  we  saw  there  were  seed  and  removal  cuttings  in  periodic  blocks 
1  and  2. 

The  importance  to  the  management  in  all  the  larger  adjacent  forests  as  to  whether  and 
how  far  the  age  classes  shall  be  considered  in  making  divisions  for  the  regulation  of  in- 
come is  not  to  be  minimized.  Such  a  grouping  of  periodic  blocks  as  described  by  Tassy 
and  actually  practiced  in  France  results  in  too  extensive  reproduction  cuttings  and  too 
great  areas  of  the  same  age  class.  Its  practice  will  result  in  conditions  similar  to  those 
formerly  frequent  in  most  of  the  German  forests.     In  virgin  forests  similar  stands  are 

^  L.  Tassy,  Etudes  sur  V amenagement  des  forets  (Studies  on  the  Organization  of 
Forests),  p.  .385. 

9  Tassy  is  rather  out  of  date.     Dr.  Martin  should  have  consulted  Huffel. 


478  APPENDIX 

always  formed  under  like  conditions  of  site.  G.  L.  Hartig  "  himself  noted  this  tendency. 
The  areas  of  natural  reproduction  which  he  established  have,  because  of  the  infrequency 
of  seed  years  combined  with  a  lack  of  systematic  distribution,  often  resulted  in  extensive 
even-aged  stands.  The  first  result  of  increasing  artificial  regeneration  has  been  a  clear- 
cut  systematic  arrangement  of  stands  according  to  species  and  age  classes. 

As  is  well  known,  the  opposite  system  to  the  French  plan  with  its  establishing  of  age 
classes,  is  practiced  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  The  formation  of  short  cutting  series 
has  for  a  long  time  been  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  Saxon  management.  Judeich,  in 
his  writings,  emphasized  its  superiority;  the  establishment  of  Saxon  forest  organization 
put  it  into  practice.  To  promote  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  working  groups 
there  were  deliberately  made  severance  cuttings  and  felhngs  which  were  intended  to 
make  possible  the  independent  management  of  areas  located  near  one  another.  In  the 
boundaries  of  surveying,  and  regulating  the  Austrian  State  and  institution  (Fond-) 
forests,  also  the  establishing  of  short  cutting  series  is  emphasized. 

Which,  then,  of  the  two  opposed  systems  is  right,  or,  since  both  have  weaknesses,  the 
better?  In  Germany  the  French  system  has  rarely  been  developed  to  such  an  extent 
as  the  visitor  to  the  French  forests  finds  it.  In  the  main  the  degree  of  maturity  is  given 
first  consideration  in  the  location  of  the  cutting  areas.  The  strict  regard  for  the  maturity 
leads  to  the  maintenance  of  the  existing  form  of  the  stand .  The  beginning  of  maturity, 
however,  and,  to  a  yet  greater  extent,  the  actual  time  of  overmaturity  of  individual 
stands  allow  of  more  or  less  extension.  Many  stands  could,  without  seriously  interfer- 
ing with  the  economic  results,  be  changed  one  or  two  periods  one  side  or  the  other.  A 
fixed  policy,  therefore,  of  separating  or  combining  stands  at  the  time  of  regeneration  is 
inapplicable  even  in  German  practice. 

If  we  investigate  the  rules  for  establishing  stands  which  must,  in  the  direction  proposed, 
be  considered  the  most  weighty  the  French  system  does  not  give  a  very  favorable  im- 
pression. There  are  always  certain  dangers  connected  with  the  grouping  of  even-aged 
stands,  in  coniferous  forests  at  least.  Many  insects,  the  Maybug  (Maikdfer)  in  par- 
ticular, appear  in  greater  numbers.  The  increased  fire  danger  is  yet  more  prominent. 
The  relation  of  the  stands  to  storms  must,  however,  be  regarded  as  the  fundamental 
and  general  basis  for  deciding  the  proposed  question  of  retaining  the  stands.  And  even 
in  this  respect  we  can  concede  no  superiority  to  the  French  system,  at  least  not  when 
natural  reproduction  is  relied  upon,  which,  as  the  Handbook  of  the  Exposition  empha- 
sizes, is  regarded  as  the  rule  in  France.  No  other  form  of  silvicultural  management  is 
so  destructively  visited  by  storms  as  large  symmetrically  arranged  reproduction  cuttings. 
The  danger  from  storms  is  especially  great  in  the  case  of  old  stands,  as  in  the  oak  and  fir 
stands  of  the  French  State  forests  in  which  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  strengthen  the  trees 
through  reproduction  cuttings,  and  to  accustom  them  to  a  subsequent  open  position.  As 
a  matter ^of  fact  damage  by  storm  has  recently  occurred  to  a  very  considerable  extent  in 
forests  managed  in  accordance  with  the  French  method  of  regulating  forest  organization. 
The  wind-breakage  in  oak  reproduction  cuttings  under  the  mild  conditions  of  the  Loire 
plains  has  already  been  mentioned.  In  the  fir  stands  in  the  Vosges  such  severe  storm 
damage  has  occurred  of  late  that  many  forest  owners  are  no  longer  willing  to  concede 
the  fir  any  superiority  over  the  spruce  as  far  as  resistance  to  wind  throw  is  concerned. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  employment  of  clear  cutting  there  is  rather  more  to  be 
said  in  favor  of  the  French  system.     If  the  principal  face  presented  to  the  prevailing 

^^  In  the  Instruktion  of  1819,  in  which  (p.  20)  we  find:  "Since  the  plan  for  the  artificial 
regulation  of  forests  must  be  so  arranged  so  that  the  compartments  decided  upon  for 
every  periodic  block  shall  close  on  one  another  as  fast  as  possible,  it  is  necessary 
.  .  .  {Da  der  Plan  zur  kunftigen  Beivirtschaftung  des  Forstes  so  eingerichtet  werden 
musz,  dasz  die  fiir  jede  Periode  zum  abtrieb  bestimmten  Jagen  soviet  wie  moglich  sich 
einander  schlieszen,  so  musz     .     .     .     )." 


GERMAN   COMMENT   ON   FRENCH  FORESTRY  479 

storms  were  equally  well  protected  in  the  case  of  large  and  small  cuttings,  differences  in 
the  conduct  of  the  storm  which  are  due  to  other  causes  would  be  apparent.  In  the  case 
of  a  large  number  of  small  cuttings  there  are  formed  more  openings  in  the  stand  in  which 
a  storm  can  attack.  However,  there  are  many  other  serious  results  of  larger  cuttings 
which  become  evident  by  trial.  Many  insects  appear  in  destructive  numbers.  The 
damage  from  weeds,  frost,  and  heat  is  greater  the  larger  the  cuttings.  For  tender  species 
which  grow  slowly  in  the  juvenile  stage  it  is  an  acknowledged  principle  of  management 
to  avoid  large  clear  cuttings. 

The  method  of  managing  the  Saxon  State  forests  seems  much  better  in  this  regard. 
It  has  the  great  advantage  that  the  cuttings  are  kept  small  and  gradually  arranged  to- 
gether in  rows.  The  young  growth  has  the  benefit  of  the  protection  from  the  standing 
trees.  In  relation  to  market  conditions,  also,  and  other  factors  which  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  practical  management,  the  method  of  small  cuttings  with  the 
possibility  of  a  change  in  the  manner  of  utilization  is  a  desideratum.  As  far  as  storms 
are  concerned  the  superiority  claimed  for  the  Saxon  method  by  its  advocates  is  not  to 
be  accepted  without  qualification.  If  the  direction  is  known  from  which  destructive 
storms  are  .to  be  expected  in  the  future  it  is  possible  to  protect  the  stand  by  means 
of  the  methods  of  felling  and  making  severance  cuttings  which  are  peculiar  to  the  Saxon 
system.  But  this  cannot  be  determined.  Storm  statistics  "  recently  published  show 
that  even  easterly  storms  have  frequently  done  considerable  damage.  If,  in  spite  of 
this  fact,  future  efforts  in  forest  management  shall  still  be  directed  to  protecting  against 
westerly  storms  as  far  as  possible,  the  chance  of  damage  by  storms  coming  from  the 
opposite  direction  must  also  be  reckoned  with.  Openings  made  in  the  stand  by  sever- 
ance cuttings  and  fellings  for  the  strengthening  of  borders  exposed  to  western  winds 
would,  however,  appear  hazardous.  The  undesirable  consequences  which  may  be 
bound  up  with  a  system  of  severance  cuttings  are  truly  pointed  out  by  the  advocates 
of  the  Saxon  method  of  managing  State  forests.  Oberforster  (Supervisor)  August  a 
few  years  ago  wrote  an  article  on  the  effect  of  southeast  storms  in  the  Olbernhau  Revier 
(range)  (Erzgebirge) .  He  made  the  comment  that:  "The  damage  (which  the  south- 
east storms  have  caused)  would  not  be  so  great  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact  that  on  the 
Olbernhau  Revier  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  Saxon  method  of  forest  management, 
the  creation  of  a  large  number  of  short  cutting  series,  had  been  practically  attained. 
Over  large  areas  cuttings  have  been  made  in  every  division  {Abteilung)  within  a  decade; 
and  as  desirable  as  these  are  for  establishing  regeneration  areas,  for  replanting,  etc.,  yet 
in  this  case  many  reproduction  cuttings  begun  at  the  eastern  side  have  proved  dis- 
astrous." The  relation  that  tearing  the  stand  to  pieces  bears  to  damage  by  storms  can- 
not be  more  strikingly  presented.  It  is  to  be  added,  however,  that  the  damage  caused 
by  storm  under  the  Saxon  management  will  never  have  such  great  dimensions  as  is  the 
case  under  the  French  method  of  making  cuttings.  Any  careful  investigation  will 
substantiate  this.  Communications  from  Saxony  have  often  confessed  to  damage  from 
storms.  But  their  effects  are  on  a  smaller  scale  than  in  the  Vosges  and  other  forest 
regions  with  extensive  homogeneous  areas  of  veteran  forest.  The  favorable  results  of 
Saxon  management  are  not  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  physiological  characteristics  of 
the  species  —  in  Saxony  the  non-storm-resisting  spruce  predominates  —  but  by  the 
conditions  of  growth  secured  by  the  forest  organization. 

If  the  foregoing  arguments  are,  in  the  main,  susceptible  of  proof,  yet  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  in  this,  as  in  most  other  forest  regions,  the  extremes  are  necessarily  the 
best  methods.  The  proper  economic  management  is  often  to  be  found  nearer  the  mean. 
The  French  method  of  grouping  must  be  unconditionally  discarded.  But  even  in  regard 
to  too  strict  a  separation  of  age  classes  it  is  worth  while  making  the  observations  men- 

11  Bargmann,  Allgem.     Forst-  and  Jagdzeitung,  1904,  p.  84. 


480  APPENDIX 

tioned.  The  most  essential  definite  problems  of  practice  have  to  do  with  establishing 
the  imiversal  fundamentals  through  the  application  of  which  there  will  be  effected  a 
greater  safety  of  the  system  from  damage  by  storms.  These  rest,  first  of  all,  upon  the 
way  in  which  the  forest  is  divided  up  for  management.  In  mountainous  regions,  with 
spruce  predominating,  where  the  sequence  of  the  cuttings  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
divisions  must  be  based  on  the  topography.  Natural  features  —  not  only  main  ridges 
and  valleys,  but  also  the  secondary  ridges  where  the  slopes  change  their  direction  — ■ 
afford  the  best  boundaries  for  the  fixed  working  division  (Wirtschaftsfiguren),  and  for  the 
cutting  series.  In  many  cases  cuttings  have  to  progress  away  from  them  in  both  direc- 
tions. In  broken  [kupiert)  topography  the  extension  of  uniform  working  groups  will 
often  be  definitely  prescribed  by  the  relations  of  the  topographic  features.  In  level 
country  a  good  network  of  rides  with  their  principal  direction  northeast  —  southwest  or 
eastwest  has  the  same  effect.  A  good  distribution  not  only  facilitates  the  breaking  up 
of  larger  areas  but  also  constitutes  the  best  framework  for  similar  grouping  into  manage- 
able working  areas.  The  second  method  of  reducing  the  danger  consists  of  the  estab- 
lishing of  suflficiently  broad  division  fines.  Only  rides  of  sufficient  width  are  suitable  for 
forming  belts  which  shall  be  sufficient  for  protecting  the  stands  against  storm.  It 
should  be  noted  in  this  connection  that  the  extension  of  these  increases  the  area  of  un- 
productive soil.  However,  it  must  be  remembered  that  many  of  these  will  be  changed 
to  the  character  of  roads,  and  some,  at  least,  of  the  rest  used  for  dragging  up  and  piling 
the  wood.  Broad  rides  serve,  also,  as  a  means  of  protection,  especially  for  the  preven- 
tion and  fighting  of  fires.  For  feeding  grounds  for  game,  also,  and  for  the  raising  of 
grass  and  straw  for  the  use  of  those  who  work  in  the  woods,  rides  are  valuable  only  when 
of  sufficient  breadth. 

Silvicultural  measures  are  another  instrument  of  forest  organization  or  regulation 
which  can  be  used  for  placing  the  stand  upon  a  firm  basis.  All  injuries  due  to  the  mani- 
festations of  inanimate  nature  will  be  aggravated  by  unsymmetrically  developed  roots 
and  twigs,  as  well  as  by  long  clear  length.  Everything  which  works  for  a  symmetrical 
development  of  the  roots  and  against  a  long  clear  length  renders  the  stands  more  capable 
of  resisting  storms  and  their  consequences.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  selec- 
tion of  good  individuals  for  planting,  the  restoring  of  regular  spacing,  timely  decision 
upon  severer  thinnings,  and  careful  closing  of  the  borders  of  the  stand.  By  the  employ- 
ment of  such  measures  there  will  be  a  far  greater  certainty  of  the  stands  surviving  than 
there  can  ever  be  under  the  French  system  of  grouping  age  classes  together. 

Determination  of  the  Cut,  and  the  Rotation  Period.  —  The  most  general  and 
important  problem  of  working  plans  is  the  determination  of  the  yield.  The  basis  for 
this  has  an  intimate  connection  with  studies  of  maturity  which  are  always  of  significance 
in  choosing  the  type  of  management  and  the  direction  it  shall  take.  Dependent  upon  it, 
also,  is  the  amount  of  forest  capital  which  is  regarded  as  normal  and  which  it  is  desired 
to  estabhsh.  No  other  subject  is  of  more  importance  for  the  condition  of  the  French 
State  forest  policy  and  the  directions  it  will  take. 

In  the  forests  of  Belleme  and  Berce  the  rotation  period  has  been  fixed  at  200  years. 
Eight  periodic  blocks  of  25  years  each  have  been  formed.  The  actual  utilization  amounts 
in  the  6,000-acre  forest  of  Belleme  to  173,050  to  282,525  cubic  feet  in  all,  an  average 
of  28.6  and  46.0  cubic  feet,  respectively,  per  acre.  This  on  good  soil  and  with  the 
good  condition  of,  the  stands,  which  were  about  120  feet  high,  is  a  very  conservative 
cut,  far  short  of  the  annual  increment.  The  effects  of  this  exceedingly  conservative 
management  applied  for  long  periods  are  clearly  evidenced  in  the  condition  of  the  stands. 
The  trees  are  full-boled  and  of  great  cubic  contents.  The  thinnings,  however,  are  far 
more  moderate  than  is  necessary  with  the  conditions  of  growth  which  have  been  de- 
scribed (good  soil  and  mild  climate  with  a  long  vegetative  period) . 


GERMAN   COMMENT   ON   FRENCH   FORESTRY  481 

No  basis  for  the  rotation  period  in  the  forest  under  discussion  has  been  described  by 
the  advocates  of  the  French  State  forest  policy,  at  least  not  definitely  enough  to  be 
repeated  here.  We  can  get  an  idea  of  it  only  from  the  condition  of  the  stand  and  the 
information  given  in  the  literature.  Tassy/^  discusses  the  determination  of  the  cutting 
age  {exploilahilite)  in  the  following  words:  "The  volume  of  the  wood  which  has  been 
produced,  its  economic  value  {utilite),  its  sale  value  {valeur  venale),  and  the  ratio  between 
its  value  and  that  of  the  capital  from  which  it  comes  are  the  various  factors  which, 
individually  or  collectively,  must  be  borne  in  mind  if  it  is  desired  to  make  the  greatest 
profit  from  the  management  of  the  forest.  These  several  factors  correspond  to  four 
objects  of  management:  First,  management  for  the  greatest  volume  production;  second, 
that  for  the  highest  technical  value;  third,  that  for  the  greatest  money  revenue;  fourth, 
that  for  the  largest  interest  on  the  investment."  As  is  everywhere  the  case,  the  rotation 
periods  in  the  French  forest  management,  as  well,  are  dependent  upon  the  progress  of 
volume  and  value  increment  and  the  interest  paid  on  the  forest  capital.  The  question 
of  rotation  periods  in  France  cannot  be  understood  and  discussed  further  without 
entering  into  discussion  of  the  peculiar  conditions  whose  influence  upon  the  condition 
of  the  forest  is  nowhere  more  pronounced  than  here  (a  fact  which  is  not  brought  out 
in  the  foregoing  quotation). 

(a)    VOLUME    INCREMENT 

This  is  everjrwhere  a  fundamental  determining  factor  of  the  length  of  the  rotation 
period.  G.  L.  Hartig's  teaching,  that  upon  given  areas  there  is  always  a  maximum 
increment  which  should  be  produced,  may  always  be  accepted  as  essentially  correct. 
Even  if  the  value  of  the  product  and  the  interest  paid  on  the  capital  be  taken  into 
consideration  yet  the  volume  increment  is  still  an  essential  determining  factor.  If 
it  be  reduced  the  volume  and  value  of  the  product  from  which  revenue  is  obtained  will 
likewise  both  suffer  a  diminution. 

The  mean  increment  {accroissement  moyen)  is  looked  upon  as  that  which  shall  decide 
the  age  of  maturity  under  the  French  system  of  forest  management.  "The  rotation 
period  giving  the  greatest  volume  production  (exploitabilite  absolue)  is  indicated  by 
the  age  at  which  the  greatest  mean  increment  is  produced."  According  to  that  the 
proper  rotation  age  occurs  in  that  period  when  the  current  increment  is  faUing  off.  It 
corresponds  to  that  age  when  the  current  increment  is  equal  to  the  mean  increment. 

We  have  but  little  definite  information  which  bears  upon  the  problem  of  current  incre- 
ment or  upon  the  principles  of  mean  increment.  In  the  forest  region  of  Belleme  and 
Berce  exact  studies  were  available  chiefly  for  a  200-year-old  oak  stand  with  an  admix- 
ture of  a  few  beeches  and  a  ground  cover  of  young  beech,  giving  its  increment  and 
previous  utilization.  The  number  of  trees  per  hectare  amounted  to  198  (80  per  acre), 
the  volume  of  wood  larger  than  28  inches  at  the  small  end  (Derbholz)  13,875  cubic  feet 
per  acre.  The  actual  utilization  is  given  as  6,200  cubic  feet  per  acre,  the  total  possible 
as  20,080  cubic  feet  per  acre.  According  to  this  the  mean  increment  amounts  to  96 
cubic  feet  per  acre.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  actual  volume  production  was  greater 
because  during  the  200-year  period  it  is  very  likely  that  wood  was  utilized  of  which 
partial  or  no  accounts  were  kept. 

The  current  increment  in  stands  more  than  200  years  old  has  doubtless  heretofore 
not  been  determined  because  of  the  faUing  off  in  growth  occurring  at  this  time.  The 
principal  cause  of  this  falling  off  is  evidently  the  abundant  flower-  and  seed-production. 
Otherwise  the  plant  foods  of  the  soil  are  completely  utilized  by  the  roots,  and  the  air 
space  by  the  crowns;  hence  any  very  great  reduction  in  that  increment  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  site  is  not  to  be  expected.     This  supposition  is  substantiated  by  studies 

12 1,  c.  Deuxieme  etude:  de  V exploitabilite  (Second  article:  on  the  age  of  maturity). 


482  APPENDIX 

made  on  test  trees  from  time  to  time  during  the  course  of  our  trip.  These  indicate 
that  for  a  dominant  tree  with  annual  rings  0.04  inch  in  breadth  there  is  an  annual 
increment  of  0.9.  According  to  this  the  current  annual  increment  at  present  amounts 
to  130  cubic  feet  per  acre  and  if  that  proportion  holds  true  for  only  three-quarters  the 
volume  of  the  stand  —  the  dominant  trees  —  to  (in  round  numbers)  100  cubic  feet 
per  acre. 

This  is  almost  the  same  as  that  which  is  determined  from  complete  volume  tables 
and  yield  statistics  as  the  mean  annual  increment.  The  two  kinds  of  increment  are 
seen  —  contrary  to  the  commonly  accepted  belief  —  at  the  age  of  200  years  to  be  at  the 
point  of  crossing  and  agreement. 

If  the  foregoing  propositions^cannot,  because  of  the  lack  of  sufficient  data,  be  definitely 
proven,  yet  enough  observations  have  been  made  to  justify  the  conclusion  that  the 
current  annual  increment  of  the  oak  under  the  existing  conditions  of  the  site  and  the 
indicated  character  of  the  stands  exhibits  a  uniform  dechne.  The  faUing  off  in  current 
annual  increment  has  taken  place  very  gradually;  far  more  gradually  than  most  yield 
tables  indicate  for  German  forests,  where  the  oak  is  much  less  crowded  in  the  older  age 


To  a  yet  greater  extent  is  this  evident  in  the  case  of  mean  annual  increment.  This, 
in  the  case  above  cited,  has  not  changed  appreciably  for  a  full  century.  That  sort  of 
maturity  known  as  exploitabilite  absolue  gives  entirely  too  indefinite  results,  in  that 
account;  it  may  be  placed  at  as  early  an  age  as  80  years  or  as  late  as  200. 

(6)    QUALITY   INCREMENT 

Of  greater  importance  than  the  volume  incfement  as  a  determining  factor  of  the 
age  of  maturity  is  the  value  increment.  The  French  management  shows  conclusively 
that  in  their  own  forests  especial  importance  is  attached  to  the  production  of  good  quality 
of  product.  The  less  private  individuals  are  inclined  to  grow  heavy  timber,  the  more 
does  the  State  find  itself  confronted  with  the  necessity  of  producing  this  economically 
indispensable  product.  The  best  way  to  get  an  idea  of  the  progressive  increase  in  value 
is  to  study  the  average  prices  paid  for  wood  where  the  trees  of  varying  size  are  valued 
separately.     The  approximate  selling  price  of  trees  of  various  girths  are  as  follows: 

Trees  of  200  cm.  circumference  (65  cm.  diameter),  65  francs  per  cu.  m." 

Trees  of  100-200  cm.  circumference  (33-36  cm.  diameter),  45  francs  per  cu.  m. 

Trees  under  100  cm.  circumference  (under  33  cm.  diameter),  30  francs  per  cu.  m. 

These  classes  are  too  indefinite  to  afford  any  precise  idea  of  the  value  increment. 
They  show,  however,  that  the  increase  in  value  bears  a  direct  relation  to  the  increase 
in  size.  Trees  whose  diameter  increases  from  20  to  24  inches  increase  in  value  about 
40  per  cent.  With  annual  rings  0.05  inch  in  width  about  35  years  are  required  to 
produce  a  diameter  increment  of  3.9  inches.  Hence  the  yearly  increase  in  value  can 
be  placed  at  a  good  1  per  cent. 

(c)    THE    INTEREST    PAID   ON   THE    GROWING   STOCK 

It  is  not  really  possible  to  fix  the  length  of  the  rotation  period  intelligently  without 
a  study  of  the  economic  principles  upon  which  the  practice  is  based.     The  kernel  of 

13  According  to  Schwappach's  yield  tables : 
On  first  quality  site  at 

the  age  of 60     80    100    120    140    160    ISO   200 

The  current  annual   in-  ]  Wood  more  than 

crement  amounts  to .  .  10.2  9.2  6.8  5.2  4.6  3.8  3.4  2.8  m.^  7  cm.  in  diameter 
The  mean  annual  incre-  |  at  the  small  end 

ment 4.6    5.9   6.3    6.2    6.0    5.8    5.5    5 . 3  m.^ ]  (Derbholz) 

"26-inch  trees,  $12.55;  13-26-inch  trees,  $8.70;  under  13-inch  trees,  $5.80. 


GERMAN   COMMENT  ON   FRENCH   FORESTRY  483 

this  in  its  practical  bearing  is  expressed  in  the  questions  of  whether  and  how  high  a 
rate  of  interest  should  be  expected  on  the  forest  capital  invested.  This  question  is, 
indeed,  thoroughly  discussed  in  the  French  literature.  Its^treatment  is  of  particular 
interest  to  the  German  forest  owner,  who  is  occupied  with  the  theory  of  net  income. 
A  very  clear  discussion  of  the  theoretical  and  practical  problems  and  objects  of  the 
same  is  given  by  Tassy,  I.  c.  He  lays  special  emphasis  on  the  nature  of  forest  capital, 
offers  explanations  of  the  differences  which  exist  in  the  relation  of  revenue  to  value  of 
the  wood  in  comparison  with  other  branches  of  domestic  economy,  and  advances  the 
following  propositions:  "The  rotation  period  which  gives  the  greatest  interest  on  the 
investment  is  almost  always  shorter  than  that  which  corresponds  to  the  greatest  mean 
annual  increment.  The  less  valuable  the  species  concerned  and  the  less  likelihood  there 
is  of  its  increasing  in  technical  value  and  in  price  as  it  grows  older,  the  earlier  does 
this  age  occur.  The  lower  the  rate  of  interest  the  more  closely  does  the  rotation  yield- 
ing the  greatest  interest  correspond  to  the  rotation  which  produces  the  most  valuable 
product."  As  opposed  to  this  idea,  however,  it  should  be  noted  that  not  the  greatest, 
but  a  suitable  interest  on  the  forest  working  capital  is  demanded  by  the  German  advo- 
cates of  the  theory  of  net  returns. 

From  these  three  propositions  are  drawn  definite  policies  for  economic  management 
{I.  c).  Among  these  it  is  of  special  interest  to  note  that  by  proper  thinning  the  age 
of  maturity  is  advanced  while  at  the  same  time  the  production  of  the  stands  is  increased, 
and  that  the  capital,  upon  which  the  income  is  dependent,  is  diminished  by  the  same. 
The  increasing  value  of  timbers  justifies  more  intensive  utilization.  The  question  of 
underwood  and  the  increased  length  of  rotation  are  justified  by  that  fact.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  rate  of  interest  is  exhibited  in  the  fact  that  a  reduction  of  it  results 
in  a  longer  financial  rotation  in  such  a  way,  however,  that  the  rotation  period  corre- 
sponding to  the  highest  mean  value  increment,  and  that  corresponding  to  the  greatest 
net  revenue  are  equal  only  when  the  rate  of  interest  is  equal  to  zero. 

In  spite  of  the  simplicity  and  clarity  of  the  arguments  whose  chief  points  have  been 
rehearsed,  no  adequate  basis  can  be  derived  from  the  literature  cited,  for  the  rotation 
period  which  can  be  considered  correct  for  a  given  forest  region  and  given  species. 
The  examples  cited  rest  mainly  upon  hypothetical  suppositions;  they  give  very  in- 
definite results.  The  first  of  these  three  propositions,  namely,  that  the  rotation  corre- 
sponding to  the  maximum  yield  culminates  just  before  the  culmination  of  the  mean 
annual  increment,  allows  very  wide  variation.  For  the  maximum  mean  annual  incre- 
ment occurs,  as  has  been  mentioned  under  (a)  not  at  any  one  definite  age,  but  somewhere 
within  a  long  period  comprising  or  exceeding  an  entire  century. 

More  definite  inferences  as  to  the  rotation  period  for  the  French  State  forests  can  be 
drawn  from  the  actual  condition  of  the  forests  themselves  than  from  the  Hterature. 
The  oak  stands  under  consideration,  in  the  forests  of  Belleme  and  Berce  as  well  as  the 
stands  of  fir  in  the  Vosges,  can  serve  as  admirable  examples  from  which  to  deduce  more 
definite  economic  principles.  Both  are  typical  of  the  kind  of  stand  to  which  a  consistent 
observance  of  the  principles  of  the  greatest  net  forest  revenue  or  of  the  greatest  mean 
value  increment  will  lead;  moderate  degree  of  thinning,  dense  stocking,  long  rotation 
period.  The  volume  and  value  resulting  from  this  system  are  of  a  definite  amount. 
Restricted  to  the  revenue  at  maturity  the  mean  value  increment  of  the  stands  men- 
tioned, which  consists  of  34,255  cubic  feet  valued  at  40  francs  ($7.70),  amounts  to 
39,000  -f-  210  =  (in  round  numbers)  180  francs  per  hectare  (|14  per  acre) ;  this  is  one 
of  the  highest  which  has  hitherto  resulted  under  management  anywhere,  or  been  ex- 
tensively described.  The  figures  given  above,  however,  indicate  that,  in  spite  of  this, 
the  mean  value  increment  has  not  yet  attained  its  maximum.  Even  when  the  annual 
volume  increment  amounts  to  only  0.5  per  cent,  and  the  annual  increase  in  value  like- 


484  APPENDIX 

wise  to  only  0.5  per  cent  the  stands,  if  they  remain  uncut,  increase  in  value  in  a  larger 

39  000 
ratio  than  is  indicated  by  the  increase  in  age.     The  numerator  of  the  fraction      '        , 

which  represents  the  mean  annual  value  increment,  at  that  per  cent  increases  in  the 
ratio  of  100  to  101,  while  the  denomination  becomes  larger  only  in  the  ratio  of  210  to  211. 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  greatest  net  forest  revenue  the  stands  under  consideration 
have  been  properly  managed;  if  the  standard  for  their  management,  however,  is  to  be 
the  greatest  mean  value  increment,  they  should  not  be  cut  yet  but  should  be  retained 
as  capital  until  the  per  cent  of  volume  and  value  increments  correspond  approximately 
to  the  ratio  between  the  annual  increase  in  age  and  the  present  age. 

Of  course,  as  soon  as  it  is  demanded  in  forestry  that  the  remaining  growing  stock  shall 
yield  interest,  even  at  only  a  moderate  per  cent,  the  factors  concerned  in  the  economical 
production  of  stands  are  entirely  changed.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  theory  of  net 
profits  on  the  land  which  this  suggestion  is  equivalent  to,  it  would  have  been  impossible 
to  grow  such  stands  as  the  mature  oak  we  are  discussing,  or  even  the  French  fir  stands  in 
the  Vosges.  Accurate  citations  as  to  the  time  and  severity  of  thinnings,  the  amount  of 
growing  stock,  and  the  length  of  the  rotation  cannot  be  made  without  detailed  computa- 
tions and  voluminous  material.  The  opinion  presented  can,  however,  readily  be  proved 
as  one  of  general  acceptance. 

In  connection  with  the  determination  of  the  results  of  applying  the  theory  of  net  in- 
come to  oak  high  forest  with  long  rotation  period  it  should  be  mentioned  that  for  this 
only  moderate  rates  of  interest  (2.5  to  3  per  cent)  are  to  be  used.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind,  in  addition,  that  under  permanent  management,  the  forest  and  its  contained 
growing  stock  constitute  a  uniform  entity.  A  part  of  the  growing  stock  is  also  embraced 
within  the  younger  and  the  middle-aged  stands;  hence  the  rate  of  interest  on  the  growing 
stock  may  be  sufficient  even  though  that  of  the  oldest  age  classes  of  a  given  working 
unit  have  fallen  below  that  required  on  the  entire  capital.  But  even  by  applying  this 
conservative  supposition  the  stands  under  discussion  would  be  unable  to  satisfy  the 
demands  for  payment  of  interest.  In  contrast  to  management  for  the  greatest  mean 
value  increment  which  would  leave  those  stands  to  grow  for  a  yet  longer  period,  the 
theory  of  net  income  from  the  land  requires  that  they  be  thinned  and  opened  up  earlier 
and  more  heavily.  The  number  of  trees  per  hectare  must  be  reduced  to  a  greater  extent 
in  the  course  of  gradual  thinnings  so  that  at  the  age  of  200  years  only  about  half  (40 
instead  of  80  per  acre)  shall  be  present.  As  a  result  of  such  management  the  working 
capital  will  be  diminished,  the  increment  of  individual  trees  is  increased,  and  the  interest 
influenced  favorably  by  both.  Under  such  conditions  and  with  the  favorable  site 
factors  present  the  miscellaneous  stock,  upon  the  production  of  which  such  importance  is 
rightly  attached  in  administering  the  French  State  forests,  could  be  raised  with  rotation 
periods  of  160  to  180  years. 

(d)       OWNERSHIP    OF   THE   LAND 

The  conditions  of  property  ownership  have  hitherto  had  a  great  influence  in  France 
in  deciding  upon  the  age  of  maturity  and  the  characteristic  form  of  forest  which  shall  be 
regarded  as  normal  and  whose  establishment  shall  be  sought.  Nowhere  are  the  differ- 
ences in  the  character  of  the  forest,  according  to  the  ownership  of  the  land,  more  clearly 
emphasized  than  in  France.  Even  in  the  literature  this  is  stated  definitely,  though  not 
without  exaggeration.  Tassy  says  in  reference  to  this:  "It  is  not  to  be  hoped  that  pri- 
vate owners  will  ever  find  it  to  their  interests  to  manage  their  forests  as  high  forest.  For 
in  such  a  case  not  only  will  the  rate  of  interest  on  the  money  fall  off  considerably,  but 
which  are  conditions  far  more  difficult  of  attainment,  the  impossibility  of  predicting 
future  conditions,  immediate  needs,  the  uncertainty  of  the  immediate  future,  would  all 


GERMAN   COMMENT  ON   FRENCH   FORESTRY  485 

have  to  cease  to  play  a  role  in  human  activities."  This  general  conception  was  discussed 
more  in  detail  in  the  Handbook  of  the  Paris  Exposition  where  it  is  said:  "The  private 
owner  seldom  manages  broadleaves  (Angiosperms)  as  high  forest.  They  prefer  coppice 
and  coppice  with  standards  with  short  rotation  periods.  The  conifers  (Gymnosperms) 
they  use  as  soon  as  they  seem  available,  without  letting  them  reach  that  size  which 
qualifies  them  as  valuable  economic  species."  The  actual  condition  of  the  forests  con- 
firms these  descriptions  in  the  literature.  It  is  also  granted  that  as  a  rule  the  State  is 
different  in  the  matter  of  management,  that  other  working  systems  are  chosen,  and 
that  other  rotation  periods  are  employed,  than  is  true  for  the  private  individuals.  In 
addition  to  the  Government's  high  forests,  characterized  by  large  capital  and  long  rota- 
tion periods,  there  are  the  communal  coppice  with  standards  stands,  characterized  by  a 
small  stock  of  overwood,  and  the  extensive  sprout  lands  of  private  owners. 

The  question  as  to  what  influence  the  conditions  of  ownership  exercise  upon  the  condi- 
tion and  management  of  forests  is  of  considerable  general  importance.  While  perhaps 
to  a  lesser  extent  than  in  France,  similar  differences  are  found  in  all  countries,  even  in 
the  German  forest  regions.  Adjoining  the  great  areas  of  most  of  the  German  State 
forests  in  mountainous  regions  (Harz  Mountains,  Thuringian  forests,  Spessart,  etc.), 
and  on  the  plains,  there  are  often  found  poor  forests,  owned  by  peasants,  upon  essentially 
similar  soil.  The  causes  of  these  differences  are  to  be  found  partly  in  poor  management. 
By  the  removal  of  too  much  of  the  forest  litter,  irregular  cutting,  deficient  superintend- 
ence, the  demands  for  a  good  condition  of  the  forest  are  by  no  means  met.  The  destruc- 
tion of  forests  in  nearly  all  countries  is  directly  traceable  to  private  ownership.  But 
even  under  good  management  (which  must  be  assumed  if  questions  of  principles  are  to 
be  discussed)  there  are  notable  differences  dependent  upon  the  conditions  of  ownership.  ■ 
Government  forests  are  always  more  conservatively  managed  than  those  belonging  to 
private  owners. 

The  recognition  that  there  are  differences  depending  upon  the  conditions  of  ownership, 
which  make  themselves  felt  in  the  condition  of  forests  and  their  management,  has  led  to 
the  assumption  that  there  are  in  forestry  —  just  as  in  business  in  general  —  two  different 
systems  of  management  dependent  upon  the  ownership  of  property,  a  system  for  private 
owners  which  leads  to  short  rotation  periods  and  extensive  management,  and  a  system 
for  public  owners  which  is  characterized  by  long  rotation  periods  and  large  forest  capital. 
Not  merely  the  advocates  of  extreme  socialism  have  inscribed  upon  their  banners  the 
contrast  between  private  and  cooperative  management,  but  champions,  also,  of  a  more 
moderate  economic  course  have  had  recourse  to  the  double  system  mentioned,  in  ex- 
plaining the  differences  in  the  condition  of  forests  which  we  are  discussing,  and  in  char- 
acterizing the  resulting  problems  of  future  management. 

Diverse,  however,  as  are  the  forest  conditions  and  the  objects  of  organization  in 
the  State  and  private  forests  that  is  no  reason  for  trying  to  establish  different  systems 
of  management.  The  causes  of  this  diversity  must  be  sought  in  other  conditions. 
They  are  to  be  found  in  forest  history  than  which  the  history  of  no  other  branch  of  eco- 
nomics has  more  far-reaching  results.  The  distance  of  the  forest  from  the  consumer  is 
another  guiding  factor.  The  forests  which  are  in  the  possession  of  the  State  are  prefer- 
ably the  more  remote  forests,  the  forests  located  at  the  interior  of  large  wooded  areas  of 
mountain  and  plain.  The  greater  the  distance  from  the  market,  the  longer  does  the 
rotation  period  become.  The  financial  conditions,  also,  have  an  influence  upon  the  rota- 
tion period.  Those  owners,  alone,  are  in  a  position  to  manage  their  forests  on  a  long 
rotation  (ignoring  the  interest),  who  have  sufficient  means,  who  are  independent  of  the 
immediate  realization  of  income  from  the  capital,  and  who  have  a  permanent  interest 
in  the  condition  of  the  forest.  No  other  owners  fulfill  these  requirements  to  so  great  an 
extent  as  the  State.     Finally,  it  must  be  taken  into  consideration  that  the  State  has, 


486  APPENDIX 

besides  its  efficiency  as  a  manager,  also  to  take  into  consideration  problems  of  political 
economy,  not  only  in  regard  to  production,  but  also  economic  relations.  It  is  desirable 
that  it  should  exert  a  favorable  influence  in  that  direction  upon  all  the  forests  of  the 
country.  But  it  stands  to  reason,  and  is  in  accord  with  the  status  of  legislation  in  all 
countries,  that  this  shall  be  most  emphatically  done  in  its  own  forests. 

Even  in  time  to  come  there  will  still  be  differences  of  the  kind  mentioned  —  not  merely 
in  forest  management  but  also  in  economic  life  in  general.  Even  in  future  times  the 
State  forests  will,  as  a  rule,  be  more  conservatively  managed  than  most  private  forests. 
It  is  not  an  inevitable  result  of  this,  however,  that  under  State  or  communal  management 
a  portion  of  the  cost  of  production  cannot  be  taken  into  account  —  which  is  the  present 
point  of  difference  in  economic  principles.  Forest  owners  (State,  community,  etc.), 
even  if  they  favor  communal  interests,  need  not,  as  the  champions  of  all  socialistic 
tendencies  demanded,  renounce  the  interest  on  a  portion  of  the  capital  invested  {Pro- 
duktionsgrundlagen) .  On  the  contrary,  the  most  general  rule  applicable  to  all  kinds  of 
forest  ownership  demands  that  in  regulating  management  all  costs  of  production  in 
labor,  capital,  and  land  must  be  reckoned  at  their  full  value.  But  there  could  well  be 
differences  in  the  cost  of  production  depending  on  the  character  of  the  forest  ownership, 
resulting  from  variations  in  the  size  of  the  growing  stock  and  the  rate  of  interest  charged. 
An  analogous  condition  exists  in  agriculture.  Indeed,  the  inter-relationships  of  labor, 
capital,  and  land  vary  according  to  the  character  of  the  ownership  even  if  the  objects  of 
management  be  identical.  The  greater  conservatism  which  characterizes  State  forest 
management  cannot,  however,  be  regarded  as  an  indication  of  self-sacrifice  on  the  part 
of  the  treasury  department  or  of  a  readiness  to  give  up  claim  to  a  part  of  the  investment. 
The  State  does  not  need  to  give  up  all  claims  to  the  interest  on  the  capital  and  on  the 
value  of  the  land  in  the  interests  of  either  present  or  future  generations.  The  advocates 
of  management  for  financial  returns  may  expect,  rather,  that  the  woods  which  the  com- 
ing political  economy  needs  most  urgently  will  best  be  paid  for  on  the  basis  of  their  cost 
of  production  with  which  must  be  included  the  discounted  value  of  the  cost  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  the  interest  on  the  investment.  In  that  case  it  is  demanded  of  State  manage- 
ment, however,  that  the  rotation  period  shall  not  be  longer  than  is  required,  in  accordance 
with  silvicultural  principles,  for  the  production  of  that  particular  kind  of  product  which 
constitutes  the  object  of  the  management.  The  French  forest  management  which, 
because  of  its  moderate  thinnings  and  long  rotation  period,  is  characterized  by  very 
small  interest  on  the  investment,  is  susceptible  of  radical  improvement  along  just  these 
lines. 

As  opposed  to  the  demand  for  an  acceleration  of  production  and  a  shortening  of  the 
rotation  period  which  must  be  demanded  of  the  French  management  of  State  forests, 
intelligent  private  owners  have  of  late  seen  fit  to  change  their  hitherto  extensive  manage- 
ment to  a  more  intensive  system,  and  to  lengthen  their  rotation  periods.  This  is  the 
direct  result  of  the  market  conditions  for  the  various  grades  of  product. 

The  prices  of  the  smaller  products  (twigs,  bark)  have  declined  because  of  the  competi- 
tion by  charcoal  and  other  substitutes,  while  those  of  the  higher  grade  lumber  have  risen 
not  only  actually,  but  relatively,  in  comparison  with  other  commodities.  Furthermore, 
as  was  evident  from  the  great  number  of  the  cross  sections  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion, it  has  become  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  in  France  that  properly  conducted 
thinnings  and  openings  exercise  a  very  favorable  influence  upon  the  progress  of  diameter 
increment,  upon  which  the  rotation  period  is  dependent.  Mention  is  made,  also,  in  the 
Handbook  of  the  Paris  Exposition  of  the  changes  wrought  by  this  in  the  viewpoint  of 
private  owners,  in  the  following  words:  "A  change  is  imminent  in  the  conditions  which 
have  hitherto  existed  (profitableness  of  the  coppice  system,  and  of  short  rotations).  The 
rise  in  wages  and  the  absence  of  a  market  for  charcoal  have  reduced  the  value  of  coppice 


GERMAN   COMMENT   ON   FRENCH   FORESTRY  487 

stands.  Private  owners  are  finding  themselves  forced  to  lengthen  the  rotation  periods 
in  the  same.  ...  At  the  same  time  the  declining  rate  of  interest  and  the  increase 
in  the  price  of  wood  are  leading  forest  owners,  to  a  greater  and  greater  extent,  to  increase 
the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  forests  and  to  defer  the  utilization  of  the  stands  until  a 
more  advanced  age." 

As  in  France,  so  in  many  German  forest  regions,  we  find  factors  which  determine  the 
sort  of  management  which  shall  be  practiced  by  the  Government  and  by  others.  Even 
here  many  private  owners  may,  in  view  of  the  present  conditions  and  future  possibilities, 
well  increase  the  length  of  their  rotations.  Even  for  private  management  the  rule  holds 
good  that  those  products  must  be  grown  which  best  meet  the  requirements  of  economic 
conditions.  That  this  demand  frequently  is  not  met,  that  many  private  forests  are  left 
unutilized  and  reverted  to  waste  lands  —  evident  from  the  poor,  careless  management 
and  unsuitable  working  units  ("dwarf  management"  {Zwergbetriebe))  —  is  the  cause  of 
the  financial  position  of  many  forest  estates.  Very  often  private  owners  are  not  in  a 
position  to  maintain  their  resources  in  the  unavailable  form  of  standing  forest  capital, 
because  they  need  them  for  very  definite  purposes;  they  have  to  have  it  in  a  more 
readily  available  form  and  for  that  reason  often  clean-cut  the  stands  even  when  the 
increment  in  volume  and  value  would  be  greater  than  the  interest  on  the  readily  avail- 
able capital.  For  leading  the  way  toward  better  conditions  in  this  regard  it  is  desirable 
that  renting  of  forests  be  facilitated  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  measures  of  the  German 
Forestry  Association  {Deutscher  Forstverein) . 

From  what  has  been  said  it  can  be  seen  that  it  is  desirable  at  present  in  France,  and 
in  other  countries  as  well,  that  the  systems  of  management  in  private  and  in  State  forests 
be  brought  into  closer  accord.  The  economic  laws  and  principles  upon  which  manage- 
ment depends  are  restricted  neither  to  State  nor  to  private  forests,  but  are  of  universal 
application.  For  this  reason,  also,  the  claim  that  there  are  opposed  principles  of  manage- 
ment —  a  private  and  a  social  —  is  not  to  be  accepted  absolutely,  in  spite  of  the  great 
influence  upon  management  of  consideration  for  the  community  and  for  the  future.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  they  are  not  sustained  under  the  economic  conditions  which,  hypothetic- 
ally,  they  favor. 

COPPICE   WITH  STANDARDS,   AND   SIMPLE   COPPICE  is 

Coppice  with  Standards.  —  Coppice  with  standards  is  a  system  of  management 
found  in  almost  every  part  of  France.  It  is  most  strongly  advocated  for  the  communal 
forests.  According  to  the  statistics  cited  ^^  the  State  forests  comprise  269,707  hectares 
(666,465  acres)  of  coppice  with  standards  which  equals  26  per  cent  of  the  entire  forest 
area;  the  communal  forests  936,305  hectares  (2,313,694  acres),  49  per  cent.  Since  the 
French  forests  of  coppice  with  standards  comprise  only  a  little  overwood,  and  the  sprout 
lands  are  stocked  mainly  with  reserved  standards,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  draw  a 
sharp  distinction  between  the  two.  Both  systems  belong  to  the  regime  du  taillis  which 
is  characterized  by  sprout  reproduction  as  distinct  from  the  regime  de  la  futaie  where 
reproduction  is  secured  from  seeds.  Within  the  same  regime  further  distinctions  are 
made  according  to  the  method  of  handling  {mode  de  trailment).  In  the  case  of  coppice 
with  standards  the  group  system  {mode  de  eclaircies)  is  looked  upon  as  different  from 
the  selection  system  (mode  de  jardinage).  Similar  distinctions  are  made  within  the 
regime  du  taillis: 

Le  taillis  simple,  "exploite  entierement  a  blanc  etoc  ou  sans  autres  reserves  que  des  baliv- 

16  "Forstwissenschaftliches  Centralblatt,"  1908,  pp.  655-65. 

1^  In  the  Handbook  of  the  Exposition  of  1900.  The  figures  in  the  statistique  forestiere 
of  1870  differ  considerably  because  in  the  interval  extensive  changes  have  occurred. 


488  APPENDIX 

eaux  de  I'age  qui  seront  abbattus  a  la  revolution  suivante"  (coppice  "cut  entirely,  or  with- 
out other  reserves  than  of  an  age  which  will  be  felled  at  the  next  cutting"). 

Le  taillis  compose  ou  taillis  sous  futaie  "dans  lequel  les  haliveaux  reserves  sont  destines  d 
Tester  sur  pied  pendant  au  moins  trois  revolutions"  (coppice  with  standards,  in  which  the 
reserved  trees  are  intended  to  remain  standing  for  at  least  three  rotations).  (Definitions 
from  the  official  Statistique  forestiere,  Forest  Statistics.) 

Since,  however,  no  binding  definitions  can  be  applied  to  the  question  of  reserving 
standards  in  private  forests,  essential  variations  occur  in  practice. 

The  peculiarity  of  the  coppice  with  standards  system,  consisting  of  the  juxtaposition 
of  isolated  uneven-aged  seedlings  and  even-aged  sprouts,  has  persisted  much  longer  and 
more  definitely  in  France  than  in  most  German  forests.  Their  management  has  been 
extraordinarily  conservative  for  centuries.  Even  now  the  visitor  to  the  forests  comes 
across  the  old  monuments  and  bounded  areas  reserved  in  determining  upon  the  manage- 
ment and  working  limits,  which  were  estabhshed  in  accordance  with  the  ordinances  of 
Colbert.  The  communal  forests,  likewise,  have  been  under  management  for  more  than 
two  centuries.  In  Germany,  coppice  with  standards,  which  was  formerly  extensively 
employed  in  well  settled  regions  of  hardwood  forest,  has  undergone  far  greater  changes. 
In  many  cases  it  had  already  developed  into  irregular  transition  forms  by  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries.  In  the  19th  century  it  lost  its  original  character,  even  in  the  case  of 
well-regulated  management,  because  of  the  fact  that  systematic  efforts  were  being  made 
in  the  direction  of  establishing  a  generous  forest  capital  of  overwood.  With  such  a 
stand  of  overwood  as  most  of  the  German  advocates  of  coppice  stands  with  standards 
recommended  "  —  doubtless  rightly,  considering  the  increased  revenue  —  the  advanced 
reproduction  of  the  underwood  could  not  maintain  itself  vigorous  over  the  entire  area; 
it  was  partly  destroyed.  This  is  true  to  a  yet  greater  extent  when  the  overwood  is 
held  over  in  the  form  of  groups  as  is  frequently  looked  upon  as  the  rule.  Similar  condi- 
tions exist  respecting  regeneration,  which  likewise  is  conducted  mainly  in  the  form  of 
groups.  In  a  group  the  growth  of  the  young  stuff  is  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of 
growth  characteristic  of  the  high  forest. 

The  following  notes  on  the  French  system  of  managing  coppice  with  standards  (apart 
from  stands  which  were  observed  from  time  to  time  in  the  course  of  the  railroad  ride) 
apply,  chiefly,  only  to  a  small  forest  of  193  hectares  (476  acres),  belonging  to  the  hospital 
at  Blois  which  we  were  permitted  to  inspect  very  minutely  at  the  point  where  it  ad- 
joined a  high  forest  on  a  similar  range  under  the  management  of  a  forest  manager. 
In  spite  of  its  small  acreage  it  was,  nevertheless,  very  well  suited  for  giving  a  person 
an  idea  of  the  features  which  characterize  the  French  system  of  managing  coppice  with 
standards.  The  condition  of  this  forest  affords  excellent  data  on  the  history  of  the 
standards,  the  political  measures  of  the  French  administration,  and  the  technical 
principles  of  management.  Moreover,  the  revenues  from  the  management  for  a  decade, 
which  were  told  us,  afford  a  very  good  basis  for  forming  an  estimate  of  the  economic 
value  of  the  system  of  coppice  with  standards. 

The  organization  under  consideration  is  of  general  interest,  first  with  regard  to  the 
technical  management,  and,  secondly,  with  regard  to  a  review  of  the  system  of  coppice 
with  standards  from  the  economic  standpoint. 

(a)    TECHNICAL    ASPECTS    OF    THE    TREATMENT    OF    THE    COPPICE    WITH    STANDARDS 

The  standard  in  accordance  with  which  the  management  of  coppice  with  standards 
is  regulated  is  in  France,  on  the  whole,  very  uniformly  maintained.     The  unforeseen 

"  E.  G.  Schuberg.  Zur  Betriebsstatistik  im  Mittelwald  (Statistics  of  management  for 
coppice  with  standards)  (citv  forest  of  Durlach,  with  250-350  m.'  (8,830-12,360  cubic 
feet));  Lauprecht,  Aus  dem  Miihlhaiistr  MUtdwald  (250  m.^)  (8,830  cubic  feet).  (From 
the  coppice  with  standards  forest  of  Rltihlhaus.) 


GERMAN   COMMENT   ON   FRENCH  FORESTRY 


489 


difficulties  in  determining  the  yield  which  have  led,  in  Germany,  to  the  proposing  of 
special  formulas  have  not  been  prominent  in  France.  The  regulation  of  income  and 
the  extent  of  the  cuttings  conformable  to  condition  of  the  system  of  management  being 
employed  are  upon  the  area  basis.  In  the  forest  region  under  consideration  the  greater 
part  (three-quarters)  of  the  forested  area  was  divided  into  25  regeneration  compartments 
of  5.75  hectares  (14.2  acres)  each.  A  quarter  of  the  entire  area  was  excluded  from 
this  classification  and  constituted  a  reserve  to  be  included  in  the  utilization  only  in  case 
of  unusual  demand.  Such  exceptional  demands  always  occur,  however,  some  time 
within  the  course  of  the  25-year  periods  so  that  the  establishment  of  such  a  reserve  does 
not  involve  a  permanent  change  of  the  rotation  period. 

The  establishing  of  such  reserves  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  French  communal  forests, 
which  are  under  the  strict  supervision  of  the  State.  Even  Colbert  ordered  their  forma- 
tion: "The  celebrated  ordinance  of  1669  commands  that  a  fourth  of  all  woodlands 
belonging  to  the  clergy,  to  ecclesiastical  corporations,  to  the  public,  etc.,  be  constituted 
a  reserve.  The  rest  of  the  area  had  to  be  included  in  the  regular  cuttings."  The 
reserves  are  either  permanently  located  in  some  definite  place,  "reserves  a  assiette  fixe, 
delimitee  et  tnarquee  sur  le  terrairi";  or  they  are  shifting  reserves,  "reserves  a  assiette 
mobile,"  "of  such  a  sort  that  instead  of  cutting  each  year  the  area  or  volume  which 
expresses  the  annual  yield  only  three-fourths  of  this  yield  is  left  over  for  the  meeting 
of  unforeseen  necessities." 

In  the  hospital  forest  at  Blois  the  method  of  fixed  reserves  was  used;  and  this  seems, 
also,  to  be  the  general  practice.  Of  8,775.13  hectares  (21,684.10  acres)  of  communal 
forest  which  were  seen  here,  the  arrangement  of  permanently  located  reserves  was 
apphed  over  7,550.68  hectares  (18,658.40  acres). 

The  25-year  rotation  practiced  in  the  hospital  forest  of  Blois  is  somewhat  below  the 
average  for  forests  under  Government  administration.  According  to  the  department 
of  agriculture's  statistics  the  figures  for  the  coppice  with  standards  for  the  entire  country 
are  as  follows :  they  are  managed  under  a  rotation  period  of  — 


30  years  and  up 


In  Government 

forests 

In     communal 

forests 


7,071  hectares  =  4.1% 
24,605  hectares  =  2.7% 


81,557  hectares  =  49.9% 
707,803  hectares  =  77.5% 


75,521  hectares  =  46%, 


181,949  hectares  =  19. 


The  rotation  period  for  the  underwood  is,  according  to  this,  even  longer  than  is 
customary  in  Germany.  Its  choice  is  the  result  of  economic  considerations.  The  aim 
of  the  management,  especially  in  the  communal  forests,  is  directed  constantly  to  the 
production  of  better  firewood  (fagots). 

The  most  important  problem  of  forest  adjustment  in  the  coppice  with  standards  is 
the  regulation  of  the  overwood  which  constitutes  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  this 
system  of  management.  The  overwood  is  classified  by  age  classes  determined  on 
the  basis  of  the  rotation  periods  in  the  underwood.  They  are  distinguished:  (1) 
Baliveaux  de  I'dge  (reserves),  which  are  a  rotation  period  older  than  the  sprouts  of  the 
underwood;  (2)  Modernes  (standards  of  two  rotations),  which  have  been  twice  reserved; 
and  (3)  Anciens  (veterans),  which  are  in  the  fourth  rotation  of  the  underwood. 

Eventually  there  is  added  to  these  yet  a  fourth  class,  la  vieille  ecorce  (old  standards). 
According  to  this  the  age  of  maturity  for  the  overwood  under  a  25-year  rotation  period 
for  the  underwood  would  be  100  years;  in  the  case  of  a  30-year  rotation  for  the  under- 


490 


APPENDIX 


wood,  120  years.  The  system  is  not  followed  mechanically,  but  vigorous  trees  are, 
rather,  left  standing  longer  without,  however,  practicing  this  to  so  great  an  extent  as 
is  customary  in  many  German  forests. 

As  to  the  number  of  trees  per  hectare  in  the  several  age  classes,  tolerably  definite 
rules  were  given.  The  closeness  of  the  stands  is  astonishing.  In  the  forest  at  Blois  the 
numbers  in  the  various  age  classes,  for  the  annual  cut,  amounted  to:  Baliveaux  —  total, 
287;  per  hectare,  50  (20  per  acre).  Modernes  —  total,  81;  per  hectare,  14  (6  per  acre). 
Anciens  —  total,  34;  per  hectare,  6  (2  per  acre). 

According  to  this,  very  light  cuttings  are  made.  The  25-  to  30-year-old  baliveaux 
contain  only  a  very  small  volume;  even  the  modernes  are  mainly  trees  with  a  content 
of  less  than  35  cubic  feet.  And  the  few  anciens  with  about  35  to  70  cubic  feet  could 
have  no  great  influence  upon  the  total  volume  of  wood  taken  from  the  entire  cutting 
area.  In  the  cutting  areas  which  we  saw,  in  which  final  cuttings  had  been  made  not 
long  since,  the  entire  overwood  was  estimated  at  1,410  to  1,765  cubic  feet.  It  is  true 
that  many  advocates  of  the  French  system  of  forest  management  recommend  a  larger 
amount  of  overwood  capital.  But  actually  the  maximum  amount  retained  at  the 
beginning  of  the  rotation  amounts  to  only  1,145  cubic  feet  per  acre.  This  is  far  less 
than  correspondents  testify  is  the  practice  in  the  German  management  of  coppice  with 
standards. 

The  hospital  forest  of  Blois  does  not  vary  much,  in  its  composition  and  in  the  pro- 
portion of  overwood,  from  the  figures  which  are  cited  for  the  entire  country.  Accord- 
ing to  the  department  of  agriculture's  statistics  the  following  relative  figures  per  hectare 
were  obtained  for  the  fiscal  year  (Wirtschaftsjahr)  1876: 


Baliveaux 

Modernes 

Anciens 

Government  forest 

Communal  forest 

39  (16  per  acre) 
64  (26  per  acre) 

11  (4  per  acre) 
18  (7  per  acre) 

2  (1  per  acre) 
5  (2  per  acre) 

In  individual  parts  of  the  country  there  are,  of  course,  great  differences.  Individual 
conservations  (districts)  (Dijon,  Rouen,  Nancy,  Amiens,  etc.),  contain  over  100  baliveaux 
and  over  30  modernes  per  hectare  (40  and  12,  respectively,  per  acre). 

The  details  of  the  management  of  the  coppice  with  standards  belonging  to  the  State 
and  administered  by  the  State  are  worked  out  in  accordance  with  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  system  far  more  systematically  than  in  Germany.  Here  it  is  always 
looked  upon  as  a  difficult  sort  of  management  which  makes  special  demands  on  the 
tact  and  activity  of  the  organizing  and  executive  officers.  "Im  Mittelwalde  der  Zu- 
kunft,"  is  observed  in  the  papers  of  the  convention  of  German  foresters  at  Dresden  in 
1889  "musz  die  intensivste  Bewirtschaftung,  reine  Baumwirtschaft  Amvendung  findem, 
wenn  derselbe  den  an  seine  Produklicilat,  an  seine  Geldertr'dge  und  NachhaUigkeit  zu  stel- 
lenden  Aufforderungen  entsprechen  soil"  ("In  the  coppice  with  standards  of  the  future 
the  most  intensive  management,  pure  forestry,  must  find  application  if  the  same  is  to 
meet  the  demands  placed  upon  it,  in  its  productivity,  its  money  revenues,  and  its  per- 
manence"). Nevertheless,  it  will  only  be  very  seldom  that  such  a  goal  will  be  sought 
and  attained  in  the  future.  It  leads  to  a  very  large  capital  of  overwood  and  to  the 
death  or  degeneration  of  the  underwood.  Such  a  tendency  results  in  a  gradual  chang- 
ing of  the  coppice  with  standards  to  a  regulated  selection  forest  which  is  a  yet  better 
system  of  management  for  attaining  the  objects  proposed.  In  most  German  forest 
regions  this  change  has  already  commenced;  in  Prussia  the  coppice  with  standards  is 
scarcely  represented  at  present.     Its  distinguishing  characteristic,   the  reserving  of 


GERMAN   COMMENT   ON   FRENCH  FORESTRY  491 

vigorous  sprouts,  demands  an  extensive  management  for  the  overwood,  and  hence  it 
is  thus  that  it  is  managed  in  the  French  State  and  communal  forests. 

The  predominating  species  in  the  French  coppice  with  standards  stands  is  the  oak. 
It,  alone,  is  recorded  in  the  statistics.  In  Blois  it  occupied  95  per  cent  of  the  forest 
area.  The  oak,  under  the  favorable  conditions  of  site  in  central  France,  is  characterized 
by  good  sprouting  capacity  and  abundant  seed  production.  The  renovation  of  over- 
wood  and  underwood  is  effected,  therefore,  chiefly  by  natural  regeneration  and  sprout- 
ing in  a  very  satisfactory  manner.  In  most  instances,  artificial  regeneration  is  to  be 
considered  when  large  oaks,  of  which  there  are  only  a  few  per  hectare,  are  rooted  out. 
The  rooting  out  of  trees  of  a  specified  size  is  required  of  the  buyer.  When  such  root- 
ing out  has  taken  place  the  buyer  is  required  to  plant  such  places  with  oak  or  deposit 
the  amount  required  for  this  planting.  The  places  on  which  the  wood  has  been  worked 
must  also  be  planted  up  by  the  buyer.  He,  moreover,  is  required  to  prune  the  reserved 
trees  and  this  must  be  done  to  a  height  of  20  feet  from  the  ground.  These  regulations 
are  not  mere  matters  of  pen  and  ink;  they  are  skilfully,  carefully,  and  thoroughly  carried 
out  so  that  the  visitor  to  the  cutting  areas  receives  the  most  favorable  impression  of  the 
system.  The  impression  one  receives  of  the  care  of  the  underwood  is  not  so  favorable. 
Thinnings  are  not  made  in  the  underwood  in  the  Blois  forest  —  and  the  conditions  at 
Blois  are  not  exceptional  —  although,  with  the  long  rotation  period,[they  would  be  just 
as  much  in  order  as  in  the  coppice  stands  for  which  their  importance  is  demonstrated  by 
the  numerous  tree  sections  at  the  Paris  Exposition.  The  maintenance,  also,  of  volun- 
tary seedlings  and  the  preparation  of  the  poles  of  the  overwood  for  isolation  indicate 
timely  apphcation  of  cleanings  and  thinnings  in  the  underwood.  The  form  of  the 
purchase,  however,  makes  for  difficulties  in  this  respect.  The  buyer,  who  has  to  get 
out  the  timber  itseK,  has  no  interest  in  the  small  wood  resulting  from  thinnings. 

(6)  ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  COPPICE  WITH  STANDARDS 

Of  most  importance  for  the  future  of  coppice  with  standards  in  France  is  not  a  well- 
developed  technique,  but  its  relations  to  economic  conditions.  The  question  as  to 
whether  coppice  with  standards,  which  comprises  some  3,000,000  hectares  (7,413,270 
acres)  in  France,  yields  profits  commensurate  with  the  best  utihzation  of  the  land  is 
of  great  influence  upon  its  future  management  and  the  methods  of  regulation.  The 
answer  is  dependent,  on  the  one  hand,  upon  the  volume  and  value  of  the  material 
which  it  furnishes,  and  on  the  other,  upon  the  cost  and  working  methods  which  are 
existent  or  which  would  have  to  be  introduced  in  order  to  produce  this  volume  and  value. 

The  production  of  volume  in  the  French  coppice  with  standards  stands  can  be  very 
well  indicated.  On  the  basis  of  economic  results  a  much  more  trustworthy  judgment 
can  be  found  for  it  than  is  possible  in  the  case  of  the  high  forest.  Utilization  in  the 
coppice  with  standards  stands  has  long  been  much  more  uniform.  In  the  forest  at 
Blois  which  we  visited  the  income  corresponding  to  the  increment  amounts  annually 
to  large  cuts  on  the  5.74  hectare  (15-acre)  cutting  areas:  In  the  year  1891,  548;  1892, 
554;  1893-1894,  931;  1895,  540;  1896,  547;  1897,  501 ;  1898,  517;  1899,  547  m.^.  Accord- 
ing to  this,  the  average  volume  of  the  annual  cut  on  the  5.74  hectare  (15-acre)  amounts 
to  91  m.3  per  hectare  (1,300  cubic  feet  per  acre).  This  is  equivalent  to  a  yearly  utiliza- 
tion of  3.6  m.3  (127  cubic  feet)  for  a  25-year  rotation.  In  the  adjacent  high  forest, 
occupying  a  smiliar  site,  the  annual  yield  amounts  to  3.3  m.'  (117  cubic  feet).  The 
volume  actually  used  in  the  two  systems,  therefore,  differs  but  slightly;  but  the  coppice 
with  standards  system  is  in  the  lead.  If  the  conditions  throughout  the  country  are 
compared  this  difference  is  seen  to  be  even  more  favorable  to  the  system  of  coppice  with 
standards.  According  to  the  statistics  of  the  department  of  soils  and  commerce  (Acker- 
und  Handelsministerium)  there  were  used  per  hectare  of  forest  area  in  the  year  1876: 


492  APPENDIX 

In  the  State  high  forest,  2.91  m.^  (41.6  cubic  feet  per  acre);  communal,  1.73  m.^  (24.7 
cubic  feet  per  acre).  In  the  coppice  with  standards,  4.26  m.^  (61.0  cubic  feet  per  acre); 
communal,  4.00  m.'  (57.2  cubic  feet  per  acre).  If  that  kind  of  figiu-es  were  to  be  re- 
garded as  decisive  the  coppice  with  standards  would  obviously  be  the  more  profitable 
type  of  management.  But  such  a  conclusion  is  probably  unjustified.  Statistics  must 
not  be  perverted  to  overthrow  accepted  existing  facts.  In  view  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  increment  the  production  of  wood,  other  things  being  equal,  cannot  be 
greater  in  coppice  with  standards  stands  than  in  high  forest,  but  really  must  be  less. 
In  the  large  amount  of  brushwood  itself,  constituting  almost  half  the  entire  cutting, 
in  which  is  contained  much  more  of  the  soil  nutrients  than  in  the  wood  more  than  2.8 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end  (Derbholz)  or  in  an  abundant  seed  crop  of  isolated 
trees  ofithe  overwood,  there  are  two  fundamental  impulses  which,  as  far  as  sustained  an- 
nual increment  is  concerned,  act  on  the  negative  side  of  the  balance.  Moreover,  stock- 
ing is  seldom  as  complete  in  the  stands  of  coppice  with  standards  as  in  the  regulated  high 
forest.  To  understand  the  conflict  of  the  French  statistics  of  income  with  the  actual 
inevitable  conditions,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  coppice  with  standards  stands, 
which  are  conducted  very  uniformly  as  far  as  rotation  period  and  growing  stock  are 
concerned,  the  entire  increment  is  used  and  is  used  earlier,  so  that  income  and  increment 
are,  at  least  approximately,  equal.  In  the  high  forest  this  is  not  true.  In  the  case  of 
these,  especially  in  the  State  forests,  utilization  has  remained  very  much  lower  than 
increment.  Moreover,  in  France  as  in  other  countries,  coppice  with  standards  stands 
are  located  preferably  on  the  more  favorable  sites.  High  mountains,  rugged  sites, 
stony  soils,  are  no  sites  for  the  coppice  with  standards.  In  many  German  States  there 
have  likewise  been  evident  results  similar  to  those  in  France.  The  grand  duchy  of 
Baden's  statistics  show  the  revenue  from  stands  of  coppice  with  standards  as  earlier 
and  greater  than  that  from  the  high  forests.  But  more  recent  statistics  demonstrate 
that  the  results  obtained  from  the  management  of  the  high  forest  there  are  really  superior 
to  those  from  coppice  with  standards,  vmder  similar  treatment  especially  when  thinnings 
are  properly  conducted,  and  in  spite  of  the  unfavorable  sites  it  occupies.  This  view  is, 
indeed,  shared  even  by  the  exponents  of  the  French  system  of  forest  management, 
who  have  at  their  disposal  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  conditions  throughout  the 
country.  In  Chapter  4,  Part  2,  of  his  work,  "De  V exploitabilite  dans  ses  rapports  avec 
I'interSt  public"  (The  age  of  maturity  in  its  bearing  upon  the  public  interests),  Tassy 
summarizes  the  results  obtained  with  high  forest  and  with  coppice  with  standards. 
He  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  under  average  conditions  of  growth  the  high  forest 
under  good  management  could  yield  6  m.'  per  hectare  (86  cubic  feet  per  acre)  —  "chiffre 
tres  modere  (a  very  conservative  figure)."  The  average  yield  from  stands  of  coppice 
with  standards  is,  on  the  contrary,  estim.ated  at  4.30  m.  (63  cubic  feet  per  acre). 

This  unfavorable  showing  of  the  absolute  production  of  the  coppice  with  standards 
cannot  be  compensated  for  even  by  the  ratio  of  increment  to  capital,  or  the  growth 
per  cent.  Compared  with  the  high  forest  managed  on  a  very  long  rotation  period 
with  a  proportionately  large  number  of  trees  per  hectare,  the  system  of  coppice  with 
standards  does,  it  is  true,  present  a  very  favorable  appearance  in  the  connection.  But 
it  is  easy  to  deceive  one's  self  in  that  regard  by  measurements  of  single  trees.  The  com- 
parative annual  increments  of  the  coppice  with  standards  are  very  unequal.  Especially, 
after  the  felling  of  the  imderwood  and  openings  in  the  overwood,  the  growth  per  cents, 
of  the  younger  age  classes  in  particular,  are  very  high,  far  higher  than  is  necessary  for 
meeting  the  demands  made  on  the  production  by  the  stands.  Later,  these  conditions 
are  changed.  They  result  more  unfavorably  than  is  the  case  in  the  high  forest  where 
the  decline  in  increment  in  the  pole  and  standard  ages  can  be  far  better  met  by  means 
of  vigorous  thinnings  and  openings. 


GERMAN   COMMENT   ON   FRENCH  FORESTRY 


493 


The  work  prepared  by  certain  French  forest  owners  for  the  Paris  Exposition  affords 
information  on  the  increase  of  vohime  which  occurs  in  the  course  of  a  rotation  period. 
It  deals  fundamentally  with  stands  of  coppice  with  standards  with  moderately  large 
growing  stock  of  overwood  and  four  age  classes  the  numbers  of  whose  trees  per  hectare 
stand  in  the  ratio  of  8  (baliveaux)  to  4  (modernes)  to  2  (anciens)  to  1  {vieille  ecorce).  The 
effect  of  the  increased  volume  is  that  with  a  25-year  rotation  period  the  volume  of  the 
stands  increases  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  2;  with  a  30-year  rotation  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  2.5. 

The  system  of  coppice  with  standards  seems  the  poorer  form  of  management  as 
compared  with  the  high  forest,  more  because  of  the  poor  quality  of  the  wood  produced 
than  because  of  its  small  volume.  It  does  not  satisfy  the  demands  which  have  been 
made  for  the  most  important  technical  properties  (clean  full  boles).  The  reduction  in 
the  number  of  trees  per  hectare  to  about  50  (20  per  acre),  which  occurs  at  the  age  of 
25  years,  has  the  natural  result  that  the  twigs  which  are  present  at  a  height  of  about 
3  to  5  m.  (10  to  15  feet)  remain  and  develop.  Corresponding  to  the  formation  of  large, 
deep-rooted  twigs  is  the  formation  of  broad  annual  rings  which  are  laid  on  for  a  longer 
time  until  decreased  under  the  influence  of  the  underwood  growing  up  about  them 
and  of  the  increasing  seed  production.  Branchy  tapering  trees  of  unequal  height  are 
the  natural  result  in  coppice  with  standards  stands  under  the  conditions  of  growth 
described. 

The  influence  of  the  type  of  management  on  the  quality  of  the  wood  is  clearly  shown 
by  presenting  yield  statistics.  In  the  forests  of  Blois  the  volume  and  financial  returns 
in  the  past  decade  were  as  follows : 


Yield 

Auction  prices 

Year 

m.3 

Total  francs 

Per  m.3,  francs 

1891 

M3 

8,500 

15.65 

1892 

554 

8,100 

14.62 

1893) 

1894/ 

931 

12,200 

13.10 

1895 

540 

6,300 

11.67 

1896 

547 

7,350 

13.44 

1897 

501 

6,150 

12.28 

1898 

517 

6,275 

12.14 

1899 

547 

7,500 

13.71 

Total 

4,680  * 

62,375  t 

13.33  t 

*  165,276  cubic  feet.         f  $12,048.40.         J  $0.07  per  cubic  foot. 

The  average  cubic  meter  is  thus  seen  to  be  valued  at  13.33  francs,  while  the  adjacent 
Government  high  forest  has  yielded  almost  double  this  price  for  the  average  cubic 
meter. 

Relative  figures  similar  to  those  given  u.?  for  the  forest  region  which  we  visited  at  Blois 
exist  likewise  for  the  entire  country.  According  to  the  department  of  agriculture's 
statistics,  in  the  fiscal  year  1876:  The  value  of  the  average  cubic  meter  amounted  in 
the  Government  forest  to  16.26  francs  (9  cents  per  cubic  foot);  in  the  communal  forest 
to  8.42  francs  (5  cents  per  cubic  foot) ;  the  yield  per  year  and  hectare  in  the  Govern- 
ment forest  to  38.59  francs  ($3  per  acre);  in  the  communal  forest  to  22.70  francs  ($1.82 
per  acre). 

The  chief  cause  for  the  difference  per  cubic  meter  and  in  the  armual  revenue  is  to  be 
found  in  the  preponderance  of  coppice  with  standards  in  the  communal  forests.     In 


494  APPENDIX 

individual  parts  of  the  country  figures  on  the  conditions  of  site  stand,  and  market  wUl 
be  found  very  different.  For  the  conservation  of  Tours,  which  forms  part  of  the  forests 
visited,  the  yield  per  hectare  was:  in  the  State  forest,  40.59  francs  ($3.17  per  acre)  for 
coppice  with  standards;  44.83  francs  ($3.50  per  acre)  for  conversion  stands;  64.35  francs 
($5.13  per  acre)  for  broad  leaf  (Angiosperms)  high  forest;  in  the  communal  forest,  44.21 
francs  ($3.45  per  acre)  for  coppice  with  standards,  63.68  francs  ($4.98  per  acre)  for 
high  forest. 

How  little  timber  the  French  coppice  with  standards  produces  as  a  whole  is  evident 
from  Tassy's  summary,  where  he  says  of  it:  "In  a  normal  coppice  with  standards  stand 
the  overwood  constitutes  not  more  than  a  third  of  the  volume  of  the  annual  cut;  and 
if  we  grant  that  in  the  overwood  a  half  yields  timber  we  are  giving  it  just  as  much  as 
possible.  So  if  I  place  the  timber  at  one-sixth  the  volume  cut  I  need  not  be  accused  of 
trying  to  reduce  the  ratio."  The  following  estimate,  based  on  this,  shows  that  of  13 
million  cubic  meters  (460,000,000  cubic  feet)  produced  by  French  coppice  with  standards 
stands,  only  2\  million  cubic  meters  (88,000,000  cubic  feet)  can  be  sold  as  timber. 
In  the  department  of  agriculture 's  statistics  the  per  cents  of  timber  for  the  fiscal  year 
1876  are  given  as  follows:  For  State  coppice  with  standards,  23  per  cent;  for  communal, 
12  per  cent;  for  State  high  forest,  51  per  cent;  for  communal,  42  per  cent. 

From  what  has  been  said  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  system  of  coppice  with 
standards  does  not  meet  the  economic  demands  which  must  be  made  of  forest  manage- 
ment in  France.  It  was,  as  in  Germany,  of  importance  in  the  past.  As  long  as  fire- 
wood was  a  prime  necessity  for  the  entire  population  wood  was  needed  in  proportionately 
small  sizes,  and  since  in  most  forest  regions  there  were  insurmountable  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  timber  traffic  it  formed  a  very  good  system  of  management  for  those  woodlands 
located  near  the  consumers.  Hence  we  find  the  following  note  to  the  department's 
statistics,  concerning  communal  forests:  "It  must  be  appreciated  that  for  this  kind  of 
forest  ownership,  it  is  a  very  suitable  system.  Furnishing  the  inhabitants,  as  it  does, 
with  a  variety  of  species  and  kinds  of  wood  it  meets  their  requirements  better  than  does 
the  high  forest."  But  the  character  of  the  demands  made  upon  the  woodlands  has 
suffered  a  radical  change  in  the  course  of  the  19th  century.  In  all  essential  respects 
coppice  with  standards  is  inferior  to  the  high  forest;  in  its  relations  to  the  soil  as  well 
as  in  its  bearings  on  yield.  For  maintaining  soil  fertility  coppice  with  standards  is 
not  an  especially  commendable  silvicultural  system.  The  mere  fact  that  those  species 
which  form  the  best  soil  cover  do  not  occur  in  it  is  a  factor  of  unfavorable  influence. 
Likewise  the  difficulty  of  amalgamating  overwood  and  underwood  into  a  uniform 
canopy.  More  important  yet  are  its  economic  shortcomings.  It  stands  in  opposition 
to  the  general  economic  principle  that  with  progressive  development  of  the  cultivation 
of  the  land,  all  management  must  he  more  intensively  conducted,  and  at  a  greater  outlay 
of  labor  and  capital.  The  kinds  most  demanded  by  the  French  economic  conditions, 
loppings  and  wood  for  splitting  (Schneide-  und  Spaltholz),  are  produced  only  in  very 
smaU  quantities.  It  is,  therefore,  to  the  general  economic  interests  of  the  country  that 
the  stands  of  coppice  with  standards  be  changed  over  into  high  forest  as  quickly  as  the 
financial  condition  of  the  owners  permits.  This  is  recognized  as  the  right  principle  even 
in  France.  As  far  as  the  State  forests  are  concerned  the  change  has  already  been 
effected  over  large  areas,  and  is  to  a  great  extent  in  progress  elsewhere.  The  1876 
statistics  give  the  stands  in  process  of  conversion  in  the  State  forests  as  290,227  hectares 
(717,170  acres),  the  Handbook  of  1900  as  124,374  hectares  (307,340  acres).  For  the 
communal  forests  this  change  can  proceed  only  very  gradually  because  of  the  financial 
sacrifice  involved. 


FORESTS  OF   ALSACE-LORRAINE 


495 


APPENDIX  J 

THE  FORESTS  OF  ALSACE-LORRAINE  i 

Area.  —  The  forests  of  Alsace-Lorraine  cover  1,085,520  acres;  this  is  30.3  per  cent 
of  the  total  land  area,  and  47  per  cent  of  the  area  in  agriculture,  and  corresponds  to  0.6 
of  an  acre  of  forest  per  inhabitant.  Therefore  Alsace-Lorraine  with  30.3  per  cent  has 
almost  twice  the  proportional  forest  area  that  France  proper  possesses  —  18.7  per  cent; 
and  it  is  even  above  the  average  for  Eiu-ope  which  is  28.8  per  cent,  but  below  that  of  the 
Vosges  Department  —  36.9  per  cent.  Since  1871  the  average  in  acres  under  forests, 
divided  according  to  ownership,  has  been  as  follows: 


Year 

State 

Undiv-ided 

Communal 

Public 
institution 

Private 

1871 

330,652 
330,930 
337,016 
337,112 
343,119 

44,469 
42,472 
40,273 
40,162 
40,053 

487,574 
490,295 
491,958 
494,184 
491,342 

1881 

1891 

1901 

1913 

5,966 

208,069 

This  makes  a  grand  total  of  1,088,549  acres  in  1913  but  (to  check  with  the  correct  total 
area)  from  this  total  must  be  subtracted  3,029  acres,  probably  due  to  incomplete  statis- 
tics on  private  forests,  which  gives  a  net  total  of  1,085,520  acres.  From  these  statistics 
it  is  evident  that  the  area  of  State  forests  was  increased  12,467  acres  and  the  communal 
forests  3,768  acres  under  German  management.  About  half  the  increase  in  State  forest 
area  was  due  to  purchases  and  half  to  transfers  from  forests  formerly  in  undivided  owner- 
ship. It  is  of  interest  that  there  were  no  less  than  1,123  communes  owning  communal 
forests,  or  about  438  acres  average  per  commune  in  1913.  A  very  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  forest  area  is  in  public  ownership  than  in  France  proper  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  table : 


Class  of  ownership 

Per  cent  owned  by  classes  o 

owners 

Haute-Alsace 

Basse-Alsace 

Lorraine 

State 

Per  cent 
17.85 

Per  cent 
25.73 

10.14  * 

45.85 
0.77 
17.51 

Per  cent 
47.62 

Undivided 

Communes 

65.. 38 
0.18 
16.59 

27  57 

Public  institutions. . . . 

0  61 

Private .  . 

24.20 

Totals 

100 

100 

100 

*  The  most  important  forest  in  undivided  ownership  is  Haguenau,  with  35,313  acres. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  forests  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 

1  Digested  from  Les  Forets  d'Alsace  et  de  Lorraine,  par  H.  Lafosse,  Vol.  II,  Traveaux 
et  Notices  publics  par  I'Academie  d'Agriculture  de  France,  1919.  Based  on  1913 
statistics  collected  by  the  German  Forest  Service.  A  literal  translation  of  the  subject 
headings  of  the  above  monograph  is  as  follows:  "Area  of  forests,  Methods  of  treatment 
and  distribution  of  species.  Free  use,  Forest  administrative  organization.  Management 


496  APPENDIX 

Only  one-fifth  the  forest  area  is  in  private  hands  and  in  Haute-Alsace  two-thirds  the 
forests  are  in  the  hands  of  the  communes. 

Deforestation  is  rare;  from  1871  to  1912  only  2,923  acres  of  State  forest,  6,642  acres  of 
communal,  and  9,768  acres  of  private  forest  (total  of  19,333  acres)  has  been  cleared  —  a 
neghgible  per  cent  for  a  period  of  over  40  years.  Since  Alsace-Lorraine  was  annexed  by 
Germany  a  total  of  13,919  acres  has  been  reforested,  or  about  331  acres  per  year.  There 
is  only  about  74,000  acres  of  barren  land,  of  which  at  least  49,000  is  excellently  adapted 
for  grazing,  leaving  perhaps  25,000  acres  to  be  restocked.  This  compares  most  favor- 
ably with  France  proper,  where  there  is  perhaps  15  million  acres  of  unused  .soil,  at  least 
two-thirds  of  which  could  be  forested. 

Important  Species.  —  "  Besides,  in  the  forests  of  the  recovered  territory  there  are 
found  the  best  species  (fir,  pine,  oak,  beech)  and  the  production  of  timber,  favored  by  a 
climate  suitable  for  growth,  reaches  the  average  figure  of  4.1  cubic  meters  per  hectare  per 
year"  (perhaps  250  to  300  board  feet  per  acre  per  year).  According  to  Lafosse:  "The 
forests  are  located  for  the  most  part  in  the  Vosges  Mountains  and  on  their  lower  slopes; 
the  Lorraine  plateau  is  also  stocked  with  forests  and  they  are  found  in  the  valley  of  the 
Rhine  as  islands  (of  forest),  some  very  important  stands,  notably  Haguenau  and  Hardt 
(Mtilhausen)."  The  fir  and  beech  (high  forests)  are  found  chiefly  on  the  Vosges  sands 
(gres  vosgien)  and  the  granites,  while  the  oak-beech  (coppice  and  coppice-under- 
standards)  is  on  the  marls  and  limestone.  The  area,  by  species,  in  the  high  forests  is 
as  follows:  Beech  34|  per  cent,  fir  32^  per  cent,  pine  18  per  cent,  oak  12|  per  cent,  and 
birch-alder  2|  per  cent.  There  are  only  586  acres  of  larch  and  about  one-eighth  as 
much  spruce  as  fir.  Counting  all  species  the  broadleaves  comprise  seven-tenths  of  the 
stand  and  the  conifers  three-tenths. 

Silvicultural  Systems.  —  The  method  of  treatment  for  (a)  the  broadleaves  and 
(6)  the  conifers  is  as  follows: 

Per  cent  of  total  forest  area 

Broadleaves  :        Coppice 6 

Coppice-under-standards 26 

Protection  forests A  of  1 

Under  conversion 4§ 

Selection y%  of  1 

High  forest 30 

Total  broadleaves 67| 

Conifers:  Selection 1 

High  forest 31| 

Total  conifers 32^ 

Grand  total 100 

For  all  species  the  high  forest  systems  occupy  64  per  cent  of  the  area  but  comprise  73 
per  cent  in  the  State  forests  and  60  per  cent  in  the  communal  and  public  institution 
forests. 

The  age  cla.sses,  both  for  conifers  and  broadleaves,  are  well  distributed,  but  Lafosse  (in 
keeping  with  French  conservatism)  argues  that  the  older  stands  (over  100  years  of  age) 

of  the  forests.  Exploitation  of  the  timber.  Material  cut,  Money  yield  of  the  forests.  Wood 
prices,  Money  value  of  the  State  forests  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  "Expenditures  of  the  Forest 
Service,  Wood  industries,  Movement  of  the  exchange  of  forest  products,  Sliooting  in 
Alsace-Lorraine,  Policy  of  shooting.  Damage  caused  by  game."  These  data  have  been 
summarized  and  rearranged. 

Lafosse  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished  French  foresters  and  holds  the  rank  of  In- 
specteur  General  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  and  after  the  armistice  was  appointed  Directeur 
General  des  Eaux  et  Forets  et  de  I'Agriculture  d'Alsace  et  de  Lorraine. 


FORESTS  OF  ALSACE-LORRAINE  497 

are  deficient,  occupying  only  14  per  cent  of  the  area.  The  47,007  acres  under  conversion 
are  a  most  noteworthy  achievement  in  economy  and  are  really  the  feature  of  the  German 
forest  administration,  but,  according  to  Lafosse,  "The  method  used  was  not  scientific 
and  was  often  brutal,"  there  having  been  according  to  French  technique,  too  abrupt 
changes. 

Administrative  Organization.  —  In  1871  the  Germans  placed  oberforsters  (cor- 
responding to  supervisors)  in  charge  of  definite  units  instead  of  continuing  the  French 
system  of  forest  organization  which  provided  for  inspectors  supervising  a  considerable 
area,  subdivided  and  under  the  immediate  charge  of  assistant  inspectors.  In  addition 
to  the  usual  duties  the  oberforster  had  charge  of  logging  because  the  product  was  sold  in 
the  log  instead  of  as  standing  timber  as  in  France.  In  addition  all  road  improvements 
were  directly  under  the  oberforster  as  well  as  the  building  of  ranger  stations,  and  game 
control.  Under  the  oberforster  were  the  rangers  and  guards.  Over  the  oberforster  was 
the  forstmeister,  but  in  1881  this  position  was  abolished  for  political  reasons.^  Instead, 
two  or  three  advisors  (or  general  inspectors)  were  attached  to  the  office  of  the  ober- 
forstmeister,  who  corresponded  to  the  French  conservateur  or  American  district  forester. 
The  entire  service  was  under  a  director  or  landforstmeister.  There  were  about  817 
officers  in  the  entire  organization  of  whom  740  were  local  and  77  overhead.  The  ober- 
forster and  subordinate  force  were  lodged  or  given  an  allowance  for  quarters.  Just  how 
this  organization  will  be  modified  by  the  new  French  administration  it  is  too  early  to 
predict  but  it  is  fairly  certain  that  the  number  of  officers  and  employees  will  be  largely 
reduced  (and  French  officers  entirely  substituted) ;  if  sales  of  timber  are  again  made  on 
the  stumpage  basis  instead  of  as  manufactured  products  the  present  organization  wiU 
be  totally  changed. 

Working  Plans.  —  Working  plans  during  the  German  administration  were  pre- 
pared by  a  commission  composed  of  the  oberforstmeister  (conservateur)  and  the  ober- 
forster of  the  forest  concerned  and  were  approved  b}^  the  landforstmeister  (the  ranking 
forester  of  Alsace-Lorraine),  on  the  advice  of  the  technical  working  plan  bureau.  The 
forests  were  divided  into  working  groups,  sub-working  groups,  sections,  and  compart- 
ments. The  timber  was  divided  into  age  classes  and  the  soil  into  quality  classes,  and  the 
periods  were  usually  20  years  or  less.  The  yield  was  given  in  cubic  meters  —  never  by 
area  or  by  number  of  trees.  The  local  officer  in  charge  was  bound  to  the  prescribed  yield 
with  a  leeway  of  10  -per  cent  for  overrun  or  underrun.  It  is  of  interest  to  read  the  critique 
of  these  plans  by  Lafosse: 

"  The  working  plans  were  very  rich  in  many  columned  tables;  the  work  Vv^as  quite  com- 
plicated. At  first  glance,  the  French  methods,  because  of  their  suppleness  and  simplicity 
—  where  the  last  word  has  not  yet  been  said  —  seem  much  better.  However  there  is  one 
point  in  the  former  working  plans  which  shows  real  progress  over  the  French  system. 
It  is  the  program  of  logging  roads.  The  price  of  timber  is  closely  linked  with  logging 
facilities  —  an  elementary  truism  which  need  not  be  further  emphasized.  The  working 
plan  should  not  only  prescribe  the  best  rules  for  cultural  treatment,  but  it  must  also  dis- 
close the  means  of  assuring  a  handy  and  economical  removal  of  the  products.  This 
principle  was  applied  by  the  foresters  of  the  former  organization." 

Even  the  detailed  plan  of  road  work  was  incorporated  in  the  working  plan,  the  de- 
tails being  drawn  by  ^specialists,  so  that  when  the  working  plan  was  finally  approved  the 
supervisor  could  go  ahead  with  his  program.  Automatically  the  necessary  credits  were 
included  in  the  budget. 

2  It  is  of  historical  interest  to  note  that  the  difficult  and  troublesome  questions  of  free- 
use  rights  in  the  old  "Comte  de  Dabo  (Lorraine)"  were  not  settled  by  the  Germans. 
From  1882  to  1908  the  value  of  the  free-use  privileges  nearly  doubled.  They  attempted 
settlements  but  for  political  reasons  "withdrew  the  projects."  No  wonder  they  had 
difficulties  when  it  is  recalled  that  there  was  a  "veritable  revolt"  in  1848  when  French 
records  were  burned  and  foresters  shot. 


498 


APPENDIX 


The  rotations  were  much  shorter  than  in  France.  For  oak  the  rotation  was  rarely 
over  160  years,  beech  and  fir  120,  pine  70  to  80,  spruce  plantations  80  years  —  "As 
we  have  said  before  there  are  no  old  trees  in  Alsace-Lorraine."  The  former  method 
of  clear  cutting  followed  by  planting,  so  generally  followed,  has  "during  the  last  ten 
years  .  .  .  shown  a  tendency  toward  the  natural  regeneration  methods  of  the  French." 
With  French  control  unquestionably  natural  regeneration  will  largely  replace  clear  cutting 
and  planting. 

Logging.  —  The  German  administration  did  its  own  logging.  "  The  felled  timber 
was  transported  near  the  roads.  The  oberforsters  hired  the  lumberjacks  and  based 
their  wages  on  price  schedules  issued  by  the  conservators.  The  workmen  were  super- 
vised by  the  guards  and  especially  by  the  lumberjack  foremen.  The  latter  were  really 
the  ones  to  direct  the  logging."  The  manufactured  product  was  classified  according 
to  species  and  class  of  product  and  was  auctioned  in  small  lots  so  as  to  fill  the  small 
local  requirements;  and  with  small  sales  there  was  better  competition  and  hence  higher 
prices.  Sales  could  not  be  made  by  mutual  agreement  unless  the  product  in  question 
had  first  been  offered  at  pubHc  auction;  nor  could  timber  or  cordwood  be  sold  at  less 
than  10  per  cent  of  the  minimum  rate  (established  by  the  landforstmeister)  nor  could 
more  than  $2.5  worth  be  sold,  without  an  auction,  to  the  same  purchaser  in  one  fiscal 
year.  No  money  could  be  received  by  forest  officers  or  employees  —  it  was  paid  to 
the  "forstkrass"  or  "caisses  forestieres"  corresponding  to  the  American  fiscal  agent's 
office. 

Yield  Data.  —  It  is  of  interest  to  compare  the  total  yield  per  hectare  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine  with  border  departments: 


Class  of  forest 


State 

State 

Communal 

State 

State 

State 

Communal 
Communal 
Communal 


Alsace-Lorraine ... 
Alsace-Lorraine.  .  . 

Alsace-Lorraine 

Haute-Saone 

Vosges 

Meurthe-et-Moselle 

Haute-Saone 

Vosges 

Meurthe-et-Moselle 


Year 


1882 
1913 

1913 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 


Total  yield  per  hectare, 
cubic  meters 


Per  cent  saw  timber 
(bois  d'ceuvre) 


47.3    (88  per  cent 
bois  fort)* 

47  ".51 

56 . 8   44 . 1  average 

28.0 

20.0 

41.2    25.6  average 

15.6 


*  It  should  be  noted  that  according  to  German  usage  Derbholz  or  "bois  fort"  in- 
cludes some  wood  which  the  French  statistics  do  not  class  as  saw  timber,  namely,  "quar- 
tiers"  and  "rondins"  of  the  French  fuel  classes  (that  is,  everything  over  2.7  inches  at 
small  end). 

From  the  above  table  it  appears  that  the  communal  forests  in  Alsace-Lorraine  have 
a  lighter  yield  than  the  State  forests  and  that  the  French  State  forests  in  three  border 
departments  in  1911  averaged  4  cubic  meters  per  hectare  per  year  as  compared  with 
4.29  for  the  State  forests  in  Alsace-Lorraine;  the  relative  production  of  saw  timber  was 
44.1  per  cent  as  against  47.3  per  cent  for  Alsace-Lorraine.  The  French  communal 
forests  in  these  departments  were  very  inferior  as  regards  saw  timber  because  of  the 
high  proportion  of  coppice  and  coppice-under-standards.  Extremely  interesting  figures 
on  the  cost  of  logging  and  gross  receipts  are  given  for  the  communal  forests.  In  1913 
there  were  487,967  acres  cut  over  (chiefly  thinnings  of  varying  degree)  removing  862,352 
cubic  meters  (about  107,785,000  board  feet  and  44,910  cords).  In  addition,  45,759 
cubic   meters   of   dead   leaves   were   removed   for   local   use   as   bedding,    etc.     The 


FORESTS  OF  ALSACE-LORRAINE 


499 


cost  ^  of  logging  to  point  of  sale  was  $591,738  and  the  gross  receipts  $2,232,480.  This 
signifies  that  slmnpage  secured  almost  three-fourths  the  value  of  the  delivered  log  or  cord 
excluding  overhead. 

The  total  net  receipts  from  State  forests  (and  State  forests  held  in  undivided  owner- 
ship) was  $1,175,764  or  $7.78  per  acre  forested;  in  1913  the  net  total  was  $1,186,626, 
and  the  net  per  acre  $7.65  or  13  cents  less  than  in  1873.  In  1918  the  receipts  had 
almost  doubled  owing  to  war  inflation.  The  revenue  has  been  constant  except  in  1892 
and  1902  when  there  were  losses  from  windfall  due  to  an  overstocked  market  and  con- 
sequent low  prices.     There  are  no  rehable  data  on  the  returns  from  private  forests. 

Stumpage  Prices.  —  Stumpage  prices  have  fluctuated  with  the  economic  conditions, 
since  forestry  is  a  key  industry  in  Alsace-Lorraine.  The  prices  in  1913  and  1919  for  the 
different  classes  of  product  are  of  interest : 


Class  of  Product 

Minimum  length, 
feet 

Minimum 

diameter, 

inches 

Dollars  per  cubic  meter 

1913 

1919,  February 

(1)  Logs 

59.0 
59.0 

52.5 
45.9 
32.8 

under  32.8 
"Rondins" 

11.8 

8.7 
6.7 
5.5 
4.7 
5.5 

6.31 

5.71 
4.76 
3.81 
3.57 
3.10 
1.67  (stere) 

11  90 

(2)  Logs        

9  52 

(3)  Logs     . 

8  33 

(4)  Logs 

4  76 

(5)  Logs 

4  76 

(6)  Logs 

4  29 

Cordwood 

4.76  (stere) 

For  52.5-foot  trees,  6.7  inches  at  small  end  outside  bark,  these  prices  (for  class  3)  are 
equivalent  to  about  $19  a  thousand  board  feet  in  the  log  along  the  roads  and  $33  in 
early  1919.  This  means  about  $14  and  $24  on  the  stump  for  medium-sized  trees  in  1913 
and  1919.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  inflation  was  much  greater  in  France,  for  just 
across  the  border  at  St.  Die  the  last  auctions  of  1918  yielded  about  $47  per  thousand 
board  feet  for  good  fir  on  the  stump,  or  almost  double  the  price  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 

Miscellaneous  Data.  —  From  1907  to  1917,  304,895  acres  of  the  State  forests 
(about  five-sixths  of  the  total)  were  valued  by  the  German  service  and  totaled  with  the 
actual  growing  stock,  $78,735,237,  or  about  $254.37  per  acre.  Taking  five-sixths  of  the 
net  revenue  of  $7.65  per  acre  this  means  a  return  of  2^  per  cent  on  the  assessed  capital 
invested.  But  Lafosse  estimates  that  France  secures  State  forests  with  a  round  total 
sale  value  of  154  million  doflars  and  that  the  return  on  this  higher  valuation  has  been 
only  1.26  per  cent  —  "a  low  return."  For  all  public  forests  the  "coefficient  of  exploita- 
tion .  .  .  was  about  50  per  cent "  .  .  .  but  almost  $96,500  was  spent  annMa% 
on  road  and  railroad  development.  The  building  of  Government  forest  railroads  has 
proven  especially  profitable.  For  example,  the  Abreschwiller  paid  for  itself  in  6  years 
through  higher  prices  for  the  timber  and  cordwood.  The  Germans  put  4.7  per  cent  of 
the  total  money  spent  each  year  into  planting  and  sowing;  this  amounted  (for  the  State 
forest  area)  to  $4.87  per  acre  for  sowing  labor  and  $7.65  per  acre  for  planting  labor. 
The  planting  stock  averaged  $3.17  per  thousand  transplants,  which  is  certainly  not  a 
high  cost  compared  with  the  costs  on  National  Forests  in  the  United  States. 

Wood  Industries.  —  The  chief  wood  industries  are:  Sawmills,  furniture,  flooring, 
wooden  shoes,  implement  handles,  shoe  trees,  vehicle  bodies,  billiard  tables,  etc. 

In  1907  Alsace-Lorraine  imported  50,000  tons  (a  deficit  of  about  one-twentieth  the 
total  production)  of  wood  products  mostly  from  Austria,  Sweden,  and  the  Rhine  "Pala- 

3  The  normal  value  of  the  mark  23.8  cents  was  used  in  converting  marks  to  dollars. 


500  APPENDIX 

tinat,"  so  the  return  of  the  "lost  provinces"  to  France  will  not  help  her  timber  shortage. 
Considering  that  30  per  cent  of  the  country  is  forested  it  is  especially  surprising  to  find 
that  70,000  steres  (about  20,000  cords)  of  fuel  are  imported  and  in  addition  7^  million 
tons  of  coal.  Granting  that  Alsace-Lorraine  cannot  export  wood  to  France,  France 
must  reforest  with  rapidly  growing  species  her  15  million  acres  of  land  which  is  not  now 
'producing,  and  the  low  production  of  French  private  forests  must  be  increased.  "The 
owners  must  be  persuaded  to  give  up  their  short  rotations  (in  coppice  and  coppice- 
under-standards)  and  must  be  shown  the  necessity  of  producing  saw  timber"  —  for  the 
benefit  of  the  public. 

Judging  from  the  data  now  available  the  German  administration  of  Alsace-Lorraine 
public  forests  has  been  honest,  efficient,  and  along  correct  lines.  France  receives  back  a 
valuable  property  which  has  been  wisely  developed  during  the  41  years  of  alienation. 


APPENDIX  K 

ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN  DATA 

Translations  from  original  French  Government  working  plans  give  a  further  insight 
into  management  methods  and  policy.  The  original  French  metric  system  has  been 
retained.     The  following  extracts  are  given: 

(1)  Digest  of  Grande  Cote  (Jura)  working  plan  revision  illustrating  a  working  plan 
by  Devarennes. 

(2)  Extract  from  working  plan  revision  of  State  forest  of  Ban  d'Etival,  by  Cuif, 
showing  error  in  stocktaking  in  1898.  Masson  method  of  yield  calculation  used  ex- 
perimentally as  a  comparison  with  the  method  of  1883  and  regulation  by  number  of 
trees.  This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  forests  in  France  for  detailed  study  by  those 
interested  in  forest  management. 

(3)  Forest  of  Mont  Glore.  An  example  of  errors  in  early  yield  calculation  which 
resulted  in  an  overcut. 

(4)  Forest  of  Hardies  (near  Oloron,  Basses-Pyrenees).  Forestry  on  alluvial  land 
subject  to  flooding,  and  therefore  unsuited  to  agriculture. 

(5)  Forest  of  La  Joux  (Haute-Jura).  Yield  calculation  where  there  is  an  excess 
growing  stock.     Graphic  of  growing  stock  compared  with  an  empirical  normal  stand. 

(6)  Forest  of  Fillinges  (Haute-Savoie) .    Recovery  of  a  forest  after  forest  management. 

(7)  Forest  of  Burdignin  (Haute-Savoie).  Example  of  yield  regulation  by  the  method 
of  1883. 

(8)  Forest  of  Pare  et  St.  Quentin  (Oise).  Example  of  yield  regulation  by  periods, 
with  the  provision  that  the  silvical  needs  of  the  regeneration  fellings  (which  will  be  de- 
pendent on  the  seed  crops  secured)  should  be  subordinate  to  the  sequence  of  fellings  laid 
out  by  the  working  plan. 

(9)  Forest  of  Thiez  (Haute-Savoie).  Example  of  a  complete  working  plan  by  Schaef- 
fer,  the  foremost  working  plans  officer  in  France. 

(1)  STATE  FOREST  OF  GRANDE  COTE  (JURA) 
PART  I 
"All  the  available  statistics  concerning  the  state  forest  of  Grande  Cote  are  given  in 
detail  in  the  management  plan  of  February  26,  1858,  and  in  the  revisions  of  March  31, 
1884,  and  April  27,  1897.  Since  this  latter  date  there  have  been  no  actual  changes  in 
area.  This  area  given  in  the  revision  of  1897  was  381.61  hectares."  .  .  .  Minor 
additions  and  substitutions  have  been  made  because  of  roads.     .     .     . 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA  501 

PART  II.  — MANAGEMENT  IN  FORCE 

FORMER    MANAGEMENT    PLANS 

Art.  1.  —  Digest  of  the  bases  of  management.  —  The  State  forest  of  Grande 
Cote  before  it  became  State  property  belonged  to  the  order  of  Citeaux,  Abbey  St.  Marie. 

It  was  originally  cut  under  the  selection  system,  while  the  yield  was  regulated  by  the 
number  of  trees  in  accordance  with  the  former  usage.  The  decree  of  August  23,  1858, 
substituted  the  shelterwood  system.  The  rotation  was  placed  at  150  years  and  divided 
into  5  periods  of  30  years  each,  corresponding  to  5  periodic  blocks  on  the  ground. 

During  the  first  period  1858-1887,  the  principal  felling  areas  had  to  be  laid  out  in  the 
first  periodic  block  and  in  certain  compartments  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  periodic  blocks 
with  a  yield  of  2,919  steres  or  1,883  m.  c. 

All  the  compartments  not  subjected  to  the  main  fellings  were  run  over  by  biennial 
selection  fellings  to  commence  with  and  controlled  by  volume  (310  steres  or  200  m.  c), 
but  dating  from  1864  (decree  of  June  25)  by  area  and  every  four  years. 

The  improvement  cuttings  were  unlimited  in  volume  and  the  local  executive  officers 
were  free  to  propose  them  as  they  saw  fit. 

At  the  time  of  the  1884  revision  (approved  by  decree  of  June  6,  1885)  the  rotation 
was  160  years  dating  from  1858  and  divided  into  4  periods  of  40  years  each,  corre- 
sponding to  the  same  number  of  periodic  blocks. 

During  the  last  14  years  of  the  period  (1884-1897),  the  yield  of  1,668  m.  c.  was  secured 
in  the  first  and  fourth  periodic  blocks. 

Timber  of  0.60  m.  in  circumference  (7  inches  d.  b.  h.)  cut  in  the  first,  second,  or 
fourth  periodic  blocks  (except  c.^)  was  subtracted  from  the  prescribed  yield. 

Improvement  cuttings  in  places  selection  in  character,  elsewhere  thinnings  and 
cleanings  were  carried  out  on  a  cutting  cycle  of  14  j'ears  in  the  fourth  periodic  block. 

MANAGEMENT   ACTUALLY   IN   FORCE 

In  1897  (decree  of  September  3,  1897)  the  permanent  periodic  blocks  were  suppressed 
and  the  compartments  readjusted  in  two  groups. 

The  first  group  including  the  compartments  to  be  cut  over  under  regeneration  fellings 
by  volume,  the  second  comprising  the  remaining  compartments  and  the  object  of  the 
fellings  both  for  improvement  and  mere  extraction  by  area.  These  latter  fellings 
extended  also  to  the  first  group,  but  they  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  main  felhngs. 

The  yield  recruited  on  the  entire  area  of  the  forest  was  fixed  at  3,200  m.  c.  The 
volume  of  all  conifers  0.80  m.  in  circumference  (10  inches  d.  b.  h.)  and  above,  no  matter 
how  realized,  on  the  entire  forested  area  was  subtracted  from  the  yield. 

During  a  period  of  16  years,  from  1897  to  1912,  they  carried  out:  (1)  Regeneration 
fellings  in  the  compartments  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  7,  8,  9,  12,  13,  and  23;  (2)  improvement  cut- 
tings and  extraction  on  a  cycle  of  8  years  on  the  entire  surface  of  the  forest. 

Art.  2.  —  Results  obtained.  —  The  various  fellings  have  left  the  forest  in  the 
following  condition : 

(1)  Compartments  of  the  first  group,  subjected  to  regeneration  fellings  (188.69 
hectares) . 

The  compartments  1  and  23  may  be  considered  as  entirely  regenerated;  they  com- 
prise poles  and  young  standards  over  a  complete  young  growth  with  which  there  is 
some  old  timber  which  should  be  cut  without  delay.  On  the  other  hand  regeneration 
must  be  continued  or  secured  later  on  in:  compartments  2,  3,  4,  and  7  which  comprise 
full  crowned  veterans,  regular  and  dense,  over  advance  growth  and  saplings  in  groups 
usually  well  started:  500  m.  c.  per  hectare  on  the  average  of  which  41  per  cent  is  timber 
1.8  m.  or  more  in  circumference.     Also  compartments  8,  12,  13  which  comprise  rather 


502 


APPENDIX 


open  veterans  over  quite  dense  seedlings:  340  m.  c.  per  hectare  on  the  average  of  which 
35  per  cent  is  ripe  timber.  Compartments  5  and  9  comprise  standards  and  large  poles, 
dense,  regular,  and  in  very  fine  condition,  over  seedling  growth. 

(2)  Remaining  compartments  cut  over  by  improvement  fellings  (192.92  hectares). 
The  compartments  6,  11,  16,  17,  18  which  are  in  the  sapling  and  pole  stage,  with  several 
veteran  stands  regular  and  dense. 

Compartments  10,  14,  15,  19,  22  are  mature,  in  fully  stocked  stands;  dense  with  a 
promising  growth  of  a  certain  number  of  poles. 

The  compartments  20,  21,  23,  24  comprise  irregular  poles  and  veterans  with  a  certain 
amount  of  scattering  large  timber  over  thick  seedling  growth  and  saplings.  Generally 
speaking  the  stands  are  growing  well.  While  continuing  to  cut  the  mature  timber 
there  should  be  no  hesitation  in  thinning  the  poles  so  as  to  increase  their  growth. 

Art.  3.  —  Application  of  the  yield.  —  The  following  table  gives  (in  accordance 
with  the  records  at  Pontarlier)  the  volume  and  the  value  of  wood  products  realized  in 
the  State  forest  of  Grande  Cote  during  the  15  years  from  1897  to  1911. 


Years 

Fellings 

Accidental 
products  * 

Total  volume 
per  year 

Value  of  the 

Regeneration 

Improvement 

products 

1897 

m.3 

m.' 

m.3 

3,461 

1,148 

904 

978 

764 

1,133 

1,097 

1,159 

1,215 

1,040 

966 

1,316 

765 

3,063 

1,337 

m.3 
3,461 

2,940 
3,176 
3,224 
3,200 
3,319 
3,080 
3,200 
3,200 
3,202 
3,219 
3,302 
3,118 
3,063 
4,086 

Francs 
51,600 

1898 

1,792 
2,272 
2,246 
2,436 
2,186 
1,983 
1,025 
1,985 
2,162 
2,022 
1,986 
2,353 

51,150 

1899 

57,950 

1900 

66,600 

1901 

.. 

65,150 

1902 

52,700 

1903 

59,970 

1904 
1905 

1,016 

70,250 
57,400 

1906 

53,070 

1907 
1908 

231 

60,840 
71,730 

1909 

64,120 

1910 

57,670 

1911 

1,992 

757 

84,760 

Total 

3,239 
216 

25,205 
1,680 

20,346 
7,356 

48,790 
3,252 

924,960 

Average 

61,664 

*  Note  large  and  varying  amounts  of  "accidental  products"  —  chiefly  windfall. 
The  loss  in  timber,  where  a  large  area  is  cut  over  and  then  left  for  40  or  50  years,  as  in 
the  western  United  States,  must  be  very  great,     m.  c.  and  also  m.^  =  cubic  meters. 

From  the  preceding  figures  it  seems  that  during  the  15  years,  the  average  annual 
yield  per  hectare  has  been: 

3,252 


In  material 


In  money 


38,161 


8.52  cubic  meters. 

161.58  francs  ($12.47  per  acre). 


Exploitation  Balance  Sheet.  —  In  the  15  years  1897  to  1911  there  should  have 
been  cut  3,200  X  15  or  48,000  m.  c;  there  was  actually  realized  48,790  or  an  excess  of 
790.     This  excess  provided  for  the  windfall  of  1911. 

In  order  to  include  a  period  sufficiently  long,  we  have  compared  the  inventory  of  1883 
and  the  results  of  stocktaking  of  1911,  excluding  the  old  compartment,  25  (now  27), 
which  was  not  enumerated  in  1883. 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA 
The  results  obtained  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


503 


Date 
of  In- 
ven- 
tory 

Number  of  trees 

Total 

Per 
hec- 
tare 

214 
203 

Volumes 

Total 

Average 

timber 

0.80  to  1.20 

Interme- 
diate 
timber 
1.40  to  1.60 

Exploit- 
timber 
1.80  and -h 

Average 

timber 

0.80  to  1.20 

Interme- 
diate 
timber 
1.40  to  1.60 

Exploit- 
able 
timber 
1.80  and  + 

Per 

hec- 
tare 

1883 
1911 

50,184 
47,851 

Per 

cent 
65 
62 

20,613 
21,168 

Per 

cent 

27 

7,159 
8,303 

9 

77,956 
77,322 

m.3 

47,387 
42,866 

Per 
cent 
36 
32 

m.3 
50,241 
53,695 

Per 
cent 

28 

39 

m.3 
33,466 
38,633 

Per 
cent 
26 
29 

m.' 
131,094 
135,194 

m.3 
343 
353 

-2,333 

-1-555 

+1.144 

-634 

-4,521 

+3,454 

+5,167 

+4,100 

Composition  of  the  Stands  (Number  of  trees  and  volume).  —  The  number  of 
trees  0.80  m.  and  over  in  circumference  has  passed  from  an  average  of  214  per  hectare 
to  203  and  the  volume  from  343  m.  c.  per  hectare  to  353  m.  c. 

The  stands  have  not  sensibly  changed  during  the  period  1883-1911;  they  are  more- 
over very  nearly  in  the  condition  which  is  considered  normal  in  the  Jura  except  for  a 
slight  shortage  in  volume  of  old  timber. 

Growth  in  Volume,  —  The  comparison  of  the  inventories  of  1883  and  1911  gives 

an  excess  in  1911  of  4,100  m.  c.     From  1883  to  1896  25,099  m.  c.  has  been  reahzed 

making  a  total  of  73,053  m.  c.     From  1897  to  1911  47,954  m.  c.  has  been  cut.     The 

77,153       ^„^ 

2,753  m.  c;  per 


total  growth  for  the  28  years  would  be  77,153  or  annually 
2,753  m. 


hectare  and  per  year 


364.86  ha 
Growth  Per  Cent.  —  Average  capital 


=  7.55  m.  c. 

131,094  +  135,194 


average  stand  volume  per  hectare  of 


133,144 
36,486 


2 

365  m. 


28 


133,144  m.  c.  making  an 


^       ,,  ,  7.55  X  100       ^  , 

Growth  per  cent tt^^ or  2.1  per  cent. 

3bo 


We  have  not  thought  it  possible  to  take  account  of  the  stock  estimates  of  1896  because 
in  comparing  it  with  the  inventories  of  1883  and  on  the  other  hand  with  the  inventory 
of  1911  we  arrive  at  results  which  do  not  appear  to  be  admissible. 


Comparison  of  the  inventories 
of  1896  and  1883 


Comparison  of  the  inventories 
of  1896  and  1911 


Volume  of  the  timber 
0.80  m.  in  circum- 
ference and  over  in- 
ventoried  


Volume  of  the  timber 
0.80  m.  in  circum- 
ference and  over 
realized 


1883  =  131,094  m.  c. 
1896  =  153,793  m.  c* 
i.e.  22,699  m.  c.  more 

From  1884  to  1896  =  25,377 
Total  growth  in  13  years  = 

48,076  or  per  year  3,698 
Per  hectare  and  per  year 
3,698       ,.,, 

3g^=  10.13  m.c. 

Growth  per  cent 
10.13  X  100       -  „ 
7^^ =  2.6  per  cent 


1896  =  160,534  m.  c. 
1911  =  143,062  m.  c. 
i.e.  17,472  m.  c.  less 

From  1897  to  1911  =  48,790 
Total  growth  in  15  years  = 
48,790-17,472  =  31,318  m.c. 
Per  hectare  and  per  year 

2,088       .  ,_ 

8j6l  =  ^-^^ 
Growth  per  cent 

5.47  X  100       ,  , 

5q^ =1.4  per  cent 


Not  including  the  compartment  25  which  had  not  been  inventoried  in  1883. 


504  APPENDIX 

We  cannot  satisfactorily  explain  how,  in  a  period  of  28  years,  while  the  average 
volume  per  hectare  remains  sensibly  the  same,  the  annual  growth  per  hectare  could 
reach  10.13  m.  c.  during  the  first  13  years  considered,  while  it  is  put  at  5.47  m.  c.  during 
the  last  15  years,  the  per  cent  falling  similarly  from  2.6  to  1.4;  the  vegatative  conditions 
having  remained  the  same  and  the  yield  adopted  having  always  been  very  moderate 
(from  1.5  to  2  per  cent  of  the  growing  stock  enumerated).  It  seems  that  differences  so 
marked  and  so  abnormal  must  be  attributed  to  inaccuracies  in  the  enumerations  of  1896 
taken  as  a  basis  for  discussion.  Moreover  in  a  forest  at  quite  a  high  altitude,  such  as 
that  we  are  discussing  (average  of  1,000  meters),  where  the  climate  is  severe,  it  seems 
difficult  to  admit,  as  the  author  of  the  1897  working  plan  has  done,  that  the  average 
annual  increment  per  hectare  could  be  10  m.  c.  and  continue  thus  indefinitely.  Such 
a  growth  is  found  actually  at  Levier  and  at  La  Joux  but  these  two  forests,  situated  at  a 
lower  altitude  (average  of  380  m.)  and  in  a  materially  milder  climate,  show  stands 
which  are  not  comparable  to  those  of  the  Grande  Cote.  On  the  plea  of  maintaining 
the  timber  capital  at  as  high  a  rate  of  production  as  possible,  it  does  not  do  to  merely 
cut  the  mature  timber  and  to  l)elieve,  as  written  in  the  working  plan  of  1897  (p.  35), 
that  a  forest,  such  as  Levier,  only  depreciates  its  per  cent  of  production  by  making 
sacrifices  to  mature  timber  and  that  the  production  of  the  Grande  Cote  is  raised  because 
it  contains  average  sized  trees.  It  is  very  laudable  to  try  to  obtain  the  maximum  yield 
and  usually  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  reaUze  the  mature  timber,  but  is  it  not  most 
important  to  make  sure  the  forests  are  perpetuated? 

The  factors  which  have  an  influence  on  the  production  of  wood  are  extremely  numer- 
ous; even  if  they  are  more  or  less  known  to  us,  yet  we  are  still  in  doubt  about  many 
of  them,  as  to  what  is  the  actual  action  and  effective  part  of  each  in  a  phenomenon  so 
complicated  as  that  of  the  growth  of  wood  and  of  the  life  history  of  a  forest  stand. 

Therefore,  putting  aside  the  systematic  theories  which  often  may  hide  the  forest  as 
it  is,  we  feel  we  will  have  fulfilled  our  task,  if,  adopting  the  main  provisions  of  the  work- 
ing plan  in  force  (in  order  to  avoid  those  disorders  which  may  compromise  the  benefits 
of  a  revision)  and  without  any  preconceived  idea,  we  will  succeed  in  placing  the  stands 
of  the  Grande  Cote  in  the  best  possible  condition  to  assure  their  vigor  and  to  favor  their 
growth. 

PART  III.  —  REVISION 

Art.  1.  —  Discussion  of  the  management  in  force  and  the  method  of  treatment 
proposed.  —  The  working  plan  on  the  whole  is  good;  however,  it  appears  to  us  to  be 
defective  in  the  following  points : 

(1)  The  area  allotted  for  regeneration  is  too  large;  it  occupies  more  than  two-fifths 
of  the  forest  and  consequently  it  has  been  impossible  to  cut  it  over  with  real  regeneration 
fellings. 

Furthermore  this  group  must  be  absolutely  distinct  and  cannot  be  linked,  without 
serious  drawbacks,  to  the  compartments  to  be  cut  over  by  area;  in  such  a  case  one  is 
compelled  to  practice  bastard  fellings,  clearly  without  any  definite  character,  after 
which  the  seeding  does  not  take  place. 

(2)  To  guide  the  executive  officers  in  the  natural  operations,  it  is  indispensable  to 
indicate  the  compartments  which  must  be  regenerated  after  those  of  the  first  group. 

(3)  It  is  necessary  to  prescribe  for  the  beech  in  a  definite  manner;  this  associate  species 
is  very  essential  for  the  regeneration  and  good  growth  of  fir  stands.  Its  substitution 
for  the  conifers  however  should  be  prevented. 

(4)  For  the  reasons  already  explained,  the  actual  yield,  which  corresponds  to  a 
production  of  8.6  m.  c.  must  be  reduced. 


ORIGINAL  WORKING   PLAN   DATA 


505 


It  will  be  calculated  anew  with  the  1911  valuations  as  a  basis,  and  after  taking  account 
of  the  state  of  the  stands;  the  annual  growth  of  7.3  m.  c.  (which)  is  a  growth  per  cent 
of  2  for  the  period  1883-1911.  Under  these  conditions  the  State  forest  of  Grande 
Cote  will  be  treated  as  regular  high  forest  in  a  single  working  group  with  a  rotation  of 
150  years. 

The  shelterwood  system  will  continue  in  force,  but  with  the  following  modification 
(see  "Regulation,"  p.  239): 

The  permanent  periodic  blocks  will  remain  void  but  the  compartments  will  be  divided 
into  three  groups:  (a)  Compartments  to  be  regenerated;  (b)  those  compartments 
which  according  to  all  probability  will  be  ready  for  regeneration  after  those  of  the 
first  group;  (c)  the  remaining  compartments  of  the  forest. 

The  compartments  will  continue  to  be  designated  from  the  N.  E.  to  the  S.  W.;  in 
the  course  of  time  by  Arabic  numerals.  On  the  map  the  compartments  of  the  first  group 
will  be  shown  by  blue;  those  of  the  second  group  by  yellow;  while  those  of  the  third 
group  will  not  be  colored  at  all. 

Art.  2.  —  Dividing  the  forest  into  compartments.  —  The  former  division  into 
compartments  has  been  preserved  when  it  is  suitable  on  the  ground:  it  has  only  been 
modified  as  to  the  former  compartments  23  and  24,  each  of  which  have  been  cut  in  two 
to  form  the  new  compartments  23,  24,  25,  26.  In  order  to  establish  the  special  felling 
plan  the  compartments  have  been  divided  into  three  groups.  In  the  first  have  been 
placed  compartments  2,  3,  4,  7,  8,  12,  13  which  contain  the  most  mature  timber,  whose 
regeneration  should  be  carried  out  during  the  period  for  exploitation  and  which  there- 
fore will  be  cut  for  regeneration.  The  second  group  includes  compartments  4,  9,  10, 
14,  15,  19,  22  which  apparently  will  come  in  turn  to  be  regenerated  after  those  of  the 
first  group.  The  third  group  will  be  formed  of  the  remaining  compartments  1,  6,  11, 
16,  17,  18,  20,  21,  23,  25,  26,  27;  these  last  two  groups  will  be  run  over  by  improve- 
ment and  extraction  fellings.     Consequently  the  following  general  felling  schedule  is 


First  group 

Second  group 

Third  group 

Compart- 
ments 

Cantons 

Compart- 
ments 

Cantons 

Compart- 
ments 

Cantons 

No. 

Area, 
hec- 
tares 

No. 

Area, 
hec- 
tares 

No. 

Area, 
hec- 
tares 

La  Lame    

4 

8 
12 
13 

25.62 
10.38 

4.92 
20,09 
11. .57 

6.70 
11.35 

Creux  Vuillaume. . . 
CreuxVuiUaume... 

Les  Vieilles 

Les  Vieilles 

9 
5 
10 
14 

15 
19 
22 

5.96 
20.69 
20.67 
17.51 
10.62 
11.84 

9.46 

1 

6 

16 

18 
20 

23 
24 
25 
26 

27 

21.56 

La  Lame 

9  17 

Preaux  Rets 

Les  Vieilles 

7  00 

Les  Vieilles 

Les  Arpents 

Grandes 

Creux  du  Cerf 

Les  Arpents 

Chateau  Mergot .  .  . 
Grandes  Chaines .  . 
Grandes  Chaines..  . 
Creux  du  Cerf 

Au  dessus  des 

Granges 

Granges 

Paquis  de  Vaux 

20.83 
6.49 
17.53 
22.08 
14.77 
17.12 
12.10 
13.13 
16.75 
16.75 

Quart  dePlomb 

Grandes  Chaines 

90.63 

96.75 

193.43 

506  APPENDIX 

On  the  other  hand,  because  of  the  construction  of  the  Frasne-Vallorbe  railroad,  the 
areas  of  the  compartments  enumerated  below  are  reduced  as  follows : 

Hectares  Hectares  Hectares 

Compartment  1  =  21.82  -  0.26  =  21.56 
Compartment  12  =  6.93  -  0.23  =  6.70 
Compartment  17  =  6.66  -  0.17  =  6.49 
Compartment  23  =  17.26  -  0.14  =  17.12 

REGENERATION    FELLINGS 

Art.  6.  —  Special  fellings  schedule  for  a  period  of  32  years,  1913-1944.  —  The 

essential  aim  of  the  shelterwood  method  is  to  replace  a  mature  stand  by  young  growth 
and  the  cultural  difficulties  which  accompany  this  reahzation  consist  in  its  creation 
rather  than  its  development  until  the  merchantable  age.  In  order  to  attain  this  result 
it  is  necessary  to  mark  in  the  first  place  the  regeneration  felling;  in  order  to  assure  its 
regular  and  methodical  execution,  there  have  been  set  aside  each  year  for  this  operation 
a  quota  of  the  pre-deter mined  yield.     This  share  is  fixed  at  1,290  m.  c. 

The  compartments  of  the  first  group  include  41,068  m.  c.;  this  growth  is  not  counted 
in  order  to  make  allowance  for  the  polewood  which  can  be  conserved. 

To  reaUze  on  this  volume  there  will  be  needed      '         =  32  or  32  years  for  the  annual 

felling;  the  exploitation  plan  will  then  be  32  years  (years  1913-1944). 

The  regeneration  fellings  will  be  carried  out : 

(a)  As  final  fellings  in  compartments  12,  13  and  8;  (6)  as  secondary  fellings,  then 
as  final  feUings  in  compartments  2,  3,  4,  and  7.  They  will  be  laid  out  gradually  in  the 
order  indicated  above  conforming  to  the  rules;  they  will  not  pass  from  one  compart- 
ment to  the  next  one  until  after  it  has  been  entirely  cut  over. 

IMPROVEMENT   CUTTINGS 

They  will  take  place  in  the  compartments  of  the  second  and  third  groups  which  will 
be  cut  over  so  far  as  possible  within  10  or  12  years  and  in  the  following  order:  20,  21, 
1,  22  to  27,  .5,  6,  11,  9,  10,  14,  to  19.  The  yield  will  be  recruited  after  deducting  the 
regeneration  felHngs  and  the  chance  cuttings;  the  area  of  the  annual  felling  area  will 
depend  on  the  volume  remaining  to  be  marked. 

Art.  6.  —  Application  of  the  yield.  —  In  order  to  realize  the  yield  the  local  officers 
should  at  the  start  mark  the  regeneration  felling.  The  volume  of  the  timber  0.60  m. 
(7  inches  d.  b.  h.)  and  above  in  circumference  cut  under  this  head  being  known  and  at 
most  equal  to  1,290  m.  c.  they  will  add  to  it  (if  there  is  any)  the  volume  of  windfall 
and  overmature  timber  sold  or  marked  during  the  current  fiscal  year.  The  total  will 
be  deducted  from  the  ordinary  yield  and  the  result  of  this  subtraction  will  show  the 
amount  to  be  cut  under  improvement  fellings.  All  these  volumes  will  be  calculated 
by  the  volume  table  used  for  the  valuation  of  the  forest. 

Revision  of  the  Yield.  —  The  yield  will  be  revised  for  the  year  1944  or  (if  there  is 
any)  for  half  the  period  assigned  to  the  felling  schedule  in  1930. 

Cultural  Rules.  —  Generally  the  regeneration  and  improvement  fellings  will  be 
laid  out  in  accordance  with  ordinary  cultural  rules.  It  seems  necessary,  however,  to 
call  local  officers'  attention  to  the  following  points: 

Regeneration  fellings  —  first  group.  —  These  fellings  must  aim  to  form  a  young  stand; 
seeding  of  the  soil  and  the  substitution  within  a  given  period  of  seedlings,  thickets, 
saplings,  and  young  polewood  for  the  existing  high  forest. 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA  507 

Where  there  is  not  any  young  growth,  the  seed  feUing  should  be  made  at  once  and 
in  opening  up  the  stand  carefully  avoid  giving  any  hold  to  the  dangerous  winds.  For 
this  purpose  it  will  be  best  to  start  with  quite  large  openings,  the  areas  chosen  being 
so  far  as  possible  amidst  vigorous  stems  with  well-developed  crowns  and  long  boles, 
leaving  groups  of  4  to  5  trees  so  as  to  best  resist  the  wind.  The  cover  should  be  opened 
up  by  taking  short  branchy  trees,  poles  (growing)  on  stumps  and  those  which  are  with- 
out a  future.  The  beech  and  the  weeds  which  form  the  bushy  under  story  should  be 
cut  back. 

Wherever  the  soil  is  covered  with  grass  which  prevents  the  germination  of  the  seed, 
the  scraping  or  raking  (by  strips)  of  the  living  cover  and  the  thick  layer  of  needles  as 
yet  undecomposed  will  assist  the  growth  of  seedlings. 

In  order  to  so  far  as  possible  decrease  the  considerable  damage  to  existing  young 
growth  caused  by  too  frequent  fellings  of  mature  timber  and  to  decrease  the  windfall, 
the  secondary  fellings  will  be  reduced  to  one  or  two  at  most;  then  the  final  felling  will 
take  place.  These,  once  commenced,  should  extend  over  the  entire  compartment  even 
in  the  parts  not  regenerated,  for,  if  after  the  secondary  feUing  and  the  freeing  of  the 
branches,  the  seeding  has  not  yet  taken  place  it  will  not  come  in  naturally.  Then  it 
would  be  preferable  to  plant  after  the  removal  of  the  mature  timber,  selecting  the  most 
appropriate  species  either  to  improve  the  so  il  or  to  estabhsh  a  mixture  which  is  always 
desirable.  Each  time  the  forest  is  cut  over  care  should  be  taken  to  remove  ripe  timber 
because  of  its  size  or  poor  condition.  The  medium-sized  timber  and  the  poles  which 
are  damaged,  which  cannot  develop  or  which  hinder  reproduction,  must  be  always 
marked  in  addition  to  the  mature  timber.  Only  reserve  the  poles  and  standards  in 
groups;  every  tree,  which  after  growing  in  a  crowded  stand  becomes  isolated,  is  sure 
to  decrease  in  value  and  vigor.  These  regeneration  fellings  will  always  be  laid  out, 
one  after  the  other,  and  should  not  pass  from  a  compartment  to  the  next  one  untU  it 
has  been  entirely  cut  over.  At  the  same  time,  all  the  necessary  cultural  operations 
must  be  carried  out:  thinnings  in  the  poles,  cleanings  in  the  thickets  and  saplings. 

Improvement  Cuttings.  —  (1)  Compartments  of  the  second  group,  5,  9,  10,  14, 
15,  19,  22.  The  second  group  includes  the  compartments  which  come  up  for  regenera- 
tion after  those  of  the  first  group.  After  30  years  there  should  be  a  stand  ready  with 
as  many  merchantable  trees  as  possible.  In  these  compartments  the  thinnings  will  be 
very  light,  for  the  stands  must  be  kept  dense  and  the  only  trees  which  should  be  really 
logged  are  those  above  the  merchantable  diameter  hmit.  Thus  the  promising  trees 
whatever  their  diameter  will  get  a  start,  and  only  the  trees  which  are  dechning  in  vigor 
and  those  fully  mature,  which  would  diminish  in  value  if  left  standing  longer,  will  be 
removed.  While  avoiding  an  abnormal  reproduction  it  will  be  possible  to  give  a  Uttle 
light  to  existing  young  growth. 

(2)  Compartments  of  the  third  group.  In  these  compartments  the  trees  which 
have  reached  an  exploitable  size  can  be  gradually  felled  and  the  future  stock  will  be 
opened  up  so  that  they  can  develop  with  free  crowns,  but  taking  good  care  to  keep  the 
stand  as  fully  stocked  as  possible.  Everything  which  covers  the  soil,  even  the  weeds, 
should  be  carefully  preserved.  No  effort  will  be  made  to  start  reproduction;  if  it  comes 
in  accidentally  in  any  case  the  poles  and  young  stands  will  not  be  sacrificed.  On  the 
other  hand  there  will  be  no  hesitation  in  cutting  out  the  overmature  timber  wherever 
it  may  be  found,  where  it  is  suppressing  the  advance  growth  (especially  in  compart- 
ments 1,  20,  21,  23,  24).  In  the  pole  stands  regular  thinnings  will  be  carried  out  by 
freeing  the  crowns  of  the  best  boles.  The  beech,  being  valuable  from  all  viewpoints, 
must  not  be  eliminated.  Only  the  excess  beech  stems  will  be  cut,  but  it  must  be  kept 
from  taking  the  place  of  the  conifers. 


508  APPENDIX 


PART  IV.  —  BETTERMENTS 

Only  the  absolutely  essential  betterments  to  be  accomplished  between  1913  and  1944 
are  listed : 

Management  Lettering.  —  The  compartments  will  be  marked  by  painting  letters 
on  a  white  background  on  boundary  trees,  work  which  may  be  estimated  at  100  francs. 

Logging  Roads.  —  The  existing  roads  are  generally  in  good  condition  and  are  suffi- 
cient for  logging  purposes.  Their  maintenance  requires  an  average  yearly  expense  of 
2,000  francs  or  for  32  years,  64,000  francs. 

Cultural  Betterments.  —  First  for  restocking  the  blanks  which  may  occur,  and  for 
completing  the  natural  reproduction  if  that  should  be  necessarj^,  it  will  suffice  to  esti- 
mate the  annual  planting  of  2,000  trees  which  will  mean  a  labor  expense  of  15  francs 
per  thousand,  or  30  francs  and  for  32  years,  960  francs. 

Secondly,  these  plants  will  be  furnished  by  the  nursery  already  established  in  the 
forest.  It  has  an  area  of  0.23  of  a  hectare  and  its  annual  maintenance  amounts  to  120 
francs  or  for  32  years,  3,840  francs. 

68  900 

Total,  68,900  francs,  or  an  estimated  annual  cost  of      '         =  2,153  francs  ($416). 

oZ 

PART  V.  —  COMPARATIVE  REVIEW  OF  THE  PRODUCTS  TO  BE  REALIZED 
BEFORE  AND  AFTER  THE  REVISION  OF  MANAGEMENT 

The  Federal  forest  of  Grande  Cote  has  produced: 

From  1858-1883,  78,343  m.  c,  valued  at  1,327,441  francs;  7.9  m.  c.  per  hectare  and 
per  year,  or  134  francs. 

From  1884-1896,  25,377  m.  c,  valued  at  395,033  francs;  5.1  m.  c.  per  hectare  and 
per  year  or  82.2  francs. 

From  1897-1911,  48,790  m.  c,  valued  at  924,960  francs;  8.5  m.  c.  per  hectare  and 
per  year,  or  161.6  francs. 

Or  for  the  54  years,  152,510  m.  c,  valued  at  2,647,434  francs;  7.6  m.  c.  per  hectare 
and  per  year,  or  128.7  francs. 

This  puts  the  average  annual  yield  at  2,888  m.  c,  valued  at  49,026  francs.  In  the 
future,  up  to  the  time  the  working  plan  may  be  revised,  the  yearly  cut  will  be 
3,090  m.  c.  which  should  yield  about  58,710  francs;  in  giving  an  average  value  of  19 
francs  per  m.  c.  which  has  been  the  average  during  the  past  15  years,  the  yield  will  be 
a  Uttle  higher  than  for  the  period  1858-1911,  but  5  per  cent  less  than  that  for  the  period 
1897-1911.  This  reduction  is  actually  essential  as  has  been  explained  in  detail  in  this 
report ;  but  there  is  every  reason  to  hope  that  because  of  the  generally  very  satisfactory 
growth  in  the  forest  of  Grande  Cote,  and  due  to  the  good  results  of  the  management 
proposed,  the  yield  will  increase  during  future  periods. 


Besangon,  May  8th,  1912. 


Devarennes, 
Inspector  of  Waters  and  Forests,  Chief  of  Management. 


(2)  STATE  FOREST  OF  BAN  D'ETIVAL 

Near 'St.  Die,  Vosges,  34.01  hectares,  410-540  meters  altitude,  9/10  fir,  1/10  beech. 

(A)  Working  group,  Corne  de  Lisse,  Masson's  Method  of  Yield  Calculation. 

During  the  first  cutting  period,  1890-1899,  the  yield  was  calculated  in  accordance 

2  V 
with   the   formula   P  =  -jr-,  where  P  =  yield;  V  =  growing  stock;  andA''=  rotation 

in  years. 

2  X  12  196 
This  resulted  in  a  yield  of  — -^rn ^'^  ^^^  ouhk  meters,  equal  to  4.8  cubic  meters  per 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA  -  509 

hectare  per  year.     At  the  second  cutting  period,  1 900- 1 909,  the  stocktaking  showed  a  total 

,    r^.oo-,      u-         ^         1            .     .•                      1           ^1     f  (11,881  +  1,902) -12,196 
stand  of  11,881  cubic  meters,  demonstrating  an  annual  growth  of  ^ — '- ni  ^m 

o4.Ui  X  lU 

=  4.6  cubic  meters  per  hectare  per  year.  In  the  words  of  the  author  (M.  Cuif) :  "There 
is  no  reason  for  modifying  the  exploitable  size:  that  of  0.60  of  a  meter  is  still  acknowl- 
edged to-day,  as  giving  the  maximum  utUity.  .  .  .  It  is  still  best  to  fix  at  150 
years  the  time  necessary  for  the  fir  to  reach  this  size.  Consequently  the  total  growing 
stock  taken  at  the  end  of  1908,  in  the  Corne  de  Lisse  working  group,  being  13,560.8 
cubic  meters,  the  yield  in  main  products  determined  by  Masson's  method  is  13,560.8  X 

-—  =  180.8  which  corresponds  to  an  average  annual  yield  per  hectare  of  5.3  cubic  meters." 
150 

The  plan  approved  November  23,  1889,  provided  that  in  applying  the  selection 
system  the  oldest  timber  should  be  chosen  as  well  as  the  trees  declining  in  vigor,  rotting 
or  dry,  and  others  still  in  good  condition  but  needed  by  the  owner.  Care  was  taken 
to  preserve  the  selection  type  of  forest,  but  the  entire  working  group,  divided  into  ten 
parts,  had  to  be  completely  cut  over  by  the  end  of  each  10-year  period.  The  volume 
of  all  wood  from  0.15  meters  up  in  diameter  was  subtracted  from  the  prescribed  yield, 
whether  from  ordinary  felhngs  or  from  windfall.  Actually  during  the  10-year  period 
1890  to  1899  on  the  34.01  hectares,  1,902  cubic  meters  was  cut  as  against  1630  pre- 
scribed, an  average  per  year  of  190  as  against  160,  or  5.6  cubic  meters  per  hectare  as 
against  4.8  cubic  meters. 

It  is  quite  likely  that  the  stocktaking  made  in  1898  was  in  error  for  some  reason  un- 
known because  the  measurements  carefully  made  under  the  personal  direction  of  M. 
Cuif  showed,  as  follows: 

Cubic  meters 

End  of  1908  growing  season 13,560.8 

Cut  1900-1909 1,967.8 

Total 15,528.6 

Growing  stock  counted  in  1898    11,880.9 

Production  3,647.7 

3  647  7 
or  ,^-r-h. — —r?,  =  10.7  cubic  meters,  an  inadmissably  high  rate  of  growth. 

To  make  doubly  sure  of  accuracy  in  1908,  M.  Cuif  adopted  the  plan,  which  he  recom- 
mends for  all  future  stocktaking  in  this  working  group,  of  having  each  tree  measured, 
blazed  at  1.30  meters  above  the  ground,  and  at  the  point  measured  the  guard  made  a 
vertical  scratch  so  at  the  next  measurement  the  same  point  could  be  cahpered.  In 
reality  the  area  is  a  sample  plot  to  determine  the  value  or  errors  in  the  Masson  method 
of  regulating  the  growth. 

A  comparison  between  the  stocktaking  of  1888  and  1908  shows  that  in  1888  the 
average  was  358.8  cubic  meters  per  hectare  as  against  398.7  cubic  meters  in  1908  and 
that  during  the  20  years  3,870  cubic  meters  were  realized  as  against  3,220  cubic  meters 
prescribed  by  the  working  plan.  This  enrichment  to  the  extent  of  40  cubic  meters  per 
hectare  for  the  20  years  is  welcomed  because  there  was  insufficient  growing  stock  on  a 
number  of  areas.  M.  Cuif  remarks:  "Must  one  think,  after  what  we  have  seen,  that 
the  calculation  of  the  yield  by  the  Masson  method  always  leads  to  too  small  a  figure? 
No,  because  such  a  conclusion  would  be  contrary  to  a  strongly  entrenched  theory  which 
admits  that  the  use  of  the  Masson  per  cent  certainly  brings  a  forest  to  the  normal, 
provided  that  the  entire  stand  is  promising.  To  what,  then,  can  be  attributed  the 
results  which  fail  to  corroborate  this  principle?  Simply  to  the  special  clause  in  the 
recruitment  of  the  yield  which  prescribes  the  calculation  of  the  volume  of  all  the  wood 
cut  inclusive  of  0.15  in  diameter." 


510  APPENDIX 

During  the  20-year  period  the  total  production  was  7.7  cubic  meters  per  hectare  per 
year  and  of  this  total  amount  5.8  was  in  wood  0.45  and  above  in  diameter  and  only 
1.9  in  wood  0.15  to  0.40  inclusive.  During  this  same  period  the  wood  cut  totaled  5.7 
per  hectare  per  year  of  which  4.3  was  from  trees  above  0.45  in  diameter  and  1.4  from 
trees  0.15  to  0.40  inclusive. 

M.  Cuif  decided  to  allow  the  yield  to  be  taken  from  sound  trees  0.45  in  diameter  if 
necessary  to  supplement  the  volume  of  those  over  0.60  to  make  up  the  yield.  The 
calculation  of  the  yield  for  1909-1910  which  by  the  way  varies  with  each  compart- 
ment, gives  5.3  per  hectare  per  year  as  against  (a)  5.8  and  (b)  7.7,  the  figures  of  the 
amount  produced  (o)  in  0.45  meters  and  over,  and  (b)  total  for  the  last  20  years. 

The  improvement  felUngs  in  the  wood  0.15  to  0.40  in  diameter  are  estimated  to  yield 
about  1.4  per  hectare  per  year.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  average  prices  for 
the  period  1889-1898  were  18.34  francs  per  cubic  meter  as  compared  with  23.14  for  the 
years  1899-1908. 

The  new  regulation  of  felHng  then  prescribes  the  year  of  felling  1910-1919  inclusive 
the  number  of  the  cutting  area,  the  area  in  hectares,  and  the  total  amount  in  cubic 
meters.     Only  wood  from  trees  0.45  and  over  are  to  be  counted  against  the  yield. 

(B)  Naufrogutte  working  group.  Forest  of  Ban  d'Etival.  Same  as  Corne  de  Lisse 
but  volume  of  fir  is  19/20  and  beech  only  1/20.  The  area  is  34.48  hectares.  Method 
of  1883  Yield  Regulation. 

The  old  wood  here  includes  trees  0.45  and  over;  the  average  wood  0.25  to  0.40  and 
the  small  wood  below  0.25.  A  comparison  of  the  stocktakings  in  1888  and  in  1908 
(that  of  1899  appeared  inaccurate)  shows  that:  Total  volume  in  m.  c.  (1888),  10,794.1; 
(1908),  12,363.6;  total  volume  in  m.  c.  cut  (1888-1909),  3,404.6.  This  signifies  a  pro- 
duction of  7.2  per  hectare  per  year  as  against  4.9  actual  cut.  This  production  was  4.7 
cubic  meters  in  wood  45  and  over,  and  2.5  in  wood  0.15  to  0.40.  The  actual  cut  was 
3.6  and  over  0.45  and  1.3  in  wood  0.15  to  0.40. 

The  new  cut  for  1910  to  1919  is  put  at  1,822  for  the  34.48  hectares  and  windfalls 
and  dead  wood  0.20  and  over  will  be  deducted  from  the  yield.  The  selection  felling  is 
accompanied  by  an  improvement  felling  to  increase  the  growth  of  promising  trees 
and  to  clean  or  free  young  stands. 

In  the  calculation  of  the  yield  it  is  explained  that  the  volume  of  the  large  wood  (over 
0.45)  in  1909  was  7,917  c.  m.  and  the  average  wood  (0.25-0.40)  3,984  c.  m.  making  a 
total  of  11,900  of  which  five-eighths  is  7,438  and  three-eighths  4,463  c.  m.  To  counter- 
act this  excess  of  large  wood  Cuif  subtracts  479  from  the  large  wood  and  adds  it  to 
the  average  wood  and  proceeds  with  the  calculation  of  the  yield  as  given  below  after 
obtaining  a  growth  per  cent  for  the  large  wood  based  on  the  differences  in  volume  of 
this  class  of  wood  in  1888  and  1909  (aUowing  however  for  the  passage  of  trees  from 
0.40  to  the  0.45  class)  equal  to  0.9  per  cent. 

7,438  X  0.009  X  50  ^  ^  ^^3  ^  ^    ^^  ^^^  ^^^  5q  ^^^^^  (one-third  the  rotation)  7,438 

plus  1,673  or  9,111  equal  to  ^  =  182.2  cubic  meters  per  year  or  5.2  per  hectare. 

No  aUowance  is  made  for  the  growth  of  the  average  wood  since  that  will  merely  fill 
the  place  left  by  the  removal  of  the  large  wood. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  cut  for  1888-1899  was  calculated  at  4.5  c.  m.  and 
for  1899  to  1908  at  4.4  c.  m.  per  hectare  and  per  year.  Figures  which  are  clearly  below 
the  growth  as  is  also  the  current  figure  of  5.2  but  a  comparison  of  the  curve  showmg 
the  estimated  normal  number  of  trees  per  hectare  for  each  diameter  class  (based  on 
aver.ages  of  a  number  of  (empirically)  normally  stocked  selection  stands)  shows  that 
the  forest  is  poor  in  trees  0.15  to  0.35  in  diameter  and  that  consequently  the  economy 
will  be  welcome. 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA  511 

(C)  Working  group  Rein  des  Boules,  Forest  of  Ban  d'Etival  altitude  of  510  meters, 
37.04  forested.  Species  by  volume,  fir  69  per  cent,  beech  31  per  cent;  selection.  Yield 
by  number  of  trees. 

By  the  decree  of  October  15,  1885,  approved  November  27,  1886,  the  working  group 
was  divided  into  ten  approximately  equal  felling  areas  and  an  annual  yield  of  41  trees 
at  least  0.30  in  diameter  at  1.30  c.  m.  (about  16  fir  and  25  beech)  was  established  includ- 
ing the  provision  that  windfalls  0.30  and  over  would  count  as  part  of  the  yield.  The 
41  trees  to  be  cut  were  based  on  the  estimate  that  the  growth  was  4.5  c.  m.  per  hectare 
and  per  year  and  that  the  fir  of  0.60  meters  in  diameter  contained  3.7  c.  m.  and  the 
beech  of  the  same  size  4.4.  On  the  basis  that  four  fir  would  be  cut  to  every  six  beech 
the  average  volume  per  tree  was  taken  at  4.12.  Owing  to  windfalls,  etc.,  they  cut 
38  fir  and  12  beech  or  50  trees  per  year  during  the  years  1886  to  1895,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  the  average  volume  was  only  2.8  per  tree.  During  the  second  cutting  cycle 
the  cut  was  actually  54.9  trees  and  over  per  year  (8.9  accidental)  with  an  average  volume 
of  4  c.  m.  per  tree.  Actually  during  the  first  29  years  the  production  was  9.4  cubic 
meters  per  hectare  and  per  year  or  8  in  wood  0.45  and  above  and  1.4  in  wood  0.15  to 
0.40.  The  working  plans  officer  quotes  what  is  considered  an  average  selection  hectare 
for  the  locahty,  namely,  a  total  of  434.5  trees  cubing  388.2  cubic  meters. 

In  the  calculation  of  the  new  yield  the  author,  M.  Cuif,  proceeded  as  follows:  During 
the  20  years  1885-1905  the  average  production  was  58  trees  —  31  fir  and  27  beech. 
"The  31  fir  and  27  beech  have  been  furnished  actually  by  the  trees  0.40  in  diameter 
whose  average  number  may  be  valued  as  follows,  taking  771  as  existing  in  1885  (429 
fir  and  342  beech),  1,004  in  1896  (392  fir  and  612  beech)  an  average  of  412  fir  and  463 
beech;  412  fir  0.40  in  diameter  have  given  each  year,  31  fir  to  be  counted  against  the 
yield  or  7.5  per  cent  and  463  beech,  27  beech  or  5.8  per  cent."  Similarly  the  per  cent 
passing  to  the  next  diameter  class  is  figured,  and  the  following  results  obtained: 

■  Diameter  Average  per  cent  of  passage 

(cm.)  to  next  diameter  class 

40  6.6 

50  7.7 

60  8.2 

70  .                                                        9.6 

80  10 

90  12 

Finally  the  writer  calculates  for  each  compartment  or  cutting  area  the  normal  number 
of  trees  to  cut,  and  in  addition  one-quarter  the  excess  over  the  normal  stand  also  to  be 
cut,  in  order  to  reduce  the  growing  stock,  namely,  540  normal  cut  plus  160  trees  as 
one-quarter  the  excess  or  700  in  all  on  37.04  hectares.  This  is  then  divided  between 
beech  and  fir  on  the  basis  of  their  per  cent  in  each  compartment. 

One  cannot  but  ask  the  question:  "Why  regulate  the  yield  by  number  of  trees  if 
it  has  to  be  checked  by  a  volume  computation?"  But  it  must  be  recalled  that  these 
three  working  groups  are  really  large  scale  experiments  on  yield  regulation;  the  con- 
clusions will  probably  be  available  by  1921  or  1931. 

(3)  COMMUNAL  FOREST  OF  MONT  GLORE  (SAVOIE) 

The  working  plan  of  1885  quotes  from  a  report  dated  1842  which  alludes  to  this  for- 
est as  "Abused,  impoverished  in  1835  by  a  cut  every  three  years  of  150  fir  trees."  In 
other  words,  the  yield  was  by  number  of  trees  (and  probably  the  best  were  unfortunately 
selected)  instead  of  by  volume.  This  report  spoke  of  this  forest  as  having  90  hectares 
stocked  with  fir,  90  with  beech  with  a  fir  under-story,  and  145  pure  beech  coppice,  making 
a  total  of  335  hectares  of  forest.    The  management  prescribed  thinnings  on  one-fifteenth 


512  APPENDIX 

of  the  area  each  year.  There  were,  in  addition,  regular  fellings  and  cleanings.  In  1885, 
selection  fellings  were  prescribed  because  of  "the  altitude,  the  rigorous  chmate,  and  the 
slowness  of  regeneration  of  the  important  species."  The  cut  was  placed  at  202  cubic 
meters  per  year,  but  5  per  cent  was  reserved  for  betterments.  The  diameter  limit  for  the 
exploitable  tree  was  0.6  meter  (23.6  inches  d.  b.  h.)  on  a  rotation  of  140  years.  According 
to  the  working  plan  now  in  force,  the  selection  method  will  be  continued  and  the  yield 
prescribed  at  144  cubic  meters.  In  other  words  the  results  of  past  cuttings  show  an  over- 
cut  and  it  is  now  necessary  to  economize  in  order  to  bring  the  forest  to  a  better  producing 
capacity.  Before  the  yearly  cut  is  marked,  the  forest  is  reconnoitred  in  the  spring  for 
windfall  and  the  total  amount  of  windfall  is  subtracted  from  the  total  yield  which  is  then 
secured,  first,  from  dry  and  dying  trees  and  from  trees  which  must  be  felled  to  free  fir 
seedhngs  or  to  estabhsh  or  start  reproduction  when  it  does  not  exist.  The  best  trees  are 
favored.  Fir  over  0.6  meter  in  diameter  are  cut,  taking  the  best  first.  The  cutting  is 
especially  conservative  along  very  steep  slopes,  and  where  too  heavy  cutting  might 
encourage  the  formation  of  torrents  and  thus  destroy  agricultural  land  lying  below. 

The  following  improvement  work  is  planned:  A  scenic  road,  a  house  for  a  guard, 
numerous  plantations,  and,  according  to  the  working  plan,  "there  is  much  left  to  be 
done  —  there  is  a  considerable  danger  from  floods." 

(4)  COMMUNAL  FOREST  OF  LARDIES  (NEAR  OLORON,  BASSES-PYRENEES) 

This  communal  forest  comprises  88.35  hectares  at  an  average  altitude  of  130  meters. 
There  is  pedunculate  oak  growing  on  an  alluvial  soil  with  a  mild  climate.  From  1883 
to  1905,  inclusive,  215  cubic  meters  were  cut,  valued  at  1,381.10  francs.  From  1886  to 
1905,  inclusive,  the  improvement  cuttings  covered  1.8  hectares  annually  and  netted 
249.40  francs.  The  sales  from  windfall,  aggregating  133  cubic  meters,  netted  530.90 
francs  and  the  secondary  products  702.2  francs.  This  gave  a  total  revenue  of  348  cubic 
meters  or  2,865.6  francs.  The  normal  yield  was  estimated  at  309  cubic  meters  or  2,614.7 
francs.  In  this  forest  the  soil  value  is  very  small  because  it  is  often  flooded;  it  is  esti- 
mated at  about  50  francs  per  acre.  The  local  market  is  for  firewood  and  the  timber  is 
sold  at  Pau.  There  is  communal  grazing  by  300  head  of  cattle,  50  horses,  and  200  hogs, 
yielding  100  francs  per  year. 

According  to  the  inspector:  "The  up-keep  of  a  nursery  in  a  small  forest  is  relatively 
dear." 

This  points  to  the  advisability  of  district  nurseries  where  transport  is  possible  and 
where  the  planting  is  on  a  small  scale.  Here  the  exploitability  is  based  on  economic 
factors  rather  than  physical.  At  20  years  of  age,  trees  are  about  5  meters  apart.  Shortly 
after  70  years  of  age,  there  is  a  heavy  thinning  so  as  to  keep  the  trees  about  10  meters 
apart  until  the  final  cutting. 

The  yield  of  this  regular  high  forest  of  oak  is  calculated  by  volume  for  the  regular 
feUings,  by  dividing  the  total  volume  of  the  area  to  be  cut  over  by  the  number  of  years 
in  the  period  and  subtracting  25  per  cent  for  reserve.  The  yield  of  thinnings  is  fixed  by 
area.  There  were  cleanings  in  1912,  1920,  and  1922.  The  revenue  for  the  next  period  is 
estimated  at  2,805  francs. 

(5)  STATE  FOREST  OF  LA  JOUX  (JURA) 

Contains  2,644.34  hectares;  700  to  930  altitude;  fir,  91  per  cent;  spruce,  8|  per  cent; 
beech,  ^  of  1  per  cent.    Highest  yield  in  the  Jura. 

The  following  figures  on  the  first  working  group  are  quoted  from  the  working  plan 
for  the  State  forest  of  La  Joux,  by  Inspecteur  Brenot,  which  is  dated  April  29,  1896. 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA  513 

From  1884  to  1895  the  increment  per  hectare  and  per  year  has  been  11.97;  the  volume 
for  the  average  hectare,  385.    The  increment  per  cent,  3.11. 

In  1883  the  volume  analysis  of  trees  0.30  in  diameter  and  above  was:  Logs,  206,058 
cubic  meters;  branches,  18  per  cent,  37,090  cubic  meters;  total,  243,148  cubic  meters. 

This  being  true  it  is  possible  to  make  the  following  conclusions  from  a  comparison  of 
the  stocktaking  of  1883  and  1908:  Volume  of  trees  0.30  in  diameter  and  above,  inven- 
tories in  1883,  243,148  cubic  meters;  in  1908,  325,675  cubic  meters;  increase,  82,527 
cubic  meters. 

Volume  of  trees  cut  from  1884  to  1908:  1884  to  1885,  60,280;  1896  to  1908,  100,731; 
total  of  161,011  cubic  meters. 

Total   growth  from    1883   to    1908  =  82,527  +  161,011  =  243,538  cubic  meters  or 

average  per  year  of  9,741  cubic  meters. 

,    ,   243,148  +  325,675       „„.  -^^      ,  • 
Average  growmg  stock  — ^ =  284,406  cubic  meters. 

Average  volume  per  hectare  284,406  _  .  .„      ,  .         , 

243  538 
Growth  per  hectare  and  per  year  '         _  =  15.2  cubic  meters. 

D4u.oy  X  ^0 
,                ^               ,  15.2  X  100       „  , 
Increment  per  cent jj^ =  3.4  per  cent. 

It  results  from  the  analysis  of  the  preceding  stocktakings  (the  volume  per  hectare 
was  380  cubic  meters  in  1883  and  500  cubic  meters  in  1908  (wood  0.30  and  over))  that 
the  growth  per  hectare  and  per  year  estimated  at  11.97  cubic  meters  for  the  first  12 
years  of  growth  is  between  3.11  and  3.40  per  cent. 

These  figures  prove  .  .  .  that  we  have  a  working  group  overstocked  with  old 
wood,  where  for  the  past  25  years  the  material  has  been  increasing  in  spite  of  the  annual 
cut  (yield).     .     .     . 

In  view  of  this  rather  abnormal  situation,  it  is  felt  that  in  order  to  prevent  a  further 
accumulation  of  excess  growing  stock  it  is  best  to  base  the  yield  upon  the  growth  per  cent 
of  the  working  group  during  the  last  period  of  25  years  by  multiplying  the  estimated 
growing  stock  by  the  mean  annual  growth  per  cent. 

Material  enumerated  in  1908  =  301,260;   growth  per  cent  from  1883  to  1908  =  3.4; 

yield  =  ?0L??0^4  .  10.242. 

Note. — For  the  comparison  the  same  volume  table  was  used  to  obtain  both  volumes, 
i.e.,  in  1883  and  1908. 

If  we  should  only  cut  as  in  the  past,  the  average  annual  growth  of  the  working  group, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  realize  with  sufficient  rapidity  the  overmature  material  and  it 
is  feared  the  present  state  of  affairs  would  continue  indefinitely.  It  is  therefore  felt 
to  be  absolutely  necessary  .  .  .  during  two  periods  ...  to  add  10  per  cent 
of  the  volume  to  the  yield  obtained  and  to  fix  (the  cut)  at  10,242  +  1,024  =  11,266 
cubic  meters,  or,  roughly,  11,270  cubic  meters  equal  to  17.585  per  hectare  and  per  year 
and  3.7  per  cent  of  the  total  growing  stock. 

According  to  Inspecteur  Devarennes  "the  State  forest  of  La  Joux  ^  is  one  of  the  richest 
and  most  productive  fir  stands  in  France,  and  perhaps  even  of  all  Europe."  The  stock- 
taking made  in  1908-1909  gave  the  following  figures:  642,138  trees  from  7.9  to  55.1 
inches  in  diameter  (245  trees  or  463  cubic  meters  per  hectare  or  about  42,400  feet 
hoard  measure  per  acre,  average  on  6,531  acres).  This  is  equal  to  15.8  cubic  meters  per 
hectare  per  year  (a  yield  per  cent  of  5.3)  or  about  1,200  board  feet  and  1.6  cords  per  acre 

1  This  forest  was  logged  by  the  Canadians  for  the  French;  the  cutting  started  in  1917 
before  the  A.  E.  F.  arrived  in  France. 


514 


APPENDIX 


per  year,  worth  $12  per  acre.  The  total  annual  revenue  from  timber  is  406,730  francs 
($84,500)  and  the  soil  and  growing  stock  are  estimated  to  be  worth  20  million  francs 
($3,860,000).  Deducting  50  cents  an  acre  for  taxes  and  administration,  this  gives  a 
net  of  $81,235  or  about  2  per  cent  on  the  invested  capital  (see  p.  322).  A  comparison 
of  the  normal  (empirical)  number  of  trees  and  stand  per  hectare  with  the  actual  stock 
is  given  in  the  graph  which  follows : 


" 

~ 

— 

~ 

"' 

~ 

~ 

- 

l~ 

*" 

nn 

\ 

_ 

.     NJiyiBE! 

DF  TREES  PER 

Ji-mal 

HECTAR 

■- 

N 

Artiial     

\ 

1 

1L> 

Mm 

L 

■( 

.•?^  r,r 

1 

^  m  ^ 

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s 

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\.\ 

^^^ 

S.  ^^ 

4-     '^^v 

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— 

— 



- 

_ 

0  ZO  O.io  0.30  0.35  0.10  0. 

5  0.50   0.55  0.60  0.65   0.70  0.75  0.80  0.85  0,90  0.95  1.00  1.05  1.10  1.15    1.201^35 

D.B.H.  in  Centimeters 

X 

_..      ^ 

1  1  M  1  1  M 

1  1  1 

2 

VOLUME   PER    U 

ECTARE 

pSD 

l^rn 

—  ^ 

i,50 

^S 

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S 

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0.20  0.25  0.30  0.35  0.10  0.15   0.50  O.t 


0.60   0.65  0.70  0.75  0.80  0.85   0.90  0.95 

D.B.H.  in  Centimeters 


.00  1.05  1.10    1.15  1.20] 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA 


515 


(6)  COMMUNAL  FOREST  OF  FILLINGES  (HAUTE-SAVOIE) 

In  the  revision  of  the  working  plan  for  the  communal  forest  of  Fillinges,  there  is  pre- 
sented an  excellent  example  of  what  recovery  a  forest  can  make  during  a  period  of  19 
years.    The  inventory  in  1891  and  1910  follows: 


1891 

1910 

Age  classes 

Number 
of  trees 

Volume, 
cu.  in. 

Age  classes 

Number 
of  trees 

Volume, 
cu.  in. 

Average  wood 

Old  wood   

5,337 
694 

2,117 
1,386 

Average  wood 

Old  wood 

8,527 
2,397 

4,213 

4,785 

Totals 

6,031 

3,503 

Totals 

10,924 

8,998 

According  to  the  above  table  the  percentage  of  volume  increase  was  157  per  cent  in 
19  years.  The  growth  in  this  case,  of  course,  was  exaggerated  because  many  trees  just 
below  20  centimeters  in  diameter  passed  into  the  merchantable  class  which  was  calipered 
in  the  revision.  Taking  these  figures,  however,  as  correct,  it  means  an  average  growth 
of  8.7  cubic  meters  per  hectare  per  year  for  a  forest  which  had  been  mismanaged  in  the 
past.    According  to  the  original  working  plan: 

"The  working  group  has  been  completely  transformed  in  the  course  of  a  period.  The 
stand  formerly  very  broken,  open,  often  formed  of  sparse  groups  of  conifers  or  isolated 
trees  as  it  existed  in  1891  has  given  place  to  a  thrifty  young  selection  forest  sometimes 
even  dense,  which  is  rapidly  beginning  to  suppress  the  broadleaf  understory  with  which 
the  conifers  are  still  in  mixture  at  certain  points.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  the 
small  yield  did  not  allow  cutting  over  the  entire  working  group  by  selection  fellings 
during  the  period  and  that  consequently  several  compartments  are  crowded  with  over- 
mature and  deformed  trees." 

In  the  second  working  group,  the  recovery  (for  average  and  old  wood)  was  from  12,265 
cubic  meters  to  27,452  cubic  meters  in  19  years;  124  per  cent.  In  five  compartments  of 
the  first  working  group,  the  growth  averaged  8.7  cubic  meters  per  hectare  per  year, 
and  in  14  compartments  of  the  second  working  group  the  same  average  rate  of  growth 
was  maintained,  varying  from  4  to  11.5  cubic  meters  per  hectare  per  year.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  the  yield  was  formerly  fixed  at  157  cubic  meters  per  year  for  the  entire 
forest  of  166.45  hectares.  According  to  Schaeffer's  revision  of  1910,  the  entire  forest 
was  thrown  into  one  working  group.    He  figured  the  old  wood  at  16,048  cubic  meters 

32  802  X  5 
and  the  deficit  of  old  wood  was  — - — ^ or  a  total  of  20,501,  meaning  a  deficit  of 

8 

4,453    cubic   meters.     The  average  wood    amounted    to    16,754.2,    an    excess,    since 

32  802  X  3 

— ' — ^ — —  =  a  total  of  12,301.     Therefore,  in  accordance  with  the  procedures  ex- 

o 

plained  on  page  234,  trees  0.35  meter  in  diameter  were  transferred  to  the  old  wood, 
thus  justifying  still  further  economy  of  yield.  Since  the  rotation  was  fixed  at  162 
years,  the  yield  under  this  formula  would  be  16,048,  the  volume  of  the  old  wood 
divided  by  54,  one-third  the  rotation,  would  be  297.1  plus  1  per  cent  of  the  growth  of 
the  average  wood  (i.e.  1  per  cent  of  16,754,  or  167.5)  making  a  total  estimated  cut  of 
464.6  which  equals  1.41  per  cent  of  the  volume,  or  3.2  cubic  meters  per  hectare  per 
year.  In  the  working  plan,  Schaeffer  pointed  out  that  the  growth,  according  to 
Pressler's  formula,  would  have  been  654.16  cubic  meters  per  year.  This  working  plan 
is  an  example  of  how  the  French  are  rehabilitating  worn  out  forests;  one-quarter  of  the 


516 


APPENDIX 


theoretical  cut  is  held  in  reserve  to  provide  for  such  emergencies  as  windfall  and  other 
damages  so  that  the  actual  cut  is  prescribed  at  348  cubic  meters  per  year,  which  is 
obviously  much  less  than  the  actual  growth.  The  working  plan  provides  that  the 
whole  area  be  cut  over  by  improvement  fellings  every  17  years. 


(7)  COMMUNAL  FOREST  OF  BURDIGNIN   (HAUTE-SAVOIE) 

The  working  plan  for  the  communal  forest  of  Burdignin,  written  by  Schaeffer  in  1897, 
presents  another  interesting  example  of  French  yield  regulation.  This  forest  comprises 
67.11  hectares,  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  1,300  meters  and  the  stand  is  composed  of 
spruce,  80  per  cent;  fir,  18  per  cent;  beech,  1  per  cent;  Austrian  pine  and  larch,  1  per 
cent.  Schaeffer  calls  it  a  model  of  regularity  especially  as  regards  the  second  and  third 
periodic  blocks.  The  yield  was  formerly  fixed  at  136  cubic  meters  per  j'ear.  A  period 
of  18  years  was  found  too  short  to  get  satisfactory  and  complete  regeneration  in  the 
first  periodic  block.  The  yield  from  thinnings  has  been  irregular.  In  1881  it  was  15 
cubic  meters;  in  1882,  22  cubic  meters;  in  1890,  222  cubic  meters;  in  1891  and  1894, 
but  75  cubic  meters.  The  rotation  was  120  years  and  the  diameter  hmit  was  0.40; 
the  period  was  fixed  at  20  years  in  the  1897  working  plan.  The  cut  prescribed  was  280 
cubic  meters  by  volume  with  the  addition  of  the  improvement  fellings  yield  on  5.63 
hectares  each  year.  According  to  Schaeffer,  care  was  to  be  taken  not  to  open  up  the 
stand  too  fast  and  the  thinnings  had  to  aim  at  developing  the  stand  without  making 
sacrifices  to  regularize  it.  Trees  without  a  future  were  removed,  Imt  he  aimed  at 
keeping  the  top  cover  complete.  In  the  older  stands  the  thinnings  were  essentially 
crown  thinnings.     (Par  le  haut.) 

The  following  analysis  of  the  .stand  was  made  in  Schaeffer's  working  plan : 

"To  determine  the  yield,  it  is  necessary  to  first  divide  the  stand  enumerated  in  three 
groups  or  classes  (young  wood,  average  wood,  and  old  wood).  We  consider  the  coni- 
fers 16  inches  and  over  in  diameter  '  old  wood '  and  the  beech  12  inches  and  over  .  .  . 
the  conifers  8  to  14  inches,  and  the  beech  8  to  10  inches  'average  wood,'  and  the  trees 
6  inches  'small  wood.'    This  division  has  been  made  in  the  following  table: 


Species 

Volu 

mes 

Young  wood 

Average  wood 

Old  wood 

Totals 

Conifers 

Beech 

405.10 

9,205.60 
91.80 

8,564.70 
87.10 

18,175.40 
178  90 

Totals 

405.10 

9,297.40 

8,651.80 

18,354.30 

"It  is  evident  from  this  table  that  the  normal  proportion  of  five  to  three  which 
should  exist  between  the  large  wood  and  the  average  wood  is  far  from  being  attained. 
To  obtain  it  one  must  transfer  2,567  cubic  meters  (or  about  two-thirds  the  conifers  14 
inches  in  diameter)  from  the  average  wood  class  to  the  old  wood.  We  consider  this 
transfer  justified  because  a  16-inch  tree  is  considered  merchantable  in  this  region  and 
most  of  the  14-inch  stems  will  reach  this  size  during  the  period.  We,  moreover,  propose 
(to  avoid  any  disaster)  not  to  count  the  future  growth  of  the  old  wood  .  .  . 
prudence  and  moderation. 

"The  volume  to  be  cut  during  the  one-third  of  the  rotation  will  then  be:    8,651.8  + 

11  219 
2,567  =  11,219  cubic  meters  in  round  figures,  when  the  yield  will  be:       '         =  280 

cubic  meters. 

"The  thinnings  are  already  ordered  (September  18,  1880),  by  nine  year  cycles;  they 
have  given  good  results  and  we  propose  to  continue  them.    Since  the  periodic  blocks 


ORIGINAL   WORKING  PLAN   DATA  517 

to  be  run  over  by  thinnings  are  three  in  number,  each  will  continue  to  form  three  feUina; 

,                                    .,,  .       17.02  +  16.79  +  16.86       50.67       ,       , 
areas  whose  average  area  will  be: =  — -—  =  5.63  hectares. 

"There  are  four  periodic  blocks;  one  is  cut  over  for  regeneration,  and  the  other  three 
are  cut  over  for  thinnings,  etc." 

(8)  STATE  FOREST  OF  PARC-ET-ST.  QUENTIN  (OISE) 
The  State  forest  of  Parc-et-St.  Quentin  has  had  working  plans  made  in  1869,  1884, 
and  1905.  As  a  result  of  experience  a  rotation  of  120  years  was  found  too  short,  because 
of  the  large  proportion  of  oak.  It  was,  therefore,  increased  to  150  years.  According  to 
the  most  recent  working  plan,  there  are  two  classes  of  stands:  (1)  Regeneration 
areas  over  100  years  old;  (2)  under  100  years  old,  not  under  regeneration. 

"One  observes  at  once  that,  after  this  classification,  the  group  of  old  wood  will  be 
totally  deficient  and  that  there  exists  a  deficiency  in  the  age  sequences  between  the  ripe 
wood  and  that  which  comes  next." 

According  to  the  1905  revision  (page  47,  original  working  plan): 

"The  yield  of  the  principal  feUing  areas  wiU  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  volume 

of  the  stand  in  compartments  7,  8,  and  9  (to  be  regenerated  1904  to  1923)  by  20.     This 

26  739  29 
volume  amounts  to  26,739.29  cubic  meters  and  the  yield  will  be  fixed  at  — ^  or 

1,337  cubic  meters.     During  the  same  period  of  20  years  the  yield  of  the  improvement 

.  ,,.        ,  .„  674.27  hectares       ^^  ,„  i      . 

fellmgs  by  area  will  cover  -r or  67.43  hectares  because  the  cutting  cycle  is 

10  years." 

Where  there  is  difficulty  in  regeneration,  the  cuttings  should  be  regulated  according 
to  seed  crops  rather  than  to  the  sequence  of  fellings  as  developed.    According  to  the  plan : 

"The  density  of  the  seed  fellings  will  be  regulated  so  as  to  allow  for  the  requirements 
of  the  species  —  oak  and  beech  —  which  ^ould  be  forced  into  the  proper  mixture, 
(about  half  and  half).  The  existing  understory  must  be  completely  removed  above 
this  size  and  under  no  pretext  whatever  should  it  be  allowed  to  form  part  of  the  future 
stand.  The  seed  fellings  will  be  followed  by  secondary  and  final  f(>llings  laid  out  exclu- 
sively according  to  the  cultural  needs.  The  improvement  cuttings  should  aim  at  the 
establishment  of  a  high  forest  with  a  suitable  mixture  of  species  and  as  full}'  stocked  as 
possible;  they  will  be  carried  out  by  the  use  of  regular  normal  thinnings,  the  removals 
limited  to  trees  already  dead  or  almost  wholly  so.  ...  In  the  young  stands  the 
valuable  species  will  be  carefully  freed,  and  in  accordance  with  their  needs  the  soft  woods 
and  species  of  secondary  value  will  be  sacrificed." 

(9)  COMMUNAL  FOREST  OF  THIEZ  (HAUTE-SAVOIE)  2 

PART  I 

Record  of  Management.  —  General  Data 

Art.  1.  —  Name.  —  Communal  Forest  of  Thiez. 

Art.  2.^  Area.  —  In  1866  the  area  of  the  forest  was  152.7669  hectares;  it  was 
reduced  to  119.51  hectares  by  the  revised  decree  of  January  31,  1872.  A  decree  dated 
June  28,  1889,  authorized  the  sale  of  22.08  hectares  and  put  the  area  under  manage- 
ment at  97.43  hectares.  Finally  a  new  decree.  April  11,  1900,  reduced  the  area  to 
65.14  hectares. 

Our  recent  survey  gives  an  area  of  61.54  hectares,  divided  as  follows  between  the  two 
cantons  which  compose  the  forest : 

2  Savoie  was  formally  ceded  to  France  in  1860  and  prior  to  this  date  communal 
forests  were  badly  overcut  and  mismanaged. 


518 


APPENDIX 


Canton 

Area 

Blanks* 

Forested 

La  Vuardaz 

26.74 
34.80 

1.70 
3.60 

25  04 

Le  Feraj' 

31.20 

Totals 

61.54 

5.30 

56  24 

*  Most  of  the  blanks  are  rocky  and  consequently  could  hardly  be  forested. 

The  disparity  in  area  of  3.60  hectares  (65.14  -  61.54  =  3.60)  is  due  to  the  inaccurate 
data  upon  which  the  original  area  computation  was  based;  it  has  not  been  corrected 
until  now. 

Art.  3.  —  Boundaries.  —  Except  bordering  the  Commune  of  Chatillon  (Haute- 
Savoie)  a  boundary  established  when  the  working  plan  for  that  forest  was  made,  the 
boundaries  were  very  indefinite.  We  have  made  a  general  survey  of  the  boundary 
and  have  established  corners  for  the  two  stands  in  accordance  with  the  map  of  1730 
which  is  sufficiently  accurate.  Every  corner  and  boundary  rock  marked  with  a  cross 
has  its  numerical  order  carefully  chiseled  as  given  in  the  working-plan  map.  These  39 
boundary  marks  are  divided  as  follows:  Le  Peray,  18  (3  of  these  coincide  with  the  num- 
bers for  the  communal  forest  of  Chatillon);  La  Vuardaz,  21;  Total,  39. 

Art.  4.  —  Rights  and  servitudes.  —  None. 

Art.  5.  —  Topography  and  drainage.  —  Occupying  the  summit  of  Mt.  Orsay 
("Orchez"  according  to  the  army  map)  a  point  at  which  the  range  ends  which  separates 
the  valleys  of  Giffre  and  Arje  and  dominates  their  heads,  the  forest  therefore  lies  on 
north  and  south  slopes.  The  extreme  altitudes  are  620  meters  (lower  part  of  the 
Peray  Canton)  and  1,346  meters  (summit  of  Vuardaz),  or  an  average  of  980  meters. 
The  slopes  are  often  very  steep  and  occasionally  precipitous  near  the  summit;  within 
the  forest  there  are  cHffs  100  meters  in  height. 

Art.  6.  —  Soil.  —  Despite  its  small  area  the  forest  stands  on  a  number  of  different 
geological  formations  which  can  be  classed  as  follows: 

Calcaire  liasque  du  Chablais (5^) 

Bathonien  et  Bajocien (7) 

Malm (12) 

Cretace  superieur  dit  couche  rouge    (17) 

Moraine  Alpine   (21) 

The  figures  enclosed  in  parentheses  show  approximately  the  area  occupied  by  each 
(geologic)  soil.  Because  of  this  diversity  of  mineral  bases  soils  of  very  different  character 
have  resulted.  Marls  deep  and  fresh,  occasionally  actually  wet,  arid  detritus,  bare 
limestones  or  only  slightly  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  humus  are  found  side  by  side; 
the  fertihty  itself  is  extremely  variable.  One  must  admit  that  the  poor  or  mediocre 
areas  are  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception  and  that  the  really  rich  soils  are  scarce. 

Art.  7.  —  Climate.  —  Since  the  two  stands  are  situated  in  different  valleys  it 
naturally  follows  that  the  climate  is  also  dissimilar.  On  the  one  hand  the  Canton  of 
Vuardaz,  with  a  northern  exposure,  is  in  a  rainy  valley  where  the  snow  lies  four  months 
each  year,  while  the  vineyards  still  flourish  just  below  in  the  Peray  Canton. 

Art.  8.  —  Stand.  —  The  chief  species  are  spruce,  fir,  Scotch  pine,  and  beech. 
Spruce,  which  is  easily  the  most  important,  varies  a  great  deal.  From  the  straight, 
cylindrical  long-boled  well-pruned  tree  35  meters  in  height  (115  feet!)  in  the  well  watered 
valley  of  Vuardaz,  which  one  cannot  help  but  admire,  to  the  branchy  unstable  stem 
which  clings  to  the  rock  on  the  Orsay  peak.  In  the  Peray  Canton  it  is  represented  by 
sapling  stands,  dense  and  regular,  but  because  of  the  dry  soil  and  climate  these  do  not 


ORIGINAL  WORKING   PLAN  DATA 


519 


appear  to  have  much  of  a  future.  The  fine  quahty  of  timber  at  the  Vuardaz  bridge 
makes  it  a  prize  for  the  lumberman ;  yet  on  the  moist  soils  there  seems  to  be  a  tendency 
to  early  decay.  The  fir  perhaps  is  a  more  rapid  grower,  and  notwithstanding  that  its 
wood  is  less  sought  after  in  the  region,  it  is  a  valuable  species  because  it  is  easy  to  re- 
generate. The  Scotch  pine,  introduced  artificially,  when  found  in  the  Peray  Canton 
in  mixture  with  scattering  larch,  seems  well  suited  to  the  situation ;  but  the  stock  which 
has  come  in  naturally,  often  very  defective,  has  suffered  a  great  deal  from  caterpillars 
and  the  wood  has  little  value.  The  beech  is  quite  important  in  the  understory,  but 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  poles,  it  is  not  represented  in  the  young  stands;  yet,  because 
of  its  cultural  value,  it  ought  to  have  a  place  in  the  mature  stands.  Its  Utter  can  alle- 
viate the  acidity  of  the  humus  produced  under  the  spruce  and  also  assists  the  natural 
regeneration  of  this  latter  species.  The  oak  is  at  its  extreme  elevation  and  is  not  im- 
portant, except  in  the  rocky  areas,  where,  with  the  maples  (sj'camore,  etc.),  it  serves 
to  protect  the  soil.  One  sees  a  few  hnden,  service  trees,  and  hazel,  which  have  some 
value.  To  sum  up,  the  importance  of  the  species  is  shown  by  the  following  figures: 
Spruce,  62  per  cent;  fir,  2  per  cent;  pine,  11  per  cent;  oak,  10  per  cent;  beech,  10  per 
cent;  miscellaneous,  5  per  cent. 

Art.  9.  —  Chief  and  accessory  products.  —  The  following  table  shows  the  amount 
and  value  of  the  products  realized  during  the  last  10  years : 


YIELD  DURING  THE  LAST   10  YEARS 

WOOD   PRODUCTS 


Regular  fellings 

E.\traordinary  fellings 

Windfall, 

Years 

Coppice 

High  forest 

(Coppice) 
Improve- 
ment 

High  forest 

Emergency 
wood 

dead  wood 
and  tres- 
pass 

Totals 

Vol- 
ume, 
m.  c. 

Value, 
francs 

Vol- 
ume, 
m.  c. 

Value 
francs 

Vol- 
ume, 
m.  c. 

Value, 
francs 

Vol- 
ume, 
m.  c. 

Value, 
francs 

Vol- 
ume, 
•m.  c. 

Value, 
francs 

Vol- 
ume, 
m.  c. 

Value, 
francs 

Vol- 
ume, 
m.  c. 

Value, 
francs 

1901... 
1902... 
1903... 
1904.... 
1905.... 
1906.... 
1907.... 
1908.... 
1909... 
1910.... 

.... 

65 

30 

136 
115 

1525 
2290 

2 

4 
10 
4 
6 
21 

20 
128 

64 
174 

64 

90 

30 

23 
20 
29 
45 
38 
1 
104 
17 

375 
212 
165 
250 
270 
435 
300 
20 
1237 
175 

32 

29 

30 
169 
51 
59 
1 
169 
1.32 

395 
340 
229 
424 
1859 
525 
573 
20 
1367 
2465 

Totals 

65 

130 

251 

3815 

55 

813 

328 

3439 

699 

8197 

Average  annual 

6.5 

13 

25.1 

381.5 

5.5 

81.3 

32.8 

343.9 

69.9 

819.7 

Price  F 

ercub 

c  meter 

2 

15.20 

14.8 

10.5 

11.7 

520 


APPENDIX 


ACCESSORY   PRODUCTS 


Years 

Extension 

of  cutting 

period 

Miscel- 
laneous 
concessions 
(springs, 
rights  of 
way, 
stone, 
sand,  etc.) 

Minor 

products, 

value  of 

day's  labor 

Grazing, 
value 

Hunt, 
rental 

Trespass, 

civic 
damages 

Totals 

1901 

4 

37.50 
37.50 
37  50 
25.00 
62.50 
30.00 
42.50 
35,00 
40.00 
40.00 

4.00 

45.50 

1902 

37.50 

1903 

3 

13.80 

40  50 

1904 

38.80 

1905 

26 
26 
26 
11 

88.50 

13.50 
93.00 
28.00 

56.00 

82.00 

1908 

139.00 

79.00 

1910 

51.00 

Totals 

7 

387.50 

111 

152  30 

657.80 

Average  annual . . 

0.7 

38.75 

11.1 

15.23 

65.78 

Art.  10.  —  Roads,  trails,  and  means  of  removal.  —  There  are  no  regular  roads  in 
the  forest  (only  a  few  trails  traversing  the  stand),  but  at  the  bottom  of  each  canton 
there  is  a  mule  trail.  That  part  which  borders  the  Canton  of  Vuardaz  joins  the  national 
road  No.  202;  this  enables  the  hauHng  of  wood  to  the  Taninges  station  (narrow  gauge), 
4.6  kilometers  away.  The  area  bordering  the  Peray  Canton  almost  touches  the  main 
road  from  the  pass  of  Chatillon  to  Bonneville  via  Marignier  (P.  L.  M.  station,  4  kilo- 
meters). 

Art.  11.  —  Markets.  —  The  fire  wood  is  used  locally,  while  the  logs  (owing  to  the 
railroads  in  each  valley)  have  a  wide  market. 

Art.  12.  —  Grazing,  etc.  —  None. 

Art.  13.  —  Patrol.  —  The  patrol  is  done  by  two  guards,  one  belonging  to  the  Tan- 
inges ranger  district,  the  other  to  Cluses.     Their  residences  are  at  Taninges  and  Cluses. 

PART  II 

Chapter  I.  —  Statement  and  Critical  Review  of  Treatment  in  Force 
By  a  decision  of  the  director,  dated  June  13,  1873,  the  forest  of  Thiez  was  divided  into 
two  working  groups,  one  coppice,  the  other  high  forest.  The  coppice  working  group 
having  been  entirely  disposed  of  since  1873  there  is  nothing  to  report.  The  high  forest 
working  group  has  been  cut  over  during  a  period  of  15  years  by  improvement  cuttings 
amounting  to  4.34  hectares  each  year.  This  period  of  15  years  ended  in  1888.  Since 
this  date  the  forest  has  only  been  cut  under  emergency  fellings  except  for  an  improve- 
ment felling  in  1909  of  8.68  hectares,  and  in  two  or  three  selection  cuttings  only  windfall 
or  overmature  timber  was  removed.  While  the  regular  fellings  have  been  few  in  number, 
the  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  trespass  cuttings,  for  almost  all  the  stock  of  the  Peray 
Canton  has  been  cut  by  trespassers.  It  is  essential  to  regulate  the  fellings  and  to  deter- 
mine a  yield  based  upon  an  exact  estimate  of  the  forest's  resources.  This  is  the  object 
of  this  work. 

Chapter  II.  — Basis  of  Proposed  Management 

A  conifer  stand  with  such  a  small  stock  can  only  be  treated  by  the  selection  system. 
We  propose  to  put  the  entire  area  into  a  single  working  group  of  selection  high  forest. 


ORIGINAL  WORKING   PLAN  DATA 


521 


PART  III 
Special  Study  of  the  Working  Group 

Art.  1.  —  Compartments.  —  It  has  been  laid  out  according  to  natural  boundaries 
such  as  roads  or  ravines  following  current  usage.  Each  compartment  has  been  marked 
and  designated  with  capital  letters.  Their  area  varies  from  2.11  hectares  to  8.46 
hectares,  an  average  of  5.28;  this  is  in  keeping  with  the  size  of  the  forest. 

The  forest  description  follows:  (Sample  given  on  pages  532  and  5.33). 

Art.  2.  —  Exploitability,  rotation,  periods.  — A  tree  0.60  meter  (23.6  inches  d.b.h.) 
in  diameter  is  best  suited  to  the  sale  requirements.  A  smaller  size  would  not  be  adapted 
to  all  uses,  while  a  large  size  would  make  lumbering  too  difficult.  We  shall  therefore 
adopt  0.60  meter  as  the  exploitable  size. 

To  reach  this  size  a  tree  requires  at  least  140  years.  If  you  glance  over  the  curves 
inserted  in  the  Appendix  (page  528)  it  is  evident  that  the  spruce  and  fir  take  on  an 
average  16  years  to  pass  from  one  diameter  class  (2  inches)  to  another;  it  follows  that 
to  pass  through  the  diameter  classes  from  6  inches  to  24  inches  takes  144  years.  In 
fixing  the  rotation  at  this  figure  we  are  overlooking  the  length  of  time  that  a  tree  takes 
to  pass  from  the  understory,  and  recent  studies  have  shown  that  this  method  of  pro- 
cedure is  legitimate.  It  seems  logical  to  choose  16  years  as  the  period  since  it  takes 
that  length  of  time  to  pass  from  one  diameter  class  to  another. 

Art,  3.  —  Regulation  of  felling.  —  The  compartments  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  I,  L, 
and  M  only  carry  a  growing  stock  which  can  be  inventoried.  These  are  the  only  com- 
partments to  be  cut  over  by  selection  cuttings  based  on  volume.  The  compartments 
H  and  K,  stocked  solely  with  young  growth,  will  be  run  over  by  improvement  cuttings 
based  on  area.  On  the  formal  request  of  the  commune  (which,  while  wishing  to  sell 
the  principal  cuttings,  desires  to  provide  for  the  residents  a  small  right  to  gather  hard- 
wood fuel)  these  shall  be  filled  by  improvement  cuttings  in  the  compartments  C,  D, 
E,  F,  G,  I,  L,  and  M.     The  table  below  gives  a  resume  of  these  plans: 


Canton 

Compartment 

Area 

Extent  of  selection 

Improvement 
fellings 

La  Vuardaz 

Le  Peray 

A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
I 

K 
L 
M 

6.11 
5.24 

2.17 
4.70 
2.95 
3.46 
2.11 
6.78 
7.74 
4.68 
7.14 
8.46 

6.11 
5.24 
2.17 
4.70 
2.95 
3.46 
2.11 

7.74 

7^14 

8.46 

2.17 
3.00 
1.00 
2.00 
1.00 
6.78 
7.74 
4  68 

7.14 
8.46 

61.54 

50.08 

43.97 

A. -FELLINGS  BY  VOLUME 
Art.  4.  —  Determination  of  the  yield.  —  The  yield  will  be  calculated  in  accord- 
ance with  the  method  given  in  the  circular  of  July  17,  1883,  which  consists  in  dividing 
the  wood  in  three  groups  in  accordance  with  their  size:  (1)  The  young  wood  whose 
diameter  is  less  than  one-third  the  exploitable  size.  (2)  The  average  wood  whose 
diameter  is  included  between  one-third  and  two-thirds  this  size.  (3)  The  old  wood 
whose  diameter  is  more  than  two-thirds  this  size. 


522 


APPENDIX 


If  the  volume  of  old  wood  and  that  of  average  wood  are  to  each  other  as  5  is  to  3 
it  is  a  normal  proportion,  and  if  not  it  is  possible  to  decrease  or  even  the  difference  by 
approximate  transfers.  Then  the  final  volume  of  old  wood  plus  its  growth  is  divided  by 
one-third  the  number  of  years  in  the  rotation.  The  trees  have  been  calipered  by  2-inch 
diameter  classes,  commencing  with  8  inches,  and  the  volumes  figured  with  the  volume 
table  made  by  M.  Algan  (No.  11  for  the  fir  and  spruce  and  No.  5  for  the  pine  and  broad- 
leaved  trees). 

The  following  table  gives  the  division  by  groups  and  diameter  classes: 


Diametere  (d.  b.  h.), 
centimeters 

Volume  of  average  wood 

Volume  of  old  wood 

Spruce  and  fir 

Pine 

Total 

Spruce  and  fir 

Pine 

Total 

20  (7.8  inches) 

348.4 

486.8 
523.2 
639.9 

7.6 

356.0 
491.0 
528.9 
642.9 

25  .    . 

4 
5 
3 

2 

7 
0 

30 

35 

40  (15.7  inches) 

895.2 

684.8 
399.0 
249.6 
160.0 

2.8 

898  0 

45 

684  8 

50 

399  0 

55 

249  6 

60  (23.6  inches) 

160  0 

65 

72.2 
36.0 
20.8 
18.0 

72.2 

70 

36.0 

75 

20.8 

80  (31.5  inches) 

18.0 

Totals 

1,998.3 

20 

5 

2,018.8 

2,535.6 

2.8 

2,538.4 

The  normal  proportion  should  be : 

Old  wood  4,557.2  X  5/8  =  2,848.3  \  .  rrn  o 

Average  wood  4,557.2  X  3/8  =  1,708.9  j^'^^^-^- 

For  the  transfer  as  prescribed  by  the  method  the  only  change  which  is  justified  is 
by  the  abundance  of  overmature  timber  in  the  lower  diameter  classes  which  means  that 
the  yield  would  be : 

„      2,848.3 


48 


59  cubic  meters. 


But  on  the  other  hand  in  this  forest  the  growth  cannot  be  overlooked  (see  table 
of  growth  per  cent  in  the  Appendix)  and  we  intend  to  count  that  of  the  old  wood  during 
half  of  the  period  (conservative  estimate  of  growth  at  1  per  cent  per  year).  The  yield 
will  thus  become: 

p  ^  2,848.3 +  .^.X  24X2,848.2  ^  ^3^^  ^^  ^^  .^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^^ 

This  yield,  which  corresponds  to  1.62  per  cent  of  the  calipered  material  and  is  1.6 
cubic  meters  per  hectare  per  year  for  the  forested  area,  is  not  too  large  but  fully  provides 
for  the  small  growing  stock  (and  the  consequent  necessity  for  economy). 

B.  —  AREA  FELLINGS 
The  area  to  be  cut  over  by  improvement  cuttings  being  43.97  hectares,  the  yield 
will  be: 

p  =  iMZ  =  2.75  hectares. 
16 


ORIGINAL  WORKING   PLAN   DATA 


523 


A.  —  FELLINGS  BY  VOLUME 

Art.  5.  —  Method  of  getting  the  yield.  —  The  principal  fellings  are  all  for  sale, 
and  since  the  commune  actually  needs  all  its  resources,  it  also  desires  that  no  reserve 
should  be  made,  but  that  the  whole  yield  should  be  auctioned  each  year.  This  request 
does  not  seem  to  be  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  law  and  we  believe  it  is  correct.  If 
the  principal  yield  were  entirely  reserved  each  year  the  commune  would  ask  for  an 
emergency  felling  and  the  result  would  be  the  same. 

B. -AREA  FELLINGS 

The  improvement  cuttings,  because  of  the  necessity  for  special  firewood  allowances, 
win  form  two  distinct  felling  areas,  each  located  at  the  nearest  hamlet.  The  cutting 
will  then  be  worked  in  two  lots: 

The  first  for  special  firewood  allowances  ...  in  compartments  H,  I,  K,  L,  and 
M  (average  area  2.18  hectares).  The  second  for  special  firewood  allowances  .  .  . 
in  the  compartments  C,  D,  E,  F,  and  G  (average  area  0.57  hectare).  However,  since 
this  second  lot  is  so  small  it  will  only  be  worked  every  two  years  and  its  area  wiU  be 
1.14  hectares. 

A.  -  FELLINGS  BY  VOLUME 

Art.  6.  —  Location  of  fellings  for  the  first  period,  1911-1926.  —  The  selection 
felhngs  will  be  marked  one  after  another  and  will  cut  over  the  compartments  alpha- 
betically.    No  division  will  be  left  until  it  has  been  entirely  cut  over. 

The  following  table  gives  for  each  compartment  the  estimated  yield.  Since  the 
windfalls  which  may  take  place  during  the  period  must  be  counted  (against  the  yield) 
it  is  recommended  especially  at  the  start  to  keep  well  below  the  (yield)  figures  given: 


Canton 

Compartment 

Area 

Growing  stock 

Per  cent  to  cut* 

Estimated  yield 

La  Vuardaz 

LePeray 

A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
I 
L 
M 

6.11 
5.24 

2.17 
4.70 
2.95 
3.46 
2.11 
7.74 
7.14 
8.46 

741 
1,164 

254 
1,151 

464 

485 
52 
63 

121 
62 

22 
35 
30 
25 
22 
22 
40 
10 
10 
10 

163 
406 

76 
288 
100 
107 

20 
6 

12 
6 

Totals 

50.08 

4,557 

26 

1  184-74X16 

*  In  realizing  each  year  1.62  per  cent  of  the  total  stand  there  will  be  cut  during  the 
period  16  X  1.62  =  26  per  cent.  This  is  the  average  per  cent  cut.  We  have  varied 
it  for  each  compartment  in  accordance  with  the  cultural  requirements. 


B.  -  FELLINGS  BY  AREA 
The  table  which  foUows  shows  the  sequence  and  size  of  improvement  fellings  to  mark 
each  and  every  year  in  the  first  class  of  fellings  and  every  two  years  in  the  second. 
The  areas  are  somewhat  unequal  from  one  year  to  another;  to  assure  an  approximately 
sustained  yield  so  far  as  practicable  it  was  necessary  to  allot  felling  areas  universely 
proportional  to  the  abundance  of  broad-leaved  trees  in  each  of  them,  dividing  \ip  the  com- 
partments, however,  as  little  ( 


524 


APPENDIX 


Year  of  the  felling 


Serial  No. 
of  the  cut 


Compartment 


Of  parts  to 
be  cut  over 
each  year 


Age  of  broad  leaf  trees 


Canton  of  Le  Peray  —  {First  series  of  cuttings) 


1911 

1 

1912 

2 

1913 

3 

1914 

4 

1915 

5 

1916 

6 

1917 

7 

1918 

s 

1919 

9 

1920 

10 

1921 

11 

1922 

12 

1923 

13 

1924 

14 

1925 

15 

1926 

16 

Totals. 


7.74 

6.78 
4,68 

7.14 
8.46 


34.80 


1.75 
2.25 
1.90 
1.84 
2.27 
2.45 
2.06 
1.61 
3.07 
2.50 
1.64 
1.96 
1.04 
1.68 
2.28 
4.50 


34.80 


15-30 
15-30 
15-30 
15-30 

40 
15-30 
15-30 

10 

10 
10-15 
10-15 
1.5-20 
15-20 
10-20 

10 

10 


At  time  of 
felling 


16-31 
17-32 
18-33 
19-34 

45 
21-36 
22-37 

18 

19 
20-25 
21-26 
27-32 
28-33 
24-34 

24 

24 


Canton  o 

/  La  Vuardaz  — 

-  {Second  series  of  cuttings) 

1911 
1913 

^1 
^1 

c 

2.17 

1  1.08 

1.09 

J  1.50 

1  1.50 

20 

18 

21 
21 

1915 
1917 

D 

3.00 

18 

18 

23 
25 

1919 
1921 

^i 

F 

2.00 

1  1.00 
i  1.00 

17 
15 

26 
26 

1923 

7 

G 

1.00 

1.00 

15 

28 

1925 

8 

E 

1.00 

1.00 

15 

30 

Totals 

9.17 

A. -VOLUME  FELLINGS 

Art.  7.  —  Application  of  the  yield.  —  Cultural  rules.  —  The  fellings  shall  be 
on  the  whole  entirely  selection  (in  character)  favoring  (for  removal)  dry  topped  trees, 
those  decayed  or  overmature  of  all  diameter  classes  whose  removal  will  fill  an  important 
part  of  the  yield.  Next  cut  trees  which  have  reached  or  passed  the  exploitable  size 
(23.6  inches  or  60  c.  m.  in  diameter)  and  whose  retention  does  not  seem  to  be  necessary 
in  order  to  maintain  the  canopy.  Do  not  forget  that  on  the  whole  the  growing  stock 
is  deficient  and  that  all  young  trees  which  are  sound  and  vigorous  should  in  theory 
be  retained;  yet  at  the  bottom  of  compartments  A  and  B  where  there  is  a  half-grown 
high  forest,  quite  regular  thinnings  must  be  carried  on  in  order  to  favor  the  devel- 
opment of  the  best  stems. 

B. -AREA  FELLINGS 
The  aim  of  the  improvement  cuttings  should  be  the  creation  of  a  mixed  forest  of 
conifers  and  broadleaves.     In  theory  they  should  be  exploited  by  cutting  back  (rece- 
page) ;  this  cutting  back  shall  be  complete  when  it  concerns  the  softwoods,  but  on  the 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA  525 

contrary  with  the  hardwoods  there  should  be  reserved  (1)  all  the  trees  with  freed  crowns 
and  in  good  condition ;  (2)  a  certain  number  of  stems  chosen  from  those  with  the  longest 
boles  on  the  areas  where  the  conifers  are  lacking.  However,  at  the  time  of  the  regular 
fellings  one  can  clean  out  the  saplings  where  they  are  too  dense  by  removing  the  dead 
trees  or  those  clearly  suppressed,  although  these  last  will  be  conserved,  in  theory. 

Art.  8.  —  Deduction  (from  the  yield).  —  The  volume  of  conifers,  from  20  cm. 
(8  inches)  up,  cut  in  any  felling  whatever  in  the  compartments  cahpered  shall  be  counted 
against  the  yield. 

PART  IV 

Betterments 

General  Map.  —  Compartment  Map.  —  The  topographic  map  was  drawn  on  a 
scale  of  23V3  which  corresponds  to  the  scale  used  in  the  former  map  of  Savoie,  then 
reduced  to  5  oVo  in  order  to  obtain  the  complete  map  given  in  the  Appendix.  Twenty- 
meter  (66-foot)  contours  have  been  used.  It  is  hoped  that  this  map  can  be  reproduced 
by  the  helographique  process  so  that  it  can  be  sent  to  each  agent  as  an  example. 

Management  Divisions.  —  All  compartments  are  bounded  by  natural  lines,  trails, 
or  canyons;  there  are  no  ditches  to  open  up.  But  in  order  to  avoid  all  confusion  it  is 
advisable  that  the  compartment  letters  be  marked  on  the  boundary  trees.  A  method 
which  has  given  excellent  results  consists  in  lightly  scraping  the  bark  so  as  to  make  a 
smooth  square  which  wUl  take  two  coats  of  white  zinc  on  which  the  letter  can  be  painted 
in  red  or  blue. 

Boundary  Posts.  —  As  has  been  seen,  the  boundary  has  been  marked  by  posts  and 
"crossed"  rocks  while  the  working  plan  data  were  collected,  but  it  would  be  well  to 
make  this  stiU  plainer  by  opening  up  ditches  or  paths  between  the  pillars  or  rocks.  If 
the  commune  cannot  afford  this  work  along  the  entire  boundary  it  would  be  a  good 
plan  to  commence  ditches  on  each  side  of  corners  pointing  to  the  next  ones. 

Reforestation.  —  The  removal  of  overmature  material,  especially  in  compartments 
B  and  C,  wUl  necessitate  openings  which  must  be  restocked  to  enrich  the  soil.  The 
best  method  consists  in  working  seed  spots  about  2  meters  apart  upon  which  excess 
wild  stock  can  be  planted;  the  cultivation  thus  given  the  ground  has  the  effect  of  mixing 
the  soil  with  the  acid  humus,  freely  worked  in,  thus  aiding  the  rooting  of  the  seedling. 

Communications.  —  It  is  chiefly  outside  the  forest  that  means  of  communication 
are  lacking,  especially  in  the  Canton  of  Vuardaz,  but  the  study  for  road  improvements 
below  the  stand  at  the  hamlet  of  Bois  and  ChatiUon  is  out  of  our  hands. 

Improvement  Tax  on  the  Sales.  —  To  permit  the  execution  of  the  improvements 
here  enumerated  as  well  as  those  found  later  on  to  be  useful  a  tax  of  3  per  cent  should 
be  levied  on  all  wood  sales  and  allotted  for  expenditure  to  the  local  forest  service. 

Patrol.  —  The  trespass  (timber  cutting)  which  has  taken  place  and  which  still  con- 
tinues in  the  Canton  of  Peray  requires  vigorous  measures.  The  isolation  of  this  separate 
stand  from  the  rest  of  the  forest  by  a  rocky  ridge  and  the  distance  from  the  ranger 
station  makes  patrol  difficult;  to  assure  patrol  it  appears  that  cooperation  will  be 
necessary  between  the  Canton  of  Bonneville  and  Taninges.  It  will  not  require  too 
much  work  of  the  two  districts  to  prevent  the  abuse  of  this  wretched  canton.  It  goes 
mthout  saying  that  legal  proceedings  must  always  be  pressed  with  the  utmost  vigor. 


526  APPENDIX 


PART  V 

Comparative  Review  of  the  Revenue  Before  and  After  the  (proposed) 
Working  Plan 

The  average  annual  yield  of  the  forest  during  the  last  10  years  (1901-1910)  is  as 
follows : 

Wood  products  (70  m.  c.)  820  francs;  (minor)  accessory  products,  66  francs  =  total 
of  886  francs.  From  this  must  be  deducted:  (1)  cost  of  guard,  110  francs;  (2)  adminis- 
trative costs,  41  francs;  (3)  taxes,  102  francs,  or  253  francs,  leaving  a  net  revenue  of  633 
francs  (equal  to  80  cents  per  acre  per  year).  The  receipts  to  be  realized  after  the  appli- 
cation of  the  working  plan  proposed  can,  on  the  other  hand,  be  valued  as  follows :  Princi- 
pal felling  (74  m.  c.)  962  francs;  improvement  cuttings  (20  m.  c.  at  2  francs),  40  francs; 
(minor)  accessory  products,  66  francs,  or  a  total  of  1,068  francs;  from  which  must  be 
deducted:  (1)  cost  of  guard,  122  francs;  (2)  administrative  costs,  50  francs;  (3)  taxes, 
102  francs,  or  274  francs  costs,  leaving  a  net  revenue  of  794  francs.  This  net  revenue 
would  thus  be  161  francs  more  than  the  former,  or  a  25  per  cent  increase  (about  $1  per 
acre  per  year). 

(Signed)     A.  Schaeffer, 
Inspector  of  Waters  and  Forests,  Chief  of  Management. 

Chambery,  November  25,  1910. 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA 


527 


VOLUME  TABLE 


Diameters 

Spruce  and 

Pine, 

B.  H.. 

fir, 

cubic 

Remarks 

inches 

cubic  meters 

meters 

8 

0.2 

0.1 

H 

10 

0.4 

0.2 

12 

0.6 

0.3 

2. 

14 

0.9 

0.5 

3 

16 

1.2 

0.7 

18 

1.6 

1.0 

7i 

20 

2.1 

1.3 

n 

22 

2.6 

1.6 

24 

3.2 

2.0 

£s 

26 

3.8 

2.4 

o   t' 

28 

4.5 

2.8 

il 

30 

5.2 

3.2 

32 

6.0 

3.7 

o 

34 

6.8 

4.2 

o 

36 

7.7 

4.8 

1 

38 

8.6 

5.4 

s 

40 

9.6 

6.0 

Graphical  representation  of  the  growing  stock. 
Upper  line  indicates  normal  growing  stock. 
Lower  line  indicates  actual  growing  stock. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE   NORMAL 
HECTARE  (SELECTION  FOREST) 


D.  B.  H., 

inches 

Number 
of  trees 

Volume 

per  tree, 

0.  m. 

Volume  for 
the  diameier 
class,  c.  m. 

8 

114 

0.2 

22.8 

10 

73 

0.4 

29.2 

12 

55 

0.6 

33.0 

14 

44 

0.9 

39.6 

16 

35 

1.2 

42,0 

18 

27 

1.6 

43.2 

20 

21 

2.1 

44.1 

22 

17 

2.6 

44.2 

24 

14 

3.2 

44.8 

400 

342.9 

24  22  20  18  16 

Diameter  Breast  High  in  Inches 


*  In  the  original  working  plan  the  volumes  for  (a)  the  spruce,  fir  and  (b)  the  pine  were  graphically  shown  by 
2-inch  diameter  classes  and  cubic  meters  of  volume. 


528 


APPENDIX 


RESULTS  OF  BORINGS  WITH  PRESSLER'S  INCREMENT  BORER 

Number  of  years  to  pass  from  one  diameter  class  to  another 


D.B.  H.,inche 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

19 
17 
10 
11 

12 

11 

8 

40 

16 

14 
21 

8 
21 
28 
21 
10 

6 

17 
16 
7 
22 
25 
25 
10 
14 
17 

11 

17 

17 

16 
5 

24 

8 
9 

6 

Time       in 

years  to 

grow 

2  inches 

Totals 

69 

19 

56 

129 

153 

45 

21 

41 

6 

Averages .  . 

13.8 

9.5 

28.0 

16.1 

17.0 

15.0 

10.5 

13.6 

6 

The  35  trees  take  in  the  aggregate  539  years  to  pass  from  one  diameter  class  to  an- 

539 
other  or  an  average  of  -^  =  15.4;  that  is  to  say  in  16  years  all  the  stems  should  pass 

through  one  diameter  class  (2  inches);  the  length  of  the  cutting  period  is  therefore 
justified.     The  curve  given  below  brings  out  this  point  even  clearer: 


s  : 

1         30 
t         25 
o  ^   20 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

> 

h 

I   §    15 
1  "^    10 

S          5 

2 

/ 

^ 

\ 

^ 

^ 

■--«_ 

n 

"^ 

"~~" 

■^ 

-^ 

L- 

16  18  20  22  24 

Diameter  Breast  High  in  Inches 


ORIGINAL  WORKING   PLAN   DATA 
AVERAGE  GROWTH  PER  CENT  BY  DIAMETER  CLASSES 


529 


D.  B.  H.,  inches 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

2.86 

5.83 
3.67 
4.00 

2.67 
5.33 

0.53 
1.67 

2.28 
1.43 
3.81 
1.04 
1.43 
1.43 
2.86 
4.75 

1.67 
2  00 
4.16 
1.11 
0.83 
0.83 
2.50 
1  43 
2,00 

1.78 
1.11 

1.14 
4.00 

0 

1 
1 

61 

82 
82 

2.67 

Total 

19.22 

8.00 

2.20 

19.03 

16.53 

4.16 

5.14 

4 

25 

2  67 

3.84 

4.00 

1.1 

2.38 

1.83 

1.39 

2.57 

^ 

49 

2  67 

Evened  off  by  c 

urve. 

\ 

\ 

p-^ 

^, 

y 

s 

\ 

^ 

N 

— 

\ 

^ 

y^ 

N 

/ 

\ 

^ 

— 

\ 

/ 

/^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

r 

— 

^ 

^ 

'^ 



— , 

— 

— 



1  — 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

~ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

n  — 

10  12  14 


18  20  22  24  26 


530 


APPENDIX 


The  table  below  gives  the  per  cents  evened  off  by  a  curve;  by  applying  them  to  the 
volumes  of  the  different  diameter  classes  resulting  from  the  valuation  the  probable 
growth  of  the  forest  as  it  stands  is  obtained : 


D.  B.  H.,  inches  a 

Total  volume  in  cubic 
meters 

Growth 

per  cent  read  from 
curve 

Growth 

in  cubic  meters 

8 

356 

X 

4.75 

= 

16.9 

10 

491 

X 

3.25 

16.0 

12 

529 

X 

2.75 

14.5 

14 

643 

X 

2.0 

12.9 

16 

898 

X 

1.75 

15.7 

•     18 

685 

X 

1,62 

11.1 

20 

399 

X 

1.50 

6.0 

22 

255 

X 

1.32 

3.3 

24 

160 

X 

1.20 

1.9 

26 

72 

X 

1.15 

0.8 

28 

36 

X 

1.10 

0.4 

30 

21 

X 

1.05 

= 

0.2 

32 

18 
4,558 

X 

1.00 

0.2 
99.9 

"This  column  was  not  given  in  the  original  plan. 

99  9 
The  average  yearly  growth  per  cent  would  equal  .— r^ 

4,ooo 

fore  evident  that  in  reducing  the  per  cent  to  be  cut  to  1.62  a  considerable  saving  will 

be  made  so  essential  to  complete  the  (deficient)  growing  stock. 


2.19  per  cent.     It  is  there- 


ORIGINAL  WORKING  PLAN   DATA 


531 


> 

348.4 
486.8 
523.2 
639.9 
895.2 
684.8 
399.0 
249.6 
160.0 
72.2 
36.0 
20.8 
18.0 

1 

O    C^    h,    O    00 

s 

1? 

§ 

ai+f^ 

JO-OO^ 

1 

s 

- 

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S   i     --"  1  J   4  1 

532 


APPENDIX 
COMPARTMENT  DESCRIPTIONS  (SAMPLE) 


1 

Situation  — 

Canton 

1 
J 

Area 

slope,  altitude, 
aspect 

Soil 

Species 

Age 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Hectare.^ 

La  Vuardaz .  . 

A 

6  11 

Slope       very 

Upper  cretaceous  red  stratum 

Spruce,  97  per 

Age     of 

steep,  cliffs, 

calcaire,  marl. 

cent 

overstory 

north    expo- 

Soil rocky  and  generally  shal- 

Beech     and 

100  years 

sure 

low.     The    rock    formation 

others,  3  per 

Altitude 

outcrops  very  frequently 

cent 

850-1084  m. 

Cover  of  moss  and  vegetable 
litter 

LaVuardaz.. 

B 

5.24 

Slope       very 

Upper  cretaceous  red  stratum 

Spruce,  99  per 

Age  of 

steep,  facing 

Soil  quite  deep  and  solid  but 

cent;  beech. 

overstory 

north      and 

impermeable,  therefore  some 

1  per  cent 

100  years 

northwest 

root  rot 

Altitude 

Cover  of  grass,  epilobes 

850-1084  m. 

La  Vuardaz.  . 

C 

2.17 

Slope      steep 

Same  geologic  base  as  above 

Spruce,  90  per 

Age  of 

to  west  and 

but  with  marl. 

cent;   beech 

over.story 

northwest 

Soil  dry,  rocky,  and  stony  to 

and  oak,   10 

100  years 

dominated 

the  south;  rest  like  B 

per  cent 

also  15-20 

by  a  cliff 

year  old 

Altitude 

broad- 

892-1045  m. 

leaved 
trees 

LaVuardaz. . 

D 

4.70 

Ridge     with 

Same  as  C  in  re.  geology. 

Spruce,  90  per 

1  to  150 

rapid      slope 

Soil  dry,  shallow,  and  rocky 

cent;     beech 

years  for 

facing  north- 

toward the  cliff  to  the  west; 

and     broad- 

the  coni- 

west     and 

on  remainder  fresh  and  rich, 

leaves,     10 

fers 

west  where  it 

there  is  an  abundant  cover 

per  cent 

15  to  20 

is     bounded 

of     shrubs,      briars,     ferns. 

years  for 

by  a  cliff 

moss,  etc. 

the  broad- 

Altitude 

leaved 

995-1171  m. 

trees 

Total 

18.22 

ORIGINAL  WORKING   PLAN   DATA 


533 


COMPARTMENT  DESCRIPTIONS    (SAMPLE)  —  Continued 


Description  of  stand 


Stand  pet 
hectare 


Graphic  description  of  stock 

Each  horizontal  square  represents 
a  difference  of  2  inches  in  diameter: 
eacli  vertical  square  10  trees 


In  the  lower  part  young  high  forest  regular  and 
in  good  condition.  On  the  rest  of  area  selec- 
tion forest  open  and  poor,  composed  of  short 
limby  trees.  The  hardwoods  .  .  .  are 
hardly  represented,  only  a  few  beech  usually 
isolated 

Rocky  blanks,  0.11  hectares 

Stocked  area,  6.0  hectares 

In  the  lower  part  young  high  forest  regular  and 
in  good  condition.  On  rest  of  area  high  forest 
open  with  some  blanks,  more  or  less  damaged 
by  insects  (bostrytches)  despite  their  being 
localized  understory  of  beech.  The  trees  are 
long-boled  but  have  a  strong  tendency  to  be 
worm-eaten 

Growth  declining  in  vigor 

To  the  S.  W.  under  the  cliff  coppice  invaded  by 
the  conifers  which  are  in  places  clumps  of 
saplings,  poles  and  even  young  high  forest. 
Elsewhere  open  and  declining  in  vigor,  rav- 
aged by  bostryches 

Growth  not  vigorous  except  near  the  bottom 

Rocky  blanks,  0. 10  hectares 

Stocked  area,  2  07  hectares 

Selection  forest  in  vigorous  condition,  good 
height,  topping  in  places  an  understory  of 
beesh.  Toward  the  cliff  coppice  quite  com- 
plete, overtopped  by  conifers  singly  and  in 
groups 

Growth  active  on  the  east,  slowing  up  on  the 
west,  found  a  lot  of  overmature  trees 


1 

--V -- 

^     ^ 

T  rll 

___5^ 

::::L^v:-:  :::::: 

::r:  ::::::  ::::::  :::::: 

-' 

A^ 

V5± 

=  =  "    -§  =  """"  =  ±  =  " 

-pW ' 

is^:::::::::::::::::::::: 

___. !__________._._ 

IMP"  hi 

^^-H+--^+ 

Valuation  of  I9I0 
Normal  stand 


634 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX   L 

MODEL  INSURANCE   CALCULATIONS   OF  DAMAGE  BY  FIRE » 

Forest  under  working  plan  with  an  area  of  80  hectares,  treated  in  coppice-undei'- 
standards  with  a  rotation  of  20  years  divided  into  20  feUing  areas  with  an  average  area 
on  the  ground  of  4  hectares. 

1. —  Object  Insured 

(1)  The  coppice,  composed  of  oak  0.3;  beech  0.2;  hornbeam  0.4;  miscellaneous  0.1; 
whose  ages  vary  from  1  to  20  years. 

(2)  The  reserves,  but  only  including  the  oak,  the  beech,  and  the  miscellaneous  trees 
with  circumferences  between  0.51  meters  and  1.10  meters  at  1.30  meters  above  the  soil, 

(3)  (I/Ensouchement)  root  systems. 

(4)  Litter. 

It  is  agreed  that  the  rate  of  interest  to  be  used  in  calculations  shall  be  3^  per  cent. 

II. —  Calculations  of  the  Capital  to  be  Insured 

(1)  Coppice.  The  net  average  value  of  the  stand  20  years  old  is  300  francs  per  hectare. 
The  value  per  hectare  capable  of  giving  a  revenue  of  300  francs  every  20  years  is  given 
at  the  rate  of  3^  per  cent: 

F  =  300X  rj^  20  -  1  =  (By  using  the  3d  Cotta  table) 

F  =  300  X  1.01  =  303  francs. 

From  this  value  per  hectare  should  be  deducted  the  value  V  per  hectare  calculated 
by  the  formula : 

V  =  303  francs  (1.033'*  —  1),  where  "  =  the  age  of  the  growing  stock  or,  employing 
the  first  Cotta  table, 

F  ^,  or  a  value  of  a  hectare  aged  one  year   303  X  0.03  =       9  francs 

y",  or  a  value  of  a  hectare  aged  10  vears    303  X  0.41  =  124  francs 

F^o,  or  a  value  of  a  hectare  aged  20  years    303  X  0.99  =  300  francs 

Total 2,802  francs 

In  the  example  just  given,  each  of  the  20  felling  areas  with  ages  1  to  20  years  have  a 
surface  of  4  hectares.  It  therefore  results  that  the  total  value  of  the  coppice,  that  is  to 
say,  the  amount  to  be  insured,  wiU  be  2,802  X  4  =  11,208  francs,  or,  in  round  num- 
bers, 11,200  francs. 

(2)  Reserve.  The  oak  and  beech  with  circumferences  between  0.51  and  1.10  meters 
are  divided  into  three  classes  according  to  the  table  which  follows  (resulting  from  former 
stocktaking  and  valuation)  indicates  the  composition  and  the  average  value  per  hectare: 


Circumference  class 
(meters) 

Species  and  value 

Total  value, 
francs 

0.51-0.70  

30 

0  71-0  90 

10  beech  and  miscellaneous  worth  1  franc  each. . 
10  oaks  worth  3  francs  each  

10 
30 

0.91-1.10 

6  beech  and  miscellaneous  worth  2  francs  each. 

8  oaks  worth  5  francs  each 

4  beech  and  miscellaneous  worth  3  francs  each. 

12 
40 
12 

Total 

134 

See  p.  288  for  discussion. 


MODEL  INSURANCE  CALCULATIONS  535 

The  sum  of  134  francs  being  the  capital  to  insure  to  guarantee  the  reserves  on  one  hec- 
tare, that  corresponding  to  the  whole  forest  will  be  134  X  80  =  10,720  francs,  or,  in 
round  figures,  19,700  francs. 

(3)  Roots.  The  cost  of  planting  1,000  plants  may  be  estimated  according  to  regional 
costs  at: 

Francs 

Piu-chase  of  1,000  plants 10 

Transport,  planting,  and  accessory  expense 14 

Total 24 

5,000  plants  per  hectare  will  be  sufficient  to  reconstitute  the  forest  supposedly 
entirely  destroyed.  It  results,  therefore,  that  the  expense  per  hectare  will  be  24  francs  X 
5  =  120  francs  and  that  for  the  80  hectares  of  the  forest,  the  capital  to  be  insured  in 
view  of  the  guarantee  will  be  120  francs  X  80  =  9,600  francs. 

(4)  Litter.  The  necessary  expense  for  covering  the  soil  with  1  kilogram  of  azote 
can  be  valued  locally  as  follows : 

Francs 

Purchase  of  manure  yielding  1  kilogram  of  azote 1.50 

Transport,  spreading,  and  necessary  expense 0.50 

Total 2.00 

The  average  weight  of  the  litter  per  hectare  is  40  quintaux  capable  of  furnishing  1 
kilogram  of  azote  per  quintal  or  40  kilograms  of  azote  per  hectare.    It  therefore  follows 
that  the  expense  per  hectare  will  be  2  francs  X  40  =  80  francs  and  that  for  the  80  hec- 
tares of  the  forest  the  capital  to  be  insured  wiU  be  80  francs  X  80  =  6,400  francs. 
The  total  capital  to  be  insured  will  then  be: 

Francs 

Coppice 11,200 

Reserves    10,700 

Roots 9,600 

Litter 6,400 

Total 37,900 

III. —  Calculations  of  the  Annual  Insurance  Rate 

(1)  Charcoal  is  manufactured. 

(2)  The  forest  has  no  fire  lines,  divisions,  or  brooks  capable  of  stopping  fire. 

These  two  factors  increase  the  insurance  risk  each  to  the  extent  of  0.05  per  cent  or  a 
total  of  0.10  per  cent,  which  gives  a  final  figure  of  0.50  +  0.10  =  0.60  per  cent.  Apply- 
ing this  0.60  per  cent  rate  to  the  capital  to  be  insured,  it  yields  an  annual  rate  to  be  paid 
of  37.9  X  0.60  =  22.74  francs. 

A  fire  burns  3  hectares  of  the  forest  of  which  2  hectares  is  coppice  aged  8  years  and 
1  is  hectare  coppice  aged  10  years  —  16  oaks  and  60  beech  and  miscellaneous  of  circum- 
ferences between  0.51  and  1.10  are  destroyed.  Half  the  stumps  have  been  kUledby 
the  fire.     Two-thirds  the  Utter  is  destroyed. 

IV. —  Calculation  of  the  Damage  Caused 

Francs 
(1)  Coppice.     2  hectares  aged  8  years,  worth    2  X    97  francs  =  194 
1  hectare  aged  10  years,  worth    1  X  125  francs  =  125 

Total  319 


536 


APPENDIX 


Salvage  and  deduct.  The  cost  of  cutting  back  is  compensated  by  the  value  of  the 
products  saved;  therefore  there  is  no  salvage:     Net  =  319  francs. 

(2)  Reserves.  The  trees  destroyed  according  to  circumferences  at  1.30  above  the 
soil  are: 


Circumferences 

Francs 

0.51-0.70 

20 

0.71-0.90 

25  beech  and  miscellaneous  worth  1  franc  each .  . 

6  oaks  worth  3  francs  each 

20  beech  and  miscellaneous  worth  2  francs  each . 
15  beech  and  miscellaneous  worth  3  francs  each . 

Total  . .    . 

25 

18 

0.91-1.10 

40 
45 

148 

Salvage  to  deduct. 

Actual  value  of  the  trees  killed  by  fire 

Net 

60 

88 

(3)  Roots.     The  amount  necessary  to  replace  half  the  roots  per  hectare  is  120  -^  2. 

This  replacement  being  necessary  on  3  hectares,  there  will  be  due  for  the  damage  to  the 

120 
root  systems  -^  X  3  =  180  francs. 

(4)  Litter.     The  amount  necessary  to  replace  two-thirds  the  litter  per  hectare  is 

2  X80, 

— 5 —  francs. 

This  replacement  being  necessary  on  3  hectares  there  will  be  due  for  damage  caused 

2  V  SO 
to  the  litter       ^       X  3  =  160  francs. 

The  total  damage  caused  will  then  be: 

Francs 

Coppice 318 

Reserves 88 

Roots 180 

Litter 160 

Total 746 


PIWFEHTY  LIBRARY 
JV.  C.  SiaU  College 


INDEX 


Administration,  costs,  57 
Administrative  education,  268 
Adour,  valley  of  the,  71 
Agriculture,  cultivable  land,  27 

staples  of,  27 
Aleppo  and  Scotch  pine,  selection  fellings 
for,  87 

pine,  clear  cutting,  72 
Algerian  code  of  1908,  261 
Algeria,  special  laws  for,  261 
Allied  cooperation,  x 
Alpine  gorges,  work  done  in,  8 
Alps,  land  forests  of  the,  36 

region,  422 

size,  36 

zone,  32 
Alsace-Lorraine,  forests  of,  495 

valley  in.  Frontispiece. 
Amance,  State  forest  of,  101 
Amboise,  forest  of,  95,  323,  328 
American  Army,  what  it  required,  337 

Forest  Engineers  in  France,  336 

operations,  French  view  of,  355 

requirements,     French     difficulties     in 
supplying,  356 

woodsmen  called  to  the  colors,  338 
Appraisal,  a  sample,  295 

and  estimate,  294 
Appendixes,  360-536 
Aqueducts  and  tunnels,  162 
Arbor  day  celebrations,  19 
Arc-et-Chateau villain  forest,  323 
Area  allotment  by  periods,  239 

and  age,  234 

and  topography,  25 

burned  over,  204 

felling  by,  255 

in  hectares,  xxi 

pure,  232 

size  of,  to  restore,  156 
Areas,  eroded,  per  cent,  145 
Argon,  forest  of,  111 
Avalanches,  erosion,  and  floods,  23 

frequent  in  the  mountains,  158 


Avalanches,  protection  against,  158 

works  to  prevent,  255 
Aude,  sowing  in  the,  138 

Badre,  inspecteur,  76 

Bagneris  method  of  tapping,  107 

Ball  planting,  128 

Ban  d'Etival,  fir  stumpage  prices,  313 

Ban  de  Puy-Saint  Pierre,  forest  of,  91 

Barcelonette    (Basses- Alpes),    success    of 

plants,  126 
Bark,  cork,  233 

tannin,  92 
Barres  Secondary  School  for  Rangers,  124 
Basses-Alpes,  department  of,  36 
Beaufort,  communal  forest  of,  109 
Beech,  390 

and  oak  forests,  well-managed,  14 

-oak  stands  in  northeast  of  France,  98 

regeneration,  irregularity  of,  82 

second  important  species,  41 

selection  coppice,  94 

shelterwood  for,  76 

tolerant,  76 
Benardeau,  conservator  of  forests,  18 
Betterments,  290 

Biscarrosse,  forest  of,  7,  172,  189,  191 
Bonnevaux,  forest  of,  87 
Boppe,  71,  94,  106 

Bremontier,  a  great  engineer,  169,  173,  175 
Bridge  and  Road  Service,  176 
Briot,  conservator.  Forest  Service,  153 
Broadleaves,  area  occupied  by,  40 
BroUliard,  23,  97 

Calipering,  rules  for,  212 

stands,  211 
Carcans,  forest  of,  188,  191 
Caterpillar  tractors,  346 
Cembric  pine  and  larch,  33,  165 
Central  Plateau  region,  426 

zone,  33 
Cette-Eygun,  forest  of,  83 
Cevennes  region,  427 


537 


538 


INDEX 


Chamonix  forest,  229,  259 

working  plan,  248-250 
Chapelle  d'Huin,  forest  of,  87 
Charcoal,  burning,  204 
Chevandier,  Doctor,  142 
Cleaning  and  freeing  young  stands,  106 

meaning  of,  105 
Cleanings  and  thinnings,  71 

when  to  make,  108 
Chmate,  26 

Climatic  and  physical  features,  25 
Code,  forest,  xv 

Colbert,  the  great  conservationist,  221 
Combre  dune,  sowing  on  the,  138 
Commerce,  29 
Communal  forests,  xiv 
Compartment  subdivision,  226 
Conifers,  area  occupied  by,  40 
Coniferous  stands,  planting  of,  130 
Conservation,  French  attitude  toward,  9 

name  of,  xxi 

projects,  private  forests  in,  9 
Conservations,  France  proper  divided  into 

thirty-two,  273 
Consumption  of  lumber,  per  capita,  16 
Contractors,  rights  of,  299 
Conversion,  cost  of,  103 

the  best  known,  101,  103 
Conversions,  54-57,  70,  100 
Cooperation,  allied,  x 
Coppice,  54,  57,  70 

loss  in  large  area  in,  92 

managed  on  short  rotation,  92 

of  sessile  oak,  92 

selection  treatment  in,  94,  233 

simple,  93 

stands,  species  found  in  French,  93 

systems,  92,  100 

under  conversion,  acres  of,  100 

when  not  to  cut,  93 

with  field  crops,  94 

with  short  rotation,  218 

with  standards,  487 
Coppice-under-standards,  54,  57,  70,  93 

classified,  97 

four  rules  for  improvement  of,  96 

(futaie  claire),  substitute,  98 

inferior  to  high  forest,  94 

rotation  for,  97 

system,  100 
Cordwood,  how  estimated,  208 


Cordwood,  prices,  306 

sold  by  ton,  208 
Corsica,  262 

special  laws  for,  261 
Cork  bark,  233 
Cost  of  conversion,  103 
Costs,  restocking  blanks,  79 
Cover  and  protection,  129 
Crowns,  thrifty,  well-developed,  86 
Cuif,  in  charge  of  research  at  Nancy,  101 
Cut,  regulation  of,  231 

systematizing  the,  225 
Cutting  area,  marking  the,  254 

and  logging  rules,  297 

clear,  70,  82 

cycles,  length  of,  227 

cycles  and  rotations,  226 

final,  188 

period,  87,  227 

principles  and  methods  of,  224 

regulation  of,  215 

requirements  imposed  by  the  French, 
353 

saw  timber,  201 

systematic,  beginning  of,  218 

systems  of,  70,  232 
Cuttings,  improvement,  104,  105,  189 

intermediate,  105 

transformation,  103,  104 

Dabat,  M.,  312 
Damage  by  birds,  278 

by  frost,  281 

by  game,  279 

by  sunscald  and  drought,  282 

from  grazing,  280 

from  logging,  277 

fungous,  280 

insect,  278 

prevention  of,  275 

snow,  282 

windfall,  280 
Dams,  costly  system  of,  154 

construction  of,  157 

log  and  dry  stone,  155 

masonry  and  rubble,  9 

principal  objects  of,  157 

technique  of,  157 

walls,  drains,  purpose  of,  164 
Daubree,  minister  of  agriculture,  23,  140 
Deforestation,  cause  of,  18 


INDEX 


539 


Deforestation,  dangers  of,  17 

legislation  against,  316 

on  mountain  slopes,  6 

obligation  of  the  State,  18 
Deforested  countries,  17 
De  Gail,  conservateur,  45,  279 
De  Lapasse,  conservateur,  xx,  22 
Demontzey,  115,  141,  162 
Department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone,  88 
Departments,  xxi,  47,  50 

most  heavily  and  least  forested,  52 
Devarennes,  inspector,  60 
Diameter  limit  by  single  trees,  233 
Dijon  hardwood  belt,  xviii 
Dingy  St.  Clair,  forest  of,  244 
Dinner,  authority  on  forestation,  122,  130 
District  manager,  duties  of,  341 
Drains,  paved,  at  Bastan,  161 
Dr6me,  basin  of,  36 

valley  of,  167 
Dune  commission,  175 

httoral,  180,  181 

protection,  at  Lacaneau-Ocean,  171 

road,  183 

the  protective,  180 
Dunes,  169 

advance  of,  172 

and  Landes,  262 

area  of  French,  177 

artificial,  181 

artificial  barrier,  cost,  184 

conditions  of  coast,  177,  179 

cost  and  price  data,  183 

development  of,  173 

fixation  and  maintenance  of,  180 

high  protective,  181 

kinds  of,  causes,  171 

maintenance  of,  437 

maritime,  in  France,  176 

method  of  combatting,  6 

reclamation  of,  173 
Dunning,  valuation  surveys  by,  212 
Durance,  the  basin  of  the,  36 

Earth  movements,  causes  of,  160 
Economic  needs  and  national  traits,  1 
Education,  forestry,  275 
Embrunais,  larch  forests  of  the,  36 
Engineers,  the  American  Forest,  in  France, 

336 
Ermenonville,  forest  of,  78 


Erosion  and  precipitation,  147 

avalanches,  and  floods,  23 

corrective  measures,  153 

form  of,  148 

in  the  moimtains,  140 

not  caused  by  grazing,  152 

preventing  further,  166 

rocks  and  soils,  148 
Estimates,  ocular,  211 
Eu-et-Aumale,  forest  of,  316 
Expense  and  receipts,  state  forests,  203 
Exotics  rarely  succeed,  44 
Experiments  recommended,  79 

Felling  areas,  groups  divided  into,  88 

cycles,  191 

final,  74,  231 

"open"  or  "light,"  74 
Fellings,  fir  selection,  83 

group,  70 

improvement,  111 

intermediate,  113,  189,  233 

or  thinnings,  intermediate,  231 

progressive  (shelterwood  system),  73 

secondary,  74 

selection,  70 
Fence,  to  prevent  damage  from  game,  75 
Field  crops,  coppice  with,  94 
Final  felling,  74 
Fire,  chief  causes  of,  284 

damage  intensive,  282 

insurance  calculations  of  damage  by, 
534 

insurance  in  France,  288 

Imes,  287 

preventive,  chief,  measures  in  France, 
276 

problem  in  forest  of  I'Esterel,  283 

protection  necessary,  276 
Fir  and  spruce  in  mixture,  shelterwood  for, 
82 

average  figure  per  acre  for,  84 

forest,  a,  332 

forests,  money  yield  from,  320 

or  spruce,  group  selection  for,  89 

selection  fellings,  83 

shelterwood  for,  80 

silver,  41,  397 

-spruce  forests,  60 

-spruce  stands,  rule  for,  239 

stands  in  the  Jura,  studies  of,  60 


540 


INDEX 


Flahaut,  M.,  141 

Fishing  and  shooting,  262 

Flood  control  in  the  Alps,  7 

Floods,  avalanches,  and  erosion,  23 

Fontainebleau,  forest  of,  79 

Forest  acquisitions  in  the  war  zone,  352 

acres  of.  State,  communal,  private,  34 

agencies  of  France,    cooperation  with, 
351 

and  land  conservation,  6 

and  sawmill  divorced,  14 

and  springs,  361 

area,  French  possession  of,  45 

area  in  private  ownership,  315 

area,  per  cent  of,  46 

area,  typical,  34 

areas,  49 

art  and  literature,  24 

belts,  important,  338 

code,  XV,  11 

code  of  1827,  261 

crop,  218,  226 

description,  example  of  the  latest,  245, 
246 

destruction,  controlling,  xxiv 

devastation.  State  control  of,  4 

divisions,  29 

education,  where  obtained,  274 

engineers,  accomplishment  of,  348,  350 

engineers,  organization  of,  338 

enterprises,  use  of  land  for,  9 

fires,  laws  dealing  with,  4 

growth,  receding  in  the  mountains,  141 

high,  54-57,  93,  98 

houses,  290 

influences,  19 

investment,  319,  320,  322 

labor,  wages  paid,  13 

land  in  the  United  States,  45 

lands,  confiscation  of,  8 
devastation  of,  16 

Hterature  and  art,  24 
French,  448 

management,  11,  224 

name  of,  xxi 

the  normal,  231 

officers,  staff  of,  12 

ownership,  46 

policy  in  the  United  States,  220,  221 

preparedness  in  France,  337 

private,  owners,  45 


Forest  problems,  15 
production,  xxiv,  46 
property  as  long-term  investment,  322 
regions,  25,  29 
regulating  a,  225 
regulation,  beginning  of,  218 
high,  476 

reserves,  when  established,  223 
resources,  intensive  use  of,  15 
revenue,  average,  184 
roads,  local,  63 
selection,  formula  for  management  of  a, 

84 
school,  Nancy,  101 
soil,  67 

species,  important,  40 
species,  silvics  of  important,  387 
statistical  data,  45 
state  administration,  xvii 
system  of  cutting,  46 
systems,  high,  71 
taxation,  French,  267 
the,  from  an  economic  viewpoint,  381 

from  a  physical  viewpoint,  381 

from  a  social  viewpoint,  381 
troops  loaned  to   French  and   British 

Armies,  357 
type  of,  99 
versus  farm  crops,  13 
Forest  of  Amance,  20 

Amboise,  95 

Amboise,  how  acquired,  327 

Amboise,  receipts  and  expenses,  329 

Amboise,  situation,  328 

Argon,  111 

Ban  d'Etival,  508 

Ban  de  Puy-Saint  Pierre,  91 

Beaufort,  109 

Belle  Vaux,  37 

Biscarrosse,  172,  189,  191 

Bonnevaux,  87 

Burdignin,  516 

Carcans,  188,  191 

Cette-Eygun,  83 

Chamonix,  260 

Chapelle  d'Huin,  87 

Dingy  St.  Claire,  244 

Ermenonville,  78 

Filhnges,  515 

Fontainebleau,  79 

Gerardmer,  80,  243 


INDEX 


541 


Forest  of  Grande  Chartreuse,  87 

Grande  Cote,  500 

Huit,  102 

La  Dole,  32 

La  Gardiole,  126,  129 

La  Joux,  32,  60,  512 

Lancanau,  188 

Lardies,  512 

L'Esterel,  233 

La  Teste,  188,  193 

Levier,  62 

Malmifait,  77,  112 

Manigod,  39 

Montargis,  conversion  in  the,  102 

Mont-Genevre,  36 

Mont  Glore,  511 

Moudon,  379 

Ouhans,  61 

Noiremont,  81 

Parc-et-St.  Quentin,  77,  517 

Paridas,  75 

Rambouillet,  79 

Risol,  81 

Risonx,  32 

St.  Antoine,  91 

St.  Martin  d'Arc,  87 

St.  Panerace,  89 

St.  Paul,  165 

St.  Point,  62 

Thiez,  517 

Thones-Ville,  109 

Tignes,  90 

Villarodin-Bourget,  85 

Vuillecin,  103 

X,  323,  332 
Forestation,  182 

and  drainage  practicable,  170 
artificial,  grazing  disastrous  to,  173 
by  communes,  147 
by  individuals,  147 
divisions,  145 
examples  of,  164 
methods,  130 
obligatory,  115 
optional,  115 
practice,  French,  138 
Forester's  golden  rule,  66 
Forestry  a  national  art,  2 

a  poor  investment  for  an  individual,  335 
as  a  commercial  business,  14 
as  an  investment,  317 


Forestry  education,  275 

French,  restrictions  in  cutting,  354 

the  war  a  vindication  of,  358 
in  the  Landes,  169 
operations,    geographical    distribution, 

340 
private,  its  economic  basis,  12 

on  its  own  merits,  15 
real,  in  France,  268 
section  of  the  Expeditionary  Force,  340, 

358 
troops,  a  division  of,  340 
troops,  spirit  of,  349 
Forests,  action  of,  on  springs,  363 
area  and  topography,  25 
communal  and  institution,  53 
control  of  private,  5 
dune,  in  public  hands,  178 
educational  value  of,  1 1 
extent  of  the  public,  10 
famous  recreation,  23 
federal,  two  important,  36 
fix,  of  France,  31 
for  indirect  benefits,  323 
for  health,  recreation,  and  beauty,  23 
French,  inroads  upon,  356 

regulations,  231,  232 
frontier,  262 
functions  of,  11 
high,  selection,  233 
important  private,  415 
in  conservation  projects,  9 
indirect  benefits  of,  xxiv 
influence  of,  365,  371,  372 
in  small  holdings,  46 
in  the  Alps,  xxiii 

Central  Plateau,  xxiii 
Girondine,  xxiii 
Jura,  xxiii 
Provengale,  xxiii 
Pyrenees,  xxiii,  38 
Vosges,  xxiii 
legal  status  of,  2 
most  worth  a  visit,  xx 
mountain,  in  detail,  34 

yield,  35 
national,  alienations  of,  10 

of  the  United  States,  220 
oak,  69 

of  Alsace-Lorraine,  495 
of  France,  communal,  11 


542 


INDEX 


Forests,  ownership  of,  177 
painters  of,  24 
plains,  yield,  35 
private,  53 

bought  by  the  A.  E.  F.,  212 

statistics  on,  409 
protection  of,  140 
public,  statistics  on,  409 
purpose  of,  11 
scenic,  treatment  of,  91 
selection,  French  government,  230 

German  viewpoint,  230 

two  schools,  107 
special  legal  status  of,  2 
State,  52 

as  storehouses  of  heavy  timber,  xv 

checkered  history  of,  10 

permanent,  7 
tax  exemption  on,  6 
the  core  of  publicly  owned,  9 

Normandy,  22 

role  of,  17 

value  of,  17 
three  notable,  323 
Vosges,  34,  220 
France,  private  forestry  in,  315 

proper,  divided  into  thirty-two  conser- 
vations, 273 
saved  by  her  forests,  xiv 
stumpage  prices  in,  309 
French  cooperation,  effectiveness  of,  356 
engineers,  operations  of,  153 
forestry,  German  comment  on,  469 

impressions  of,  1 

public  phases  of,  2 
forest  literature,  448 
forests  and  forestry,  xxvi 
forests,  boundaries  of  all,  292 
government,    early    negotiations    with, 
352 

interest  rates  paid  by,  317 

selection  forests,  230 
instructions,  236 
Jura  mountains,  84 
lumber  grades,  310 
mensuration,  206 

national  forest  administration,  261 
officials,  ix 

planting  technique,  127 
policy,  65,  114 
regulation  policy,  broad  aims  of,  215 


French  sUvics  of  aleppo  pine,  407 
beech,  390 
cork  oak,  395 
European  larch,  404 
holm  oak,  394 
hornbeam,  393 
maritime  pine,  401 
Norway  spruce,  402 
pedunculate  oak,  387 
Scotch  pine,  400 
sessUe  oak,  389 
silver  fir,  397 
silviculture,  90 
State  forest  roads,  291 
system  of  planting,  129 
terms  and  American  equivalents,  224 
views,  an  insight  into,  17 
working  plan,  243 
Fron,  119 

Frost,  forest  cover  prevents,  20 
Frosts,  spring,  80 
Fuel,  classification  of,  300 

supply  service,  special,  347 
Fungus,  root,  205 

Galmiche,  inspecteur,  95 
Game,  charge  for  shooting,  326 

fence  to  prevent  damage  from,  75 
Gard  and  Herault,  sowing  in  the,  137 
Garnissage,  162 
Gazin,  96 

Gerardmer,  fir  sawtimber  stumpage  prices, 
State  forest  of,  313 

forest  of,  80,  243 

region,   hardwood  cordvvood  stumpage 
prices,  314 
German  comment  on  French  forestry,  469 
Gets,  communal  forest  of,  39 
Gironde,  maritime  pine,  57 

sand  wastes  of  the  Landes  and,  169 

zone,  30 
Glacial  deposits,  149 
Gneiss,  slopes  formed  by,  149 
Government,  administrative  departments, 
29 

regulation  and  working  plans,  206 

representative,  29 
Grande  Chartreuse,  forest  of,  89 
Granites,  slopes  formed  by,  149 
Graphics,  stand,  what  they  represent,  214, 
215 


INDEX 


543 


Grazing  betterment,  the  work  of,  144 

disastrous  to  artificial  forestation,  173 

forbidden,  91 

grounds,  reservation  of,  143 

law  of  1882,  144 

regulation  of,  142 

trespass,  prevent,  203 
Ground,  when  to  cultivate,  91 
Group  selection  for  larch,  89 
Groups,  working,  191 

working,  essential,  215 

small  working,  226 
Gurnaud,  107 

method,  241,  242 

Hailstorms,  21 

Hardwood  cordwood,  stumpage  prices  for, 
314 

fuel  production  of,  14 
Haute-Dauphine,  forest  of,  37 

-Jura,  32 

-Loire,  stands  in  the,  137 

-Marne,  broadleaves,  56 

-Savoie,  36 
Henry,  list  of  forests  by,  xxiii 
Herault  and  Gard,  departments  of  the,  144 
Hez-Froidemont,  State  forest  of,  58 
High  forest,  54-57,  93 
High  forests,  selection,  233 
Highways,  French,  value  of,  346 
Hole-selection  method,  88 
Hornbeam,  41,  393 
Hufifel,  21,  36,  60,  70,  94,  98,  100,  361 
Huit,  the  forest  of,  102 
Humidity  and  rainfall,  21 

Implements,  69,  127 

Improvement  cuttings,  104,  105,  189 

fellings.  111 
Indo-China,  special  laws  for,  261 
Industries,  development  of  machinery,  27 
Influence  of  forests,  323,  373 
Institutional  forests,  xvi 
Interest  rates  paid  by  the  French  govern- 
ment, 317 
Intermediate  fellings,  113 
Inundation  of  1840,  142 
Inventory,  a  sample,  237 
Isere,  basin  of,  36 

Jacquot,  381 


Jolyet,  42,  94,  105,  109 
Jura,  forests  of  the,  308 
zone,  31 

La  Blanche  forestation  area,  424 
Lacanau  (Gironde)  State  forest,  188 
Lafond,  180 

La  Gardiole,  forest  of,  126 
Land,  areable,  130,  131 
barren,  131 
bog  and  swamp,  131 
brush  and  pasture,  131 
exempt  from  taxation,  317 
idle,  America's  problem,  16 
in  the  United  States  forests,  45 
mountain,  reserved  from  use,  268 
ownerships  of,  173 
reclaimed,  cost  of,  168 
Landes  and  dunes,  262 

and  Gironde,  sand  wastes  of  the,  169 
area,  170 

drainage  of,  cost,  170 
forestry  in  the,  169 
local  conditions,  172 
maritime  pine,  57 
special  betterments  in  the,  183 
Lands,  forestation  of  communal,  7 

mountain,  how  governed,  263 
Laporte,  conservateur,  88 
Larch,  a  light-demanding  species,  83 
and  cembric  pine,  33 
European,  404 

forests  of  the  Briangonnais,  36 
group  selection  for,  and  other  methods, 

89 
habitat,  41 
pure,  90 

where  sown,  165 
La  Teste,  forest  of,  188,  193 
Law  of  1846,  142 
1858,  142 
1860,  142 
1864,  142 
1876,  142 
1882,  143 
June  10,  1857,  263 
June  18,  1859  (Guyot),  262 
July  28,  1860,  263 
April  4,  1882,  263 
August  19,  1893,  283 
violations  of  the,  5 


544 


INDEX 


Laws  dealing  with  forest  fires,  4 
Leaf  litter,  69 
L'Esterel,  forest  of,  233 

topography  of,  284 
Legislation  against  deforestation,  316 

abuses  led  to,  221 

reference  to,  268 

summary  of,  142,  261 
Levier,  statistics  for,  62 
Light  burning  never  permitted,  284 
Logging  and  cutting  rules,  297 

equipment  and  sawmills,  343 

railways,  346 
Loire  river  valley,  12 

watershed,  18 
Long-term  sale,  example  of,  301 
Lozere,  Aveyron,  and  Correze,  sowing  in 

the,  137 
Lumbering,  strategy  in  military,  342 
Lumber  grades,  French,  310 

manufacture,  15 

shortage,  handicap  of,  16 

prices  paid  for  manufactured,  304 

transportation  of,  342 

winning  the  war  with,  349 
Lumberjacks  as  road  builders,  339 
Lumberjack   units,    the   organization    of, 
339 

Malmifait,  forest  of,  working  plan,  105, 

112 
Management,  areas  and  systems  of,  316 
divisions,  225 
objects  of,  186 
statistics,  54 
subdivisions,  225 
Manufactured  lumber,  prices  paid  for,  304 
Maps  issued  for  each  State  forest,  293 
Maram  grass,  sand  planted  to,  178 
Maritime  pine,  clear  cutting  of,  72 
during  improvement  felling,  194 
forests,  management  of,  186 
forests,  working  plan  for,  192 
method  of  sowing,  182 
shelterwood  for,  78 
yield  of,  202 
Martin,  Doctor,  of  Tharandt,  xiii 
Mathieu,  investigations  by,  at  Nancy,  19 
Maures  and  I'Esterel,  261,  262 
Measure,  units  of,  xvii,  207 
units  of,  American,  48 


Mensuration  in  working  plans,  206 
Meter,  legal  cubic,  207 
Method,  hole-selection,  88 

rule-of-thumb,  211 
Methods  used  to  stop  erosion,  165 
Military  rank,  274 
Mill  cuts,  daily  and  monthly,  349 
Minor  products,  277,  278 
Montargis,  forest  of,  conservation  in  the, 

102 
Mont-de-Marsan  inspection,  202,  203 
Mont  Dore  (Puy-de-D6me),  151 
Mont-Genevre,  forest  of,  36 
Motor  trucks  and  caterpillars,  346 
Moudon,  forest  of,  379 
Mountain  floods,  efforts  to  check,  8 

lands,  263 

pine,  where  sown,  165 
Mountains,  control  of  erosion  in,  140 

divided  into  zones,  31 

Names  of  reserves,  95 
Nancy  forest  school,  66,  95 
Natural  regeneration,  65 

vegetation,  148 
Noiremont  (Jura),  fir  forest  of,  81 
Nurseries  at  high  altitudes,  123 

fixed  local,  122 

flying,  122 

location  of,  122 

permanent  or  central,  122 

two  sample,  124 
Nursery  practice,  123 

Oak  and  beech  forests,  well-managed,  14 

-beech  stands  in  northeast  of  France, 
98 
shelterwood  for,  76 

clear  cutting,  71 

cork,  41,  395 

holm,  41,  394 

management  of,  469 

official  price  for,  311 

pedunculate,  40,  387 

sessile,  40,  389 
coppice  of,  92 

shelterwood  cuttings  in,  73 

standards,  space  for,  95 

sprouting  longevity,  92 

volume  of,  331 
Oaks,  the  timber,  40 


INDEX 


545 


Officers,  thanks  of  author  due  to,  ix,  x 
number  of,  in  each  grade,  270 

Oise,  broadleaves,  56 

Organization,  early,  268 
modern,  272 
of  Forest  Engineers,  338 

Orne,  broadleaves,  56 

Owners,  private,  unwilling  to  repair  dam- 
ages, 267 

Palisade,  how  built,  179 

Parc-et-St.  Quentin,  forest  of,  77 

Parde,  L.,  78,  79 

Parisian  plateau,  76 

Parisienne  zone,  30 

Paving  channels,  162 

Pay  for  subordinate  force,  272 

Penal  code,  3 

Periodic  blocks,  240 

Physical  and  climatic  features,  25 

Pine,  aleppo,  41,  407 

maritime,  41,  401 

maritime,  method  of  sowing,  178 

Scotch,  41,  400 
Pitwood,  average  market  price  of,  312 
Plains,  zones,  30 
Plans,  management,  215 
Plants,  age  of,  126 
Plantations  in  holes  (or  spots),  127 
Planting,  116 

ball,  128 

bush  or  clump  method,  128 

choice  between  sowing  and,  115 

cultivation  and  spacing,  125 

methods,  167 

so-called  basket  method,  128 

the  great  aim  of,  125 
Plants  used  in  reforestation,  408 
Plateau  of  Bourgogne,  76 

Lorraine,  76 
Policy,  French,  65 

Nancy  school,  66 
Pontarlier,  sale  at,  297 
Port  of  Clamecy,  314 
Precipitation  and  erosion,  147 
Pressler  borings,  256 
Pressler's  increment  borer,  boring  with, 

528 
Prevost,  Marcel,  of  the  French  academy, 

XXV 

Price  for  commercial  sales,  average,  320 


Price  for  oak,  official,  311 

of  pitwood,  average  market,  312 
sawtimber,  307 
Prices,  stumpage,  304 

timber,  average  local,  306 
Private  forestry,  conclusions,  334 
examples  of  the  best,  323 
importance  of,  13 
in  France,  315 

forests  as  permanent  investments,  333 
returns  from,  14 

owner,  restraining  the,  316 

ownership,  trend  of,  315 
Production,  amount  of,  202 

annual,  46,  47 
Products,  for  military  purposes,  28 

resinous,  yield  of,  202 
Property  rights,  infringement  of,  5 
Protection,  275 

against  rodents,  heat,  and  wind,  136 

and  cover,  129 

benches,  158 
Protective  measures,  204 
Proven(;'ale  zone,  30 
Pruning  of  branches  on  trunks,  300 

excessive,  278 

when  started,  189 
Puy-de-D6me,  seed  spots  in  the,  137 
Pyrenees-Orientales,  species,  55 
Pyrenees  region,  428 

sowing  in  the,  138 

the  forests  of,  38 

zone,  34 

Railroads  required  to  open  fire  lines,  283 
Rainfall  absorbed,  148 

and  humidity,  21 

annual,  26,  88 

where  greatest,  141 

outside  and  inside  the  forest,  367 
Rains,  damage  from,  147 
Rambouillet,  forest  of,  79 
Rata  ravine  at  Ubaye  (Basses-Alpes),  166 
Ravine  de  Roche  Noire,  152 
Receipts  and  expenses,  State  forests,  203 
Reforestation  areas,  typical,  422 

artificial,  114 

expense,  summary  of,  146 

methods  of,  165 

obligatory,  143 

plants  used  in,  387 


546 


INDEX 


Reforestation,    policy   and    summary   of, 
140 

shrubs  used  in,  387 

statistics  of,  145 

trees  used  in,  387 

typical  areas,  168 

work,  summary  of,  146 
Regeneration,  assisting,  cost,  79 

by  natural  means,  114 

care  of  stand  after,  105 

difficulty  in,  77 

natural,  65-67 

of  spruce  in  Alpine  forests,  83 

period,  76 
Regions,  reforestation,  168 
Regulation,  four  essential  kinds  of,  224 

intensive,  229 

of  cutting,  215 
Regulating  the  cut,  method  of,  232 
Reorganization  of  1882,  269 
Reserves,  history  of,  222 

names  of,  95 

policy  of,  222 
Resin  crops,  232 

operations,    specifications    covering, 
196 

price  of  crude,  186 

sales,  clauses  specified,  195 
examples,  195 

value  of,  203 
Revenue,  average  forest,  184 
Rights  of  contractors,  299 
Risol,  forest  of,  81 
Road  and  bridge  service,  176 

dune,  183 
Roads  and  trails,  290 

French  State  forest,  291 
Rock  drains,  160 
Rodents,  how  killed,  132 
Root  fungus,  205 
Rotation,  252 

coppice  managed  on  short,  92 

length  of,  78,  228 

method  of  1883,  234 
Rotations  and  cutting  cycles,  226 

financial,  computing,  229,  230 

technical,  230 
Royal  domains,  10 
Rule-of-thumb  methods,  211 
Rules,  cultural,  86,  187,  254 

for  choice  of  standards,  96 


Rules  for  choice  of  calipering,  212 
reductions,  standard,  207 

Salaries  to  forest  officers,  271,  325 

Sale  of  felling  areas,  445 

Sales  and  traffic  department,  342 

on  the  stump,  hardwood  fuel,  311 

procedure,  general,  293 

ratios  between  different  methods,  307 

resin,  195 
Sample  inventory,  237,  238 
Sand  dunes,  fixing  shifting,  177,  429 

erosion,  kinds  of  barriers  against,  180 
Savoie  conifers,  54,  55 

forests  of  the,  308 
Sawmill  capacity  and  output,  350 

the  flying,  344 
heavy,  344 
light,  344 
Sawmills,  American,  operating  during  the 
war,  349 

and  logging  equipment,  343 

equipping  the,  342 

installed  during  the  war,  341 

kind  of,  201 

the  man  behind  the,  339 
Sawtimlier,  cutting,  201 

mmimum  diameter  of,  307 

price  of,  307 
Schaeffer,  A.,  38,  106,  214,  260 
Schists,  mica  and  Paleozoic,  slopes  formed 

by,  149 
Scotch  and  aleppo  pine,  selection  felling 
for,  87 

pine  and  spruce,  planting  of,  130 
shelterwood  for,  78 
Secondary  fellings,  74 
Seed,  amount  of,  to  sow,  133,  134 

control,  rules  for,  120 

cultural  value  of,  117 

dangers  to  sown  or  planted,  132 

felling,  73 

required  for  test,  118 

sown  and  planted,  117 

test,  germination,  119 

testing,  118,  120 

value,  average,  117 
Seeding,  natural,  188 
Seeds,  length  of  time  to  germinate,  116 
Seine,  department  of,  28 
Selection  fellings,  classic,  82 


INDEX 


547 


Selection,  for    Scotch    and  aleppo   pine, 
87 

method,  68 

system  in  broadleaf  stands,  82 
Service  des  Eaux  et  Forets,  40 
Servitudes  and  the  use  of  minor  products, 
i   !  277 

Sessile  and  pedunculate  oak,  40 
Shelterbelts  for  the  fields,  115 
Shelterwood  cuttings  in  oak,  73 

for  beech,  76 
fir,  80 

and  spruce  in  mixture,  82 
maritime  pine,  78 
oak  and  beech,  76 
Scotch  pine,  78 
spruce,  81 

systems,  68,  70,  75,  239 
Shipbuilding,  iron  first  used  for,  70 
Shooting  and  fishing,  262 

game,  charge  for,  326 
Shrubs,  the  best  to  use,  129 

used  in  reforestation,  408 
Silver  fir  stands,  xiii 
Silvics  of  important  forest  species,  387 
Silviculttual  operations,  72 

systems,  188 
Silviculture,  poor,  94 
Snow  damage,  282 
Soil  conditions,  67,  130 

erosion,  to  prevent,  161 

forest,  67 

preparations,  68,  79 

prepared  and  unprepared,  132 

values,  study  of,  318 
Soils,  depth  and  character  of,  68 

which  disintegrate,  148 
Sowing,  116 

and  planting,  choice  between,  115 

chief  species,  135 

continuous  or  broken  strips,  132 

cost  of,  138 

field,  132 

may  be  broadcasted,  132 

methods,  summary  of,  135 

on  unprepared  soil,  133 

season  for,  135 

seed-spot  method,  129 

short-cut  methods,  133 

stick  method  of,  167 

time  of,  and  amount  of  seed  used  in,  136 


Sowing,  without  soil  preparation,  133 
Species  and  method  to  use,  130 

calipered  by  compartments,  256 

data,  forest  areas  and,  50 

exotic,  43 

important,  25,  34,  40 

in  I'Esterel  forest,  285 

light-demanding,  81,  107 

most  important  timber,  106 

on  an  ideal  plantation,  130 

planted  to  correct  erosion,  157 

principal,  xxi 

qualities  of,  97 

quantity  of  seed  to  sow,  134 

shade-enduring,  107 

tapping  other,  194 
Specifications,    utilization,    logging,    and 

local,  201 
Springs,  action  of  forests  on,  363 

and  their  origin,  361 

French  and  Russian  experiments,  22 

in  the  forest,  22 
Spruce  a  light-demanding  species,  81,  86 

and  fir  in  mixture,  shelterwood  for,  82 
Scotch  pine,  planting  of,  130 

cones,  81 

forest,  thinned  and  unthinned,  111 

natural  regeneration  of,  85 

Norway,  41,  402 

or  fir,  group  selection  for,  89 

pole  stand  of,  109 

regeneration  of,  in  Alpine  forests,  83 

selection  fellings,  84 

shelterwood  for,  81 

stand  in  Savoie,  study  of,  by  Thiollier,  86 

strip  fellings,  72 

suppressed,  103 
Standard  of  timber  analyzed,  302 
Standards,  234 

rules  for  choice  of,  96 

IR,  2R,  3R,  95 
Stand  graphics,  214,  216,  217 
Stands,  calipering,  211 

ruined  through  careless  selection,  95 

the  most  notable,  33 

young,  cleaning  and  freeing,  106 
State  forest  of  Amance,  101 

Ban  d'fitival  fir  stumpage  prices, 

313 
Gerardmer  fir  stumpage  prices,  313 
Trongais  oak  stumpage  prices,  313 


548 


INDEX 


State  forest,  maps  issued  for  each,  292 

relations,  190 
State  forests,  xiv,  52 

expense  for  the  management  of,  60 
Statistical  data,  forest,  45 
Statistics,  176 

acres  reforested,  145 
purchased,  145 

analysis  of  general,  52 

for  Levier,  62 

management,  54 

of  State  and  communal  forests,  321 

on  private  forests,  409 
public  forests,  409 
St.  Antoine,  forest  of,  91 

Martin  d'Arc,  forest  of,  87 

Paul,  forest  of,  165 
Stock,  transplanted  and  imtransplanted, 

125 
Stumpage  prices,  304,  309,  310 

rates  on  timber,  308 

values,  12 
Summary  and  forecast,  financial,  255 
Systems,  coppice,  92 
System,  selection,  in  broadleaf  stands,  82 

shelterwood,  239 

Tables,  volume,  208 
Tannin  bark,  92 
Tapping,  effect  of,  200 

frequency  of,  200 

maritime  pine,  specifications  for,  429 

methods  contrasted,  French  and  Ameri- 
can, 199 

operations,  200 

other  species,  194 

period,  reduction  in  length  of,  193 

rules  for,  433 

scheme,  new,  193 

so-called  exhaustive,  190 

technique  of,  199 

tools  for,  French,  196 

width  and  height  of  faces,  193 
Tassey,  92,  269 
Taxation,  lands  exempt  from,  317 

French  forest,  267 
Technique  of  tapping,  199 
Temperature,  average,  173 

difference  in,  20 

in  forests,  effect  on,  19 

of  the  trees  and  surrounding  air,  368 


Testing  seed,  118 

Thalweg,  collecting  basin,  151 

Thinnings  and  cleanings,  71 

are  profitable.  111 

by  tapping  ahve,  how  conducted,  189 

efficient,  229 

regular,  189 

three  main  objects,  108 
ThioUier,  study  of  spruce  stand  in  Savoie 

by,  86 
Thones-Ville,  communal  forest  of,  109 
Tignes,  communal  forest  of,  90 
Timber  acquired  by  timberland  depart- 
ment, 343 

amount  of,  at  beginning  of  war,  337 

analyzed,  standard  of,  302 

average  local  prices,  306 

best,  in  private  hands,  187 

committee,  the  interallied,  352 

different  sized,  xviii 

estimating  a  fair  price  for,  294 

general  rules,  sale  of,  297 

how  sold,  293 

in  modern  warfare,  336 

private  clearing  of,  263 
requisition  for,  268 

restrictions  upon  the  amount  cut,  354 

sale  of,  293,  303 
regulations,  438 

scouting  France  for,  353 

shortage  of  home-grown,  1 

supplies,  French  organization  of,  351 

stumpage  rates  on,  308 

three  main  methods  of  selling,  295 

warfare,  heavy  and  light  artillery  in,  345 
Timberland  department,  timber  acquired 

by,  343 
Tools,  barrasquit  d'espourga,  196 

French  turpentine,  196,  197 

hapchot  (bridon),  198 

palette  (or  palinette),  198 

place-crampon  (pousse-crampon),  198 

rasclet,  198 
Topography  of  I'Esterel  forest,  284 
Torrent,  control  of,  168 

definition  of  a,  149 

gorges,  formation  of,  150 

how  controlled,  156 

of  St.  Julien,  corrective  measures,  156 
Torrents,  164 

causes  of,  151 


INDEX 


549 


Torrents,  damage  caused  by,  152 

losses  from,  153 

where  formed,  150 
Trails  and  roads,  290 
Transformation  cuttings,  103,  104 
Transportation,  a  war  of,  337 

equipment,  348 
Transport  problem,  345 
Treatment,  method  of,  xxi 
Tree  growth,  to  obtain  the  real,  241 

planting,  roadside,  115 
Trees  for  each  diameter  class,  number  of, 
99 

how  estimated  by  the  A.  E.  F.,  212,  213 

used  in  reforestation,  407 

market  for,  301 

reserved  (standards),  96 

time  to  plant,  126 
Trespass,  grazing,  prevent,  203 

regulations  against,  204 
Trongais,  oak  saw  timber.  State  forest  of, 

313 
Tunnels  and  aqueducts,  162 
Turpentine,  barrel  price,  185 

permit,  sample,  435 

tools,  French,  197 
Type  of  forest,  99 

Ubaye,  basin  of,  165 
Units  of  measure,  207 
American,  48 

Valuation  of  growing  stock,  531 

surveys,  by  Dunning,  212 
Vegetable  cover,  68 
Vegetation,  natural,  148 
Verdon-Superieur  area,  163 
Villarodin-Bourget,  forest  of,  85 
Volume  of  average  wood,  235 
old  wood,  235 

tables,  208,  209,  210,  212 

yield  by,  63 
Vonne,  broadleaves,  57 
Vosges,  conifers,  54 

forests,  34,  220,  308 

mountains,  12 

zone,  31 

Walls,  protection,  how  built,  158 
retaining,  on  a  hillside,  159 


Walls,  snow,  to  turn  snow  slides,  160 

to  prevent  avalanches,  159 
War  of  transportation,  a,  337 

zone,  forest  acquisitions  in  the,  352 
Water  level,  lower  in  forests,  21 

power,  28 
Waters  and  Forests  Service,  xix,  176,  268, 

351 
Wattle  work,  155,  156,  162 
purpose  of,  164 
ravine  stabilized  by,  163 
Weeds,  cutting  in  clearance,  106 
Windfall  damage,  280 

yields  by,  80 
Wind,  shelterbelts  against,  20 
Winds,  prevailing,  26 
Wood,  amount  of,  to  cut,  11 
average  volume  of,  235 
fuel,  cut  by  forest  engineers,  347 
production  of,  347 
special  service,  348 
need  of,  reduced,  19 
old,  average,  young,  234 

volume  of,  235 
products,  specifications  of,  201 
shortage  and  high  cost,  16 
used  by  two  million  American  soldiers 

337 
yield  during  twenty  years,  251,  252 
Woodsmen,  American,  in  PYance,  358 
Working  groups,  102 

cultural  rules  for,  187 
method  of  management,  191 
protection,  187 
small,  226 

sustained  yield  for,  215 
Working  plan,  application  of  the,  250 
Chamonix,  248 
data,  original,  500 
description,  new  methods  of,  Schaeffer, 

244 
discussion  of,  244 
features  of,  253 
flaws  in,  260 
for  a  maritime  pine  forest,  192 

State  forest  of  Carcans,  72 
Malmifait,  105 
of  the  forest  of  Malmifait,  77 
report,  outline,  247 
scenic,  the,  91 
Working  plans,  215,  243,  253 


550 


INDEX 


Working  plans,  applicable  to  the  United 
States,  219 

difference  between  State  and  com- 
munal forest,  243,  244 

Government  regulation,  206 

mensuration  in,  206 

Schaeffer's  simple  rule,  244,  245 

theoretical  need  of,  219 


Yield,  aUotting  the,  254 
by  volume,  63 
determination  of,  253 
relative,  of  timber  and  fuel,  93 
regulation,  Gurnaud  method  of,  241 

Yields  by  windfall,  80 

Zones,  mountains,  31 


Wiley  Special  Subject  Catalogues 

For  convenience  a  list  of  the  Wiley  Special  Subject 
Catalogues,  envelope  size,  has  been  printed.  These 
are  arranged  in  groups — each  catalogue  having  a  key 
symbol.  (See  special  Subject  List  Below).  To 
obtain  any  of  these  catalogues,  send  a  postal  using 
the  key  symbols  of  the  Catalogues  desired. 


1 — Agriculture.     Animal  Husbandry.     Dairying.     Industrial 
Canning  and  Preserving. 

2 — Architecture.       Building.       Concrete  and  Masonry. 

3 — Business  Administration  and  Management.     Law. 

Industrial  Processes:   Canning  and  Preserving;     Oil  and  Gas 
Production;   Paint;   Printing;   Sugar  Manufacture;  Textile. 

CHEMISTRY 
4a  General;  Analytical,  Qualitative  and  Quantitative;  Inorganic; 

Organic. 
4b  Electro-  and  Physical;  Food  and  Water;   Industrial;  Medical 

and  Pharmaceutical;  Sugar. 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

5a  Unclassified  and  Structural  Engineering. 

5b  Materials  and  Mechanics  of  Construction,  including;  Cement 
and  Concrete;  Excavation  and  Earthwork;  Foundations; 
Masonry. 

Sc   Railroads;  Surveying. 

5d  Dams;  Hydraulic  Engineering;  Pumping  and  Hydraulics;  Irri- 
gation Engineering;  River  and  Harbor  Engineering;  Water 
Supply. 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING— CoK/iKMeJ 
5e   Highways;     Municipal     Engineering;     Sanitary     Engineering; 
Water    Supply.      Forestry.      Horticulture,     Botany    and 
Landscape  Gardening. 


6 — Design.       Decoration.       Drawing:     General;      Descriptive 

Geometry;  Kinematics;  Mechanical. 

ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING— PHYSICS 

7 — General  and  Unclassified;  Batteries;  Central  Station  Practice; 
Distribution  and  Transmission;  Dynamo-Electro  Machinery; 
Electro-Chemistry  and  Metallurgy;  Measuring  Instruments 
and  Miscellaneous  Apparatus. 


8 — Astronomy.      Meteorology.      Explosives.      Marine    and 
Naval  Engineering.     Military.     Miscellaneous  Books. 

MATHEMATICS 
9 — General;    Algebra;   Analytic  and   Plane   Geometry;    Calculus; 
Trigonometry;  Vector  Analysis. 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING 
10a  General  and  Unclassified;  Foundry  Practice;  Shop  Practice. 
10b  Gas  Power  and    Internal   Combustion   Engines;   Heating  and 

Ventilation;  Refrigeration. 
10c   Machine  Design  and  Mechanism;  Power  Transmission;  Steam 

Power  and  Power  Plants;  Thermodynamics  and  Heat  Power. 
11 — Mechanics.  

12 — Medicine.  Pharmacy.  Medical  and  Pharmaceutical  Chem- 
istry. Sanitary  Science  and  Engineering.  Bacteriology  and 
Biology. 

MINING  ENGINEERING 

13 — General;  Assaying;  Excavation,  Earthwork,  Tunneling,  Etc.; 
Explosives;  Geology;  Metallurgy;  Mineralogy;  Prospecting; 
Ventilation. 

14 — Food  and  Water,  Sanitation.  Landscape  Gardening. 
Design  and  Decoration.     Housing,  House  Painting. 


